RUNOFF & HYDROGRAPH ANALYSIS

When rain falls, a portion of it is intercepted by the leaves and stems of vegetation. The

interception, with depression storage and soil moisture constitutes basin recharge; the portion

of precipitation which does not contribute to streamflow or groundwater. Depression storage

includes the water which is retained as puddles in surface depression. Soil moisture is held as

capillary water in the smaller pore spaces of the soil or as hygroscopic water adsorbed on the

surface of soil particles.

Rainwater or melting snow, exclusive of the water withheld as basin recharge, may follow three

paths to a stream. A portion travels as overland flow (surface runoff) across the ground surface

to the nearest channel. Still other water may infiltrate into the soil and flow laterally in the

surface soil to a stream channel as interflow. A third portion of the water may percolate

downward through the soil until it reaches the groundwater.

Overland flow and inter flow are grouped together as direct runoff. This water reaches the

stream shortly after it falls as rain and is discharged from the drainage basin within a few days.

Runoff and Hydrograph Analysis

Runoff: is that part of precipitation as well as and other flow contribution, which is transmitted

through natural surface channels or streams or rivers. In general sense, runoff include (i) surface

runoff or overland flow received in the stream immediately after a heavy rain; (ii) inter-flow which

is a portion of soil moisture that flows laterally through the upper soil layers and joins the stream

before joining the ground water, (iii) delayed run off or ground water flow that enters the stream

after passing through deeper portions of the earth, and (iv) other delayed runoff that has been

1
temporarily detained as snow cover or stored in natural lakes and swamps. Thus runoff is the total

quantity of water received by a stream from tis drainage basin or catchment area.

The runoff is generally classified as direct runoff and base flow (or base runoff). The direct runoff

comprises the overland flow and the inter-flow which are usually grouped together, while the

ground water flow that enters a stream is termed as base flow (or base runoff).

The runoff is generally considered in terms of the total flow carried by a stream during a month

season or year and accordingly it is termed as monthly, seasonal and annual runoff. The runoff is

expressed either in (mm or cm) millimetres or centimetres of water depth on the entire drainage

basin, or in cubic metre per unit area of drainage basin: further, the terms stream flow, discharge

of a stream and rate of runoff are generally used to mean one and the same thing.

Factors affecting Runoff

The runoff from the drainage basin or catchment area of a natural stream depends on several

factors as:

1. Characteristics of Precipitation

Such as

- Type of precipitation

- Its intensity

- Extend and duration

The precipitation may occur either in the form of rain or snow.

If the precipitation occurs in the form of rain, it will immediately produce the runoff, but if the

precipitation occurs in the form of snow, it will produce the runoff much alter.

2
2. Characteristics of drainage basin : such as

 Size

 Shape

 Orientation

 Attitude

 Topography and

 Geology of the drainage basin

METEROLOGICAL CHARACTRISTICS

 Temperature

 Humidity

 Wind velocity

 Pressure variation etc

Higher temperature and higher wind velocity cause more losses due to evaporation and

transpiration and hence reduce the runoff.

On the other hand greater humidity decreases evaporation and transpiration losses, resulting in

greater runoff.

4. Storage Characteristics

If there is natural depressions, pools, lakes etc, which will store a part of the precipitation and the

same will not appear as runoff, then the runoff at the out-flow point of the basin will be reduced.

Similarly, the creation of artificial reservoirs or tanks will also increase the storage capacity of a

drainage basin, resulting is the reduction of the runoff.

3
Methods of Determination of Runoff

The runoff from catchments of rivers may be determined either by direct measurement of discharge

through rivers or it may be estimated in an indirect manner.

The discharge through a small stream or river may be measured by providing a weir across the

river. However, for measuring discharge through a large river, velocity area method is commonly

adopted. In this method, the cross-section of the river is divided into a number of segments of

widths l1, l2, l3, etc. the mean depths of flow d1, d2, d3 etc. of the segments are measured along

the centre lines by soundings.

The mean velocities of flow v1, v2, v3, etc. through the segments are measured with the help of a

current meter by inserting it along the centre line of each of the segments to a depth equal to 0.6

times the mean depth below the free water surface. The total discharge through the river is

obtained by adding the discharge through each of the segments. Thus

Q  [l1d1v1  l2 d 2 v2  l3d 3v3  .....]   (ld )v

A greater accuracy in the computation may be obtained by dividing the cross section of the river

into segments of equal width and thenusing either simpson’s rule or weddle’s rule.

Further the elevation of the water surface at any section in the river measured above an arbitrary

datum is know as stage. Corresponding to the measured discharge of the river the stage is also

recorded with the help of a gage provided at the section of the river where the discharge is

measured. By plotting the stage against the corresponding discharge, a stage discharge curve may

be prepared for a river which may be used for determining the discharge corresponding to a known

stag.

4
The runoff may be indirectly estimated by the following methods

(a) By empirical formulae, curves and tables relating rainfall and runoff

(b) By infiltration method

(c) By rational method → 𝑄 = CIA

(d) By unit hydrograph

Empirical formulae

Strange’s runoff curve – (W.L. Strange)

Binnie’s percentage – (Alenzander Binnie) in Indian estimating runoff from the rainfall.

(ii)

Annual rainfall Runoff %

500 15

600 21

700 25

800 24

900 34

1000 38

1,100 40

Barlow’s Table (T.G Barlow)

5
Carried out studies of catchments mostly under 130km 2 in Indian. He divided catchments into

five classes and assigned values of runoff in percentage fore ach classes as follows:

Class Description of Catchment Runoff Percentage

A Flat, cultivated and black
cotton soils 10

B Flat, partly cultivated stiff 15

soils
C Average catchment 20
D Hills and Plains with little 35
cultivation
E Very hilly and sleep, with 45
little or no cultivation

(b) Infiltration Method

In this method the runoff may be estimated either by the use of the infiltration capacity curve,

or by the use of filtration indices. In the first method as shown in the figure below, the

infiltration capacity curve for a given soil and moisture conditions is subtracted from the curve

of rainfall pattern to derive the excess rainfall which represents the runoff. In the second

method by subtracting the predetermined values of the infiltration indices from the rainfall

intensity, the excess rainfall representing the runoff may be obtained.

The infiltration capacity method is rational and would give good results if there is high degree

of areal uniformity.

6
Estimation of maximum or peak flood discharge

While estimation of runoff assists in ascertaining the quantity of water available for utilization

directly or through storage, the estimation of maximum quantity of the water ever to be

expected and is useful in designing the structures required for the disposal of the surplus or

excess water. The estimation of the maximum or peak flood discharge canbe made by the

following methods.

(a) By physical indication of past floods

(b) By rating curve

(c) By empirical formulae and envelope curve

(d) By rational method

(e) By flood frequency studies

(f) By unit hydrograph

7
Estimation of maximum flood discharge from Physical indication of the past floods: This

may be approximately estimated by enquiring from the residents.

This method of determining the discharge through a river is known as slope - area method

(b) Estimation of maximum flood discharge from rating curve.

Ruling curve
Stage

Flow

(c) Empirical formulae and envelope curves for estimation of maximum flood discharge:

Several empirical formulae have been developed for estimating the maximum or peak value fo the

flood discharge. In these formulae the maximum flood discharge Q of a river is expressed as a

function of the catchment area A.

Or written in a general form as

Q = CAn

Where C is coefficient and n is index, the values of which depend on the size and location of the

catchment.

Dicken’s formula – Q = CA ¾

Rbjve’s - Q = CA 2/3 – generally applicable for catchment of river of south Indian

(e) Rational method

Used to estimate the max flood discharge for which the following formula is used

8
Q = CIcA

I cist he critical intensity. (or design intensity) of rainfall in meteres/hr corresponding to the time

of concentration c for the drainage basin

The time of concentration is the time which would be required for the surface runoff from the

remotest part of the drainage basin to reach the point where the runoff is estimated. The time will

vary, generally depending on the slope and character of the drainage basin.

The critical intensity of rainfall Ic can be obtained from the equation.

P  tR  1 
Ic       (i )
tR  tc  1 

Where P = max precipitation in metres that occurs during a storm period of tR hours. However, if

the time of concentration tc is not known then

P
Ic     (ii )
tR

The value of the runoff coefficient C depends on the characteristics of the drainage basin and the

same for different types of terrain are as given below.

Type of terrain value of C

Flat residential, 30% impervious area 0.40

Moderately sleep residential, 50% impervious area 0.60

Built up area, 70% impervious 0.80

Flat cultivated land, sandy soils 0.20

rolling cultivated land, clay-loam soil 0.50

9
 Hilly areas, forests, clay and loamy soils 0.50

(e) Flood frequency studies

Based on the past records of max flood discharge, the predictions for the max. flood discharges

which may occur in the future are made by determining the flood frequency and using the

probability concept.

Flood Frequency is the number of times a flood of given magnitude will be equaled or exceeded

in any one year and it is usually expressed in percentage. Thus a 10% frequency (F) of a flood

means that there are 10 out of 100 chances of the flood being equaled or exceeded in any one year.

Flood frequency may also be expressed in terms of recurrent interval or return period.

Recurrence Interval: is the number of years during which a flood of given magnitude will be

100
equaled or exceeded once. It is usually dented by T and is given by T     (iii )
F

In other words recurrence interval denotes the number of years in which a flood of given magnitude

can be expected to occur once. The flood is then designated according to tis recurrence interval as

100 years flood, 1000 year flood etc. A 100 years flood is that flood which may be expected once

in 100 years.

The recurrence interval for a flood of given magnitude may be determined if record of maximum

flood discharge in each year of n number of years is given. The flood discharges or arranged in the

descending order of magnitude and assigned serial number 1, next highest is given series number

2 and so on. The lowest flood discharge will be at the bottom with serial number n. If a particular

10
flood discharge has a serial number m then its recurrence interval can be found by any of the

following methods.

n
(a) California method  T  -------- (iv)
m

2n
(b) Allen Hazen method  T  ------ (v)
2m  1

n 1
(c) Weibull method  T  ------- (vi)
m

n
(d) Gumbel method  T  ---------(vii)
m  c 1

Where C is known as Gumbel’s correction, the value of much depends on m/n and it can be found

from the table

11
GUMBEL’S CORRECTIONT ABLE

m/n 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.08 0.04

c 1 0.95 0.88 0.845 0.78 0.73 0.66 0.59 0.52 0.4 0.38 0.28

Hydrograph

Is a graphical plot of discharge of a natural stream or river versus time. Discharge is usually

expressed in cumec, or hectare meter per day (or per month) and time is expressed in hours, day

or months.

Discharge is plotted on Y-axis and the corresponding time is plotted on x-axis.

It shows a hydrograph of a typical stream resulting from rainfall of intensity indicated by a

hyetograph plotted at the left top corner. At the beginning there is only base flow i.e., the ground

12
water contribution to the stream as indicated at A as shown in the figure. A fter the commencement

of rain when the initial loses like interception and infiltration are met, the surface flow begins and

there is progressive increases in the stream flow. The hydrograph therefore gradually rises and

reaches a peak value at B at time tp, called time lag or basin lag time to peak, measured from the

centroid of the hyetograph of effective rainfall (defined as that portion of the total rainfall which

enters the stream as direct runoff). Thereafter the flow in the stream recedes and hence the

hydrograph declines. Thus a hydrograph consist of rising limb AB and recession limb B|C.

Discharge at B corresponds to the maximum or peak flood discharge and the area under the curve

ABC would give the volume of the total runoff during the flood. This is referred to as a single

peaked hydrograph developed from a single storm causing precipitation of more or less uniform

intensely. But when you have a complex storms causing precipitations of different intensities

with some interval, a multiple peaked hydrograph also known as complex hydrograph is

developed. For flood analysis and derivation of unit hydrograph a single peaked hydrograph is

required.

Separation of Base Flow

As you know that the total runoff comprises direct runoff and base flow, therefore for the

derivation of unit hydrograph, the base flow has to be separated from the total runoff.

The base flow may be separated by simple drawing a line AC tangential to both the limbs of the

hydrograph at its lower portion as shown in fig. below. The shaded portion below line AC

represents the base flow. This method can be used only for preliminary estimates

13
Since the base flow forms a very significant part of total runoff during high floods, often a constant

value of base flow is assumed.

Negative Base Flow

When the water level in the stream is low before the occurrence of flood, there is flow from ground

water to the stream. But when the water level in the stream rises due to flood, there is flow of water

from the stream to the ground water and this is termed Negative base flow.

14
Unit Hydrograph – (The Concept is by L. K. Sherman in 1932)

Is a hydrograph of direct surface runoff resulting from one centimeter of effective rainfall falling

uniformly over the drainage basin or catchment in space as well as in time for a specific or unit

duration.

A unit hydrograph is designated according to the unit duration. For example if a unit hydrograph

results from a rainfall of 3 hour unit duration it is known as a 3-hour unit hydrograph, meaning

that a hydrograph produced by surface runoff from a storm lasting for 3 hours and yielding a

rainfall excess of 1 centimeter.

Since the ara under a hydrograph represents the total runoff, it is evident from the definition of

unit hydrograph that the area under the unit hydrograph represents a direct runoff of 1cm.

15
Assumptions of Unit Hydrograph Theory

(i) The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed within its duration or specified period of

time.

(ii) The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed over the entire area of the drainage basin.

(iii) For a given drainage basin, the base period of the hydrographs of direct runoff

corresponding to effective rainfalls of different intensities but same unit duration, is

constant.

(iv) The ordinates of all the direct runoff hydrographs a common base period are directly

proportional to total amount of direct runoff represented by each hydrograph.

(v) For a given drainage, the hydrograph of direct runoff corresponding to a given period

of rainfall reflects all the physical characteristics of the basin.

Derivation of Unit Hydrograph

Compute the volume of the direct runoff which is equal to  0 xtx3600m 3

Where  0 is the sum of direct runoff ordinates in cumec and t is the time interval in hours between
the successive ordinates.

Direct runoff depth =

 0 xtx3600 x100 cm
Ax10 6

0.36 x  0 xt
 cm
A

Derivation of Unit Hydrographs

16
Example 1

The following are the ordinates of a 3 hour unit hydrograph. Derive the ordinates of 6-hour unit

hydrograph and plot the same (Raghunath, 2003).

Time 3-hr UGO

(hr) (cumec)
0 0
3 1.5
6 4.5
9 8.6
12 12.0
15 9.4
18 4.6
21 2.3
24 0.8

Solution

Table 1.1: Derivation of the6-hour unit hydrograph

Time 3-hr UGO 3-hr UGO lagged total (2) + (3) 6-hr UGO (4)-(2)
(hr)(1) (cumec)(2) (cumec) (3) (Cumec) (4) Cumec (5)
0 0 0 0

3 1.5 0 1.5 0.7

6 4.5 1.5 6.0 3.0

9 8.6 4.5 13.0 6.5

12 12.0 8.6 20.5 10.3

15 9.4 12.0 21.4 10.7

18 4.6 9.4 14.0 7.0

21 2.3 4.6 6.9 3.4

17
 24 0.8 2.3 3.1 1.5

27 0.8 0.8 0.4

Note:

The unit hydrograph is the direct runoff hydrograph produced by a storm of given duration such

that the total volume of excess rainfall is 1mm. the total volume of direct runoff is also 1mm

(Clark, 1943).

18
1.1 S-Curve Hydrograph Method

An S-hydrograph represents the response of the basin to an effective rainfall event of infinite

duration. Assume that a UH of duration D is known and that an UH for the same basin but of

duration D’ is desired. The first step is to determine the s-curve hydrograph by adding a series of

(known) UH’s of duration D, each lagged by a time interval D. the resulting superposition

represents the runoff resulting from a continuous rainfall excess of intensity I .

D

Lagging the s-curve in time by an amount D1 and subtracting its ordinates from the original

unmodified S-curve yields a hydrograph corresponding to a rainfall event of intensity I/D and of

1
duration D’. Consequently, to convert this hydrograph whose volume is D into a unit
D

hydrograph of duration 1, its ordinates must be normalized by multiplying them by D . The

D1

resulting ordinates represent a unit hydrograph associated with an effective rainfall of duration D 1.

1.1 S – Curve Method

Example

The ordinates of a 4-hour unit hydrograph for a particular basin are given below. Derive the

ordinates of (i) the S-curve hydrograph, and (ii) the 2 hour unit hydrograph, and plot them, area of

the basin is 630km2 (Raghvnath, 2008).

19
Time 3-hr UGO
(hr) (cumec)
0 0
2 25
4 100
6 160
8 190
10 170
12 110
14 70
16 30
18 20
20 6
22 1.5
24 0

20
Solution: Table 2: Derivation of the s-scurve and 2-hr unit hydrographs

Time 4-hr S-curve additions (cumec) (unit storms S-curve lagged S-curve 2-hr
(hr) UGO after every 4hr=tr) ordiantes s-curve difference UGO
(cumec) (cumec) (cumec) (cumec) (6)x(4/2)
(2)+(3) (cumec)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0 0 0 0
2 25 25 0 25 50
4 100 0 100 25 75 150
6 160 25 185 100 85 170
8 190 100 0 290 185 105 210
10 170 160 25 335 290 65 130
12 110 190 100 0 400 335 45 90
14 70 170 160 25 425 400 25 50
16 30 110 190 100 0 430 425 5 10*
18 20 70 170 160 25 445 430 15 30
20 6 30 110 190 100 0 436 445 -9 -18*
22 1.5 20 70 170 160 25 446.5 436 10.9 21
24 0 6 30 110 190 100 436 446.6 10.5 -21*

Note:

Col (7) col (6) x , tr = 4hr, tr1 = 2hr

24
Col 3. No of unit storms in succession = T =  6, to produce a constant outflow (Raghvnath, 2008)
tr 4

21
 2.78 A 2.78 x 630
Q   436 cumec, which agrees very well with the tabulated S-curve terminal
tr 4

value of 436. The S-curve additions can be written in one column, without having to write in 5

columns successively lagged by 4 hours. (=tr) as illustrated in the example.

Plot col (4) versus col (1) to get the S-curve hydrograph, and col (7) versus col. (1) to get the 2-

hours unit hydrograph as shown in fig. 2.1

22