ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

MC1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

1st Semester | A.Y. 2023-2024 | BSN 1 – 1
COLLEGE OF NURSING BATCH 2027

material of cell
(DNA) and
CELLS nucleoli, site of
RNA synthesis
and
OUTLINE ribosomal
I Cells subunit
II Cell Structure assembly
III Functions of the Cell Ribosomes In cytoplasm Site of protein
IV Cell Membrane synthesis
V Movement Through the Cell Membrane Rough In cytoplasm Has many
VI Organelles Endoplasmic ribosomes
VII Whole-Cell Activity Reticulum attached; site
of protein
synthesis.
 Cells determine the form and functions of the human Smooth In cytoplasm Site of lipid
Endoplasmic synthesis;
body.
Reticulum (Smooth participates in
o The human body is composed of trillions of cells and ER) detoxification.
acts as a host to countless other organisms.
 The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms. Modifies
o The simplest organisms consist of single cells, Golgi Apparatus In cytoplasm protein
whereas humans are composed of multiple cells. structure and
o But despite their extremely small size, cells are packages
complex living structures. Cells have many proteins in
characteristics in common; however, most cells are secretory
vesicles
also specialized to perform specific functions.
Secretory Vesicles In cytoplasm Contains
materials
Figure 01. Generalized Cell Structure produced in the
cell; formed by
the Golgi
apparatus;
secreted
by exocytosis
Lysosome In cytoplasm Contains
enzymes that
digest material
taken into the
cell; formed by
the Golgi
apparatus
Peroxisome In cytoplasm Breaks down
fatty acids,
amino acids,
and hydrogen
peroxide
Mitochondrion In cytoplasm Site of aerobic
respiration and
CELL STRUCTURE the major site of
 ORGANELLES ATP synthesis
o specialized structures in cells that perform specific Microtubule In cytoplasm Supports
functions. cytoplasm;
 EXAMPLES: Nucleus, Mitochondria, assists in cell
Ribosomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi division and
forms
Apparatus, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes,
components of
Cytoskeleton, Cilia, Flagella, And Microvilli. cilia
 CYTOPLASM and flagella
o jelly-like substance that holds organelles Centrioles In cytoplasm Facilitate the
 CELL MEMBRANE movement of
o also termed the plasma membrane. chromosomes
during cell
o a structure that encloses the cytoplasm.
division
Cilia On cell surface with Move
Table No. 1. Organelles and Their Locations and Functions substances
many on each cell
ORGANELLES LOCATION FUNCTION(S)
over surfaces
Nucleus Variable location within Contains of certain cells.
cell genetic
TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D.
1
LECTURE | CELL STRUCTURE

Flagella On sperm cell surface Propel sperm  phospholipids contain two regions: POLAR and
with one per cell cells. NONPOLAR
Microvilli Extensions of cell Increase
surface with many surface area of
on each cell certain cells
PHOSPHOLIPID STRUCTURE
 phospholipid molecule has a polar head region that is
 The number and type of organelles within each cell hydrophilic
determine the cell’s specific structure and function.  phospholipid molecule has a non-polar tail region that is
hydrophobic
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL o the nonpolar region is facing the interior of the
 The smallest units of life. membrane.

Figure 02. Cell Membrane

CELL METABOLISM AND ENERGY USE
o chemical reactions that occur within cells are
collectively called cell metabolism. Energy released
during metabolism is used for cell activities, such as
the synthesis of new molecules, muscle contraction,
and heat production, which helps maintain body
temperature.

SYNTHESIS OF MOLECULES
o Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including
proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.
o The different cells of the body do not all produce the
same molecules.
 Therefore, a cell’s structural and functional
characteristics are determined by the types of
molecules the cell produces.

COMMUNICATION MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

o Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical  cell membrane is selective permeability, which allows
signals that allow them to communicate with one only certain substances to pass in and out of the cell
another. o substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
potassium are found in higher concentrations inside
REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANCE the cell
o Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information o substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride
of the individual. Specialized cells (sperm cells and are found in higher concentrations outside the cell
oocytes) transmit that genetic information to the next
generation. CELL MEMBRANE PASSAGE
 some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass directly
CELL MEMBRANE through the cell membrane phospholipid bilayer.
 the outermost component of a cell  some substances must pass through transmembrane
 encloses the cytoplasm and forms a boundary between protein channels, such as NA+ through its channels
material in inside the cell and the outside. o the route of transport through the membrane depends
 supporting the cell contents. on the size, shape, and charge of the substance
 acting as a selective barrier that determines what o some substances require carrier molecules to
moves into and out of the cell. transport them across the cell membrane, such as
 playing a role in communication between cells. glucose.
 cell membrane is primarily made up of two major types of o some substances require a vesicular transport
molecules: across the membrane
o (1) phospholipids and (2) proteins o vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane for
 the membrane contains other molecules transport.
o (3) cholesterol and (4) carbohydrates.
 INTRACELLULAR OR CYTOPLASMIC ACTIVE AND PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
o materials inside the cell  Movement through the cell membrane may be passive or
 EXTRACELLULAR active.
o materials outside the cell o Passive membrane transport does not require the
cell to expend energy.
CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE o Active membrane transport does require the cell to
 FLUID-MOSAIC MODEL expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.
o used to describe the cell membrane structure o PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT mechanisms
 membrane contains phospholipids, cholesterol, include (1) diffusion, (2) osmosis, and (3) facilitated
diffusion.
proteins, and carbohydrates
 phospholipids form a bilayer - The double layer of o ACTIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT mechanisms
include (1) active transport, (2) secondary active
phospholipids has a fluid quality, meaning that
transport, (3) endocytosis, and (4) exocytosis.
they are not completely stationary but are able
to move.

TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D.

LECTURE | CELL STRUCTURE

Table No. 2 Types and Characteristics of Movement Across Membranes Figure 03. Diffusion
TYPES TRANSPORT REQUIRES EXAMPLES
ATP
Passive Membrane Transport
Diffusion With the No O2, CO2, Cl-,
concentration urea
gradient
through the
lipid portion of
the cell
membrane or
through
membrane  generally, involves movement of substances in a solution
channels down a concentration gradient
Osmosis With the No Water o Two major parts of solution: solute and solvent
concentration  SOLUTES are substances dissolved in a predominant
gradient (for liquid or gas, which is called the SOLVENT.
water) through
the lipid  Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an
portion of the area of higher concentration of a solute to an area of lower
cell membrane concentration of that same solute in solution
or through  DIFFUSION is an important means of transporting
membrane substances through the extracellular fluid and cytoplasm.
channels
Facilitated With the No Glucose In CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
diffusion concentration most cells
gradient by  the difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent
carrier between two points divided by the distance between the two
molecules points
Active Membrane Transport  said to be steeper when the concentration difference is
Active Against the Yes Na+, K+, large and/or the distance is small.
Transport concentration Ca2+, H+, and
gradient* by amino acids
carrier OSMOSIS
molecules  the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively
Secondary Against the Yes Glucose, permeable membrane, such as the cell membrane, from
active concentration amino acids a region of higher water concentration to one of lower water
transport gradient by concentration.
carrier  OSMOTIC PRESSURE
molecules, the
o the force required to prevent movement of water
energy for
secondary
across the cell membrane.
active o is a measure of the tendency of water to move by
transport of osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane.
one substance
comes from Figure 04. Osmosis
the
concentration
gradient of
another
Endocytosis Movement into Yes Ingestion of
cells by particles by
vesicles phagocytosis
or receptor-
mediated
endocytosis
and liquids by
pinocytosis
Exocytosis Movement Yes Secretion of
out of cells by proteins
vesicles
*Active transport normally moves substances against their
concentration gradient, but it can also move substances with their
concentration gradient.

DIFFUSION
 this movement from high concentration to a low
concentration.
o the distribution of smoke throughout a room in which
there are no air currents.
o the gradual spread of salt throughout a beaker of still
water

TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D.

LECTURE | CELL STRUCTURE
 Cell membrane channels consist of large protein molecules
OSMOTIC PRESSURE AND THE CELL that extend from one surface of cell membranes to the other
 osmotic pressure depends on the difference of solution  Characteristics of an ion or molecule determine whether it
concentration inside a cell relative to outside the cell can pass through a channel. These characteristics include
 a cell may be placed in solutions that are either hypertonic, (1) size, (2) shape, and (3) charge.
hypotonic, or isotonic compared to the cell cytoplasm.
 HYPERTONIC (inside to outside) LEAK AND GATED CHANNELS
o has a lower solute concentration and higher water  Two classes of cell membrane channels include leak
concentration than the surrounding solution. channels and gated channels.
o water moves by osmosis from the cell into the o Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass through.
hypertonic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage, or  Gated channels limit the movement of ions across the
crenation. membrane by opening and closing.
 HYPOTONIC (outside to inside)
o has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher Figure 07. Leak and Gated Membrane Channels
concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm of the
cell
o solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the
cell
o water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell
o if the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a process
called lysis
 ISOTONIC (in and out)
o has the same solute concentrations inside and outside
the cell
o the cell will neither shrink nor swell

Figure 05. Effects of Hypotonic, Isotonic, and Hypertonic

Solutions on Red Blood Cells

CARRIER MOLECULES
 proteins within the cell membrane involved in facilitated
diffusion
 move water soluble molecules or ions across the
membrane
 they exhibit specificity; only specific molecules are
transported by the carriers
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Figure 08. Carrier Molecules
 a carrier-mediated transport process that moves
substances across the cell membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
of that substance.
o because movement is with the concentration gradient,
metabolic energy in the form of ATP is not required.
o necessary due to the selectively permeable nature of
the membrane.

Figure 06. Diffusion Through the Cell Membrane

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 Active transport is a carrier-mediated process, requiring
ATP, that moves substances across the cell membrane
from regions of lower concentration to those of higher
concentration against a concentration gradient

TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D.

LECTURE | CELL STRUCTURE
 Active transport processes accumulate necessary o Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a
substances on one side of the cell membrane at specific substance binds to the receptor molecule and
concentrations many times greater than those on the other is transported into the cell.
side  Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis when solid
particles are ingested.
 Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed, and they
SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
contain liquid rather than solid particles.
 A major example of active transport is the action of the
sodium-potassium pump present in cell membranes. Figure 11. Endocytosis
 The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of cells and
K+ into cells.
 The result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside cells and
a higher concentration of K+ inside cells.

Figure 09. Active Transport: Sodium-Potassium Pump

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Secondary active transport uses the energy provided by EXOCYTOSIS
a concentration gradient established by the active  Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-bound sacs
transport of one substance, such as Na+ to transport other called secretory vesicles that accumulate materials for
substances. release from the cell.
 No additional energy is required above the energy  The vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse,
provided by the initial active transport pump. ultimately releasing the material by exocytosis.
 In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves in the same o Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of digestive
direction as the initial active transported substance. enzymes.
 In counter transport, the diffusing substance moves in a
direction opposite to that of the initial active transported Figure 12. Exocytosis
substance.

Figure 10. Secondary Active Transport

ENDOCYTOSIS
 Endocytosis is a process that that brings materials into GENERAL CELL STRUCTURE
cell using vesicles.  The interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasm.
o a jelly-like fluid that surrounds the organelles.

TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D.

LECTURE | CELL STRUCTURE

 Organelles are specialized structures that perform certain o diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane that are
functions. found within the nucleus.
o Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes, o There are usually one to several nucleoli within the
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, nucleus.
peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton, centrioles,  The subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic
cilia, flagella, and microvilli. organelle, are formed within a nucleolus.
o These ribosomal components exit the nucleus through
CELL NUCLEUS nuclear pores.
 The nucleus is a large organelle usually located near the
center of the cell. Figure 15. Production of Ribosomes
 The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope
o consists of outer and inner membranes with a narrow
space between them.
 The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores,
o through which materials can pass into or out of the
nucleus.

Figure 13. Nucleus

 Proteins produced in the cytoplasm move through the

nuclear pores into the nucleus and to the nucleolus.
 These proteins are joined to ribosomal ribonucleic acid
(rRNA), produced within the nucleolus, to form large and
small ribosomal subunits
 The ribosomal subunits then move through the nuclear
pores of the nuclear envelope into the cytoplasm.
 In the cytoplasm, one large and one small subunit join to
form a ribosome during protein synthesis.

RIBOSOMES
 Ribosome components are produced in the nucleolus.
 Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are
produced.
o may be attached to other organelles, such as the
endoplasmic reticulum.
 The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of o Ribosomes that are not attached to any other
chromosomes which consist of DNA and proteins. organelle are called free ribosomes.
 During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes are loosely
coiled and collectively called Chromatin. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 When a cell prepares to divide, the chromosomes
 Is a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that
become tightly coiled and are visible when viewed with a
extends from the outer nuclear membrane into the
microscope.
cytoplasm.
Figure 14. Structure of Chromosome o The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis and is
rough due to attached ribosomes.
o The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and is a
site for lipid synthesis, cellular detoxification, and it
stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle cells.

Figure 16. Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Within the nucleus are Nucleoli,

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LECTURE | CELL STRUCTURE

GOLGI APPARATUS PEROXISOMES

 Also called the GOLGI COMPLEX, consists of closely  Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles
packed stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs. containing enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino
o It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
and lipids manufactured by the ER.  Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and
 The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of which are amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell.
secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and other vesicles. o The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen.
Figure 17. Golgi Apparatus
MITOCHONDRIA
 are small organelles with inner and outer membranes
separated by a space
o The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the
inner membranes have numerous folds, called
cristae
 project into the interior of the mitochondria.
o The material within the inner membrane is the
mitochondrial matrix and contains enzymes and
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).

Figure 19. Mitochondrion

SECRETORY VESICLES
 a vesicle is a small, membrane-bound sac that transports
or stores materials within cells.
o Secretory vesicles pinch off from the Golgi apparatus
and move to the cell membrane
o The membrane of a secretory vesicle then fuses with
the cell membrane, and the contents of the vesicle are
released to the exterior of the cell by exocytosis
 In many cells, secretory vesicles accumulate in the
cytoplasm and are released to the exterior when the cell
receives a signal. CYTOSKELETON
 Nerve cells release substances called  The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to the cell.
neurotransmitters from secretory vesicles to o It consists of protein structures that support the cell,
communicate with other cells, hold organelles in place, and enable the cell to change
 Pancreatic cells secrete insulin in response to shape.
rising blood glucose levels.  These protein structures are microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.

LYSOSOME Figure 20. Cytoskeleton

 Are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi
apparatus.
 They contain a variety of enzymes that function as
intracellular digestive systems.
o Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes to breakdown materials in the endocytosis
vesicles.
 One example is white blood cells phagocytizing
bacteria.
Figure 18. Action of Lysosome

MICROTUBULES
 are hollow structures formed from protein subunits.
o The microtubules perform a variety of roles.
 helping to support the cytoplasm of cells,
 assisting in cell division,
 and forming essential components of certain
organelles, such as cilia and flagella.

MICROFILAMENTS
TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D. 7
LECTURE | CELL STRUCTURE

 are small fibrils formed from protein subunits that DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
structurally support the cytoplasm, determining cell shape.  DNA contains the information that directs protein
 Some microfilaments are involved with cell movement. synthesis; a process called gene expression.
o For example, microfilaments in muscle cells enable the  Consists of nucleotides joined together to form two
cells to contract. nucleotide strands.
 The two strands are connected and resemble a ladder that
CENTRIOLES is twisted around its long axis.
 The centrosome is a specialized area of cytoplasm close  Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a
to the nucleus where microtubule formation occurs. phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
o It contains two centrioles, which are normally oriented o Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a specific
perpendicular to each other. bonding pattern to another nucleotide on the opposite
o Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle strand.
composed of microtubules.
 A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a
 The centriole is involved in the process of mitosis. chemical set of instructions for making a specific protein.
Figure 21. Centrioles
GENE EXPRESSION
 is the process by which information stored in the genes
of DNA molecules directs the manufacture of the
various proteins of our cells.
 The proteins produced in a cell include those that serve as
structural components inside the cell, proteins secreted to
the outside of the cell, and enzymes that regulate chemical
reactions in the cell.
 Gene expression, which is protein synthesis, involves
transcription and translation.
o Transcription involves copying DNA into messenger
RNA.
o Translation involves messenger RNA being used to
produce a protein.
CILIA, FLAGELLA, AND MICROVILLI
Figure 22. Overview of Gene Expression
CILIA
 Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.
o They are responsible for the movement of materials
over the top of cells, such as mucus.
 Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from the cell
and are composed of microtubules.

FLAGELLA
 Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much
longer, and they usually occur only one per cell.
 Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which
propels the sperm cell.
 The strength and rigidity of the mineralized
matrix enables bones to support and protect other
tissues and organs.

MICROVILLI
 Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell
membrane that are supported by microfilaments.
o They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
 Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and they
increase the surface area of those cells.
o They are abundant on the surface of cells that line
the intestine, kidney, and other areas in which
absorption is an important function.
TRANSCRIPTION
 Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY o DNA determines the structure of mRNA through
 A cell’s characteristics are determined by the type of transcription.
proteins produced.  During transcription, the double strands of a DNA
o The proteins produced are in turn determined by the segment separate, and DNA nucleotides of the
genetic information in the nucleus. gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form the
 Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its mRNA.
cellular processes.  DNA contains one of the following organic bases: thymine,
adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
 Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine,
cytosine, or guanine.

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LECTURE | CELL STRUCTURE

o DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA  The cell cycle includes two major phases: a
nucleotides. nondividing phase, called interphase, and a cell
 DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine. dividing phase, termed mitosis.
 DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.  A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase which
 DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine is divided into three phases:
 DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine. o G1 phase, during which the cell carries out normal
T–A metabolic activity
A–U o S phase, during which the DNA is replicated; and
o G2 phase, during which the cell prepares to divide.
C–G
G–C
Figure 23. Formation of mRNA by Transcription of DNA
Figure 24. The Cell Cycle

 At the end of interphase, a cell has two complete sets of

genetic material.

CELL GENETIC CONTENT

 Each human cell (except sperm and egg) contains 23 pairs
of chromosomes, a total of 46.
 The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes total.
TRANSLATION  One pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes, which
 Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA has consist of two X chromosomes if the person is a female
exited the nucleus through the nuclear pores. or an X and Y chromosome if the person is a male.
o The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.
 Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are MITOSIS
read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) on  Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a
transfer RNA (tRNA). single parent cell.
 Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids from  Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase,
the cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA complex anaphase, and telophase.
and initiates formation of the polypeptide chain.
 The process continues until the entire polypeptide is PROPHASE
completely formed.  During prophase the chromatin condenses to form
 An enzyme associated with the ribosome causes the visible chromosomes.
formation of a peptide bond between the amino acids o Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to assist in
bound to the tRNAs. breaking the centromere between the chromatids
 As the process continues, a polypeptide chain is formed. and move the chromosomes to opposite sides of the
Translation ends when the ribosome reaches the stop cell.
codon on the mRNA. The polypeptide chain is released and o The nuclear membrane dissolves.
becomes folded to form the three-dimensional structure of
the protein molecule. METAPHASE
 During metaphase, the chromosomes align near the
THE CELL CYCLE center of the cell.
 During growth and development, cell division occurs to o The movement of the chromosomes is regulated by the
increase the number of cells or replace damaged or attached spindle fibers.
dying ones.
o This cell division involves a cell cycle.
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LECTURE | CELL STRUCTURE

ANAPHASE
 At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids separate,
and each chromatid is called a chromosome.
o Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by
the spindle fibers toward the centriole at one of the
poles of the cell.
 At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has
reached an opposite pole of the cell, and the cytoplasm
begins to divide.
TELOPHASE
 During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the
daughter cells become organized to form two separate
nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter cell.
o The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the
genetic material during interphase. APOPTOSIS
 Following telophase, cytoplasm division is completed,  Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a normal
and two separate daughter cells are produced. process by which cell numbers within various tissues
are adjusted and controlled.
Figure 25. Cell Cycle o In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra
tissue, such as cells between the developing fingers
and toes.
o In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess
cells to maintain a constant number of cells within the
tissue.

CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING

 There are various causes for cellular aging.
o Existence of a cellular clock
o Presence of death genes
o DNA damage

TUMORS
 Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.
o They are due to problems occurring in the cell cycle.
 Some tumors are benign, and some are malignant
(cancer).
o Malignant tumors can spread by a process, termed
metastasis.

DIFFERENTIATION
 A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell,
then a great number of mitotic divisions occur to give the
trillions of cells of the body.
 The process by which cells develop with specialized
structures and functions is called differentiation.
 During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA are
active, but others are inactive.

Figure 26. Diversity of Cell Types

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LECTURE | CELL STRUCTURE

ANNOTATIONS

TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D. 11