8.16.
COMPARISON OF
CONFIGURATIONS CHARACTERISTIcs OF TRANSISTORS IN DIFFERENT
The essential characteristics of each of
basic configurations are tabulated IOIOwS
Configuration Common Base
Common Emitter Common Collector
Characteristics
Input impedance Low (about 100 2) Medium (about 800 2) Very high (about 750
Output impedance ks2)
Very high High (about 50 k Q) Low (about 50 )
(about 500 k 2)
Cuerent gain Less than unity
but usually more High (about 80) High (about 100)
than 0.9 (about
0.98)
Voltage gain About 150 About 500 |Less than unity
Leakage Very small (5 wAA
current for Ge and
Very large (500 Very large
1 HA uA for Ge and
for Si) 20 HA for Si)
Signal phase In phase with input Reverse In phase with input
Applications For high frequency For AF applications For impedance
applications matching
8.17. TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
The main utility of a transistor lies in its ability of amplifying weak signals. The weak
signal is applied at the input terminals and the amplified output is obtained across the
output terminals, as illustrated in fig. 8.26.
oUT
-TIME, t AMPLIFIER -TIME, t
AC INPUT sIGNAL
AMPLIFIED OUTPUT SIGNAL
Block Diagram of An Amplifier
Fig. 8.26
A transistor aone cannot perform the function of amplification and some passive
components such as resistors and capacitors and a blasing battery is to be connected
Common emitter (CE) configuration, because ot its high curTent, voltage and power gains,
is much suited for most of the amplifier 'circuits. A common emitter N-P-N transistor
amplifier circuit is fig. 8.27.
given in
The weak signal is applied between emitter-base junction and output is taken across
a load resistor R,, connected in series with collector supply voltage Vcc (fig. 8.27). In
order to obtain faithful amplitication, 1t 1s necessary that the input circuit remains
alwavs forward biased regardless the polarity or the ac input signal. So a battery Vap is
inserted in the circuit with the polarity 1naicate In addition to the signal voltage. This
de voltage is called the bias voltage and its magnitude is such as to keep the input circuit
246 Lleti
always forward biased regardless the polarity of
the input signal.
The input circuit being forward biased has low
resistance and a small change AVIN in input signal AC R V oUT
voltage causes a relatively large change Al in INPUT CE
emitter current. This causes almost the same change
SIGNAL
BE
le
in collector current because of transistor action. E
Vcc
The collector current flowing through a high load
resistance R7, develops a large voltage across it.
Ven
The change in output voltage across load resistance
RL may be many times the change in input signal Common Emitter NPN Transistor
Amplifier Circuit
AVOUT will
voltage. Thus voltage amplification A = AVINw l l Fig. 8.27
be greater than unity, and the transistor acts as an
amplifier. This is further illustrated below by considering typical circuit values.
Let the load resistance R, be of 10 k2 and a change of 0.1 V in input signal voltage
cause a change 0.5 mA in emitter current. This change of 0.5 mA in emitter current will
also change collector current Ic by approximately 0.5 m A. This change of 0.5 mA in
collector current will produce a change of 0.5 x 103 x 10 x 10 i.e. 5 V in output voltage
appearing across the load resistor R of 10 k2. Thus the change of 0.1 V in input signal
voltage causes a change of 5 V in the output voltage giving a voltage amplification of
0.1
50.
Necessity of Biasing. For most of the applications, transistors are required to operate
as linear amplifiers (i.e. to amplify output voltage as a linear function of the input voltage).
To achieve this, it is necessary to operate the transistor over region of its characteristic
curves which are linear, parallel and equi-spaced for equal increments of the parameter.
Such an operation can be ensured by proper selection of zero signal operating point and
limiting the operation of the transistor over the linear portion of the characteristics. For
proper selection of zero signal operating point, proper biasing i.e. application of de voltages
at emitter-to-base junction and collector-to-base junction is required.
If the transistoris not biased properly, it would work inefficiently and produce distortion
in the output signal.
8.18. TRANSISTOR LOAD LINES
The concept of load line is very important in understanding the working of a transistor. It
is defined as the locus of operating point on the output characteristic of the transistor. It
is the line on which the operating point moves when ac signal is applied to the transistor.
8.18.1. DC Load Line. In the circuit shown in fig. 8.27 Vcc is the supply voltage to collector,
R (or R) is the collector resistance (or load resistance) and VcR is the collector-to-emitter
voltage. Applying Kirchhoffs second law to the output or collector circuit we have.
Voc=VCE +Ic Bc ..(8.35)
or Ic Vcc-VcE or Ic =CE,cc .(8.36)
Rc Rc
This equation is to be plotted on the output characteristic of the transistor, VCE ana
c are variables.
Tdentify this equation as y =
mx + c 1
where m= as the slope of the line and
c
Vcc as intercept of the line
R
on vertical current axis (fig.
Consider the
following two particular situations
8.20)
(i) When VcE = 0, Ic =
Vcc
Rc ...saturation point A
(ii) When Ic 0, =
VoE=Vcc ...cut-off point B
By joining these two points A and
line is obtained. The dc load line B, dc load
dynamic represents the
characteristic of the device. coCE
The dc load RAC
line gives the values of collector
current I and
collector-emitter DC LOAD LINE
-
voltage VcE corresponding to Vcc
zero signal conditions. Rc AC LOAD LINE
B 400 HA
8.18.2. Quiescent Point. It is a point on the dc
load line which represents dc collector-emitter g = 300 JA
voltage VcE and collector current I in the Ica I 200 A
absence of ac signal. It is also called the
operating 100 A
point because the variations in VcE and Ic take cc
place about this point when signal is applied. The
VCEQ VCEQ ca RAC
best position for this point is midway between VCE IN VOLTS-
cut-off and saturation points where VcE=Vcc Common Emitter Transistor Output
Point Q is quiescent point marked on the output Characteristics and D Cand AC Load Lines
characteristics shown in fig. 8.28. Selection of the Fig. 8.28
operating point is done as per application for which the device is to be used. For example
in case of a small signal amplifier, in which power is conserved, operating point is
selected so as to give lowest quiescent value of I, while for an amplifier operated to
deliver small amount of power, operating point is selected so that available quiescent
current is about one-half of the maximum permissible collector current Ic.
8.18.3. AC Load Line. When an ac signal is applied, the transistor voltage Vcn and collector
current I vary above and below the quiescent point Q. So point i s common to both dc
and ac load lines. The ac load line gives the values of VCE and Ic when an ac signal is
applied. For drawing ac load line, take a convenient collector current change AI and
compute the 'corresponding collector-emitter voltage change AVCE- AIç Rc to obtain
another point lying on the ac load line. Now the ac load can be drawn by joining this point
and point Q. AC 1oad is steeper than dc load line but the two lines intersect at the quiescent
point Q determined by the biasing de voltages and currents. AC load line takes into account
the ac load resistance while the de load line considers only the dc load resistance.
11.5.3. Self Bias or Emitter Bias or Potential Divider Bias Cireuit. This is the most
commonly used biasing arrangement. The arrangement is shown in fig. 11.10. The name
voltage divider is derived due to the fact that the voltage divider is formed by the resistors
R, and R, across Vcc: The emitter resistor R» provides
stabilization. The resistor R causes a voltage drop in a
direction so as to reverse bias the emitter junction. Since RC
the emitter-base junction is to be forward biased, the base R Ic
voltage is from supply Vcc through R,-R,
obtained net
work. For forward biasing the emitter-base junction R, and C
Ro are so adjusted that the base terminal becomes more CE
AC
positive than emitter. The net forward bias across the emitter- INPUT
SIGNAL c
base junction, VBE is equal minus dc
to V voltage drop
across Rp. The dc bias circuit is independent of transistor Ve
current gain factor B. In case of amplifiers, to avoid the loss RECE
of ac signal (because of feedback caused by R a capacitor
of large capacitance is connected. across R The capacitor
offers a very small reactance to the ac signal and so it Self Bias Circuit
Fig. 11.10
passes through the capacitor.
Circuit Analysis. Assume that the current flowing through resistance R, is I. As base
current Ia is very small so current flowing through resistance Ra can be also assumedto
be equal to l
and R,VcC
+R2
Voltage across resistance Ra BR,Vcc
+R"2R2
Applying Kirchhoffs second (or voltage) law to the base circuit (fig. 11.10) we have
VB-VBE
and collector current, Iç g VB VBE
BE .(11.15)
R
Applying Kirchhoffs second (or voltage) law to the collector side we have
VoC Ic R +
VCE +
Ig Re =
Ic Rc + VCE +
Ic R since Ic Ip
=
VCE + Ic (Rc +
RE
Electronic Devices and Circuits
352
R) ...(11.16)
or
VCBVcc - Ic (R¢ +
be determined and the
From equations (11.15) and (11.16) the values of I and VCR can
quiescent point Q is established.
Though collector
equation (11.15) that Ic does not at all depend upon ß.
It is clear from
current lc depends upon VRE but in practice VRE is very
small in comparison to VB and
so collector current Ic is practically independent of VRR.
Thus collector current Iç in this
hence good stabilisation
biasing circuit is almost independent of transistor parameters and
is ensured.
excellent stabilisation. This
biasing circuit the emitter resistance Rp provides
In this
is explained as below:
loaded. This c a u s e s
Now let the temperature of transistor junction rise when it is
increase in leakage increase in the value of B. Hence collector current I
currents and so
across emitter
tends to increase. With the increase in the value of Ic, voltage drop
resistance Rp increases. Since voltage drop across R, (i.e. Vp) is independent
of collector
current, therefore VBE decreases and so Ip. Ig and Iç
Thus we see that the circuit has tendency to hold the point (I) stable automatically.
This is due to feedback action. The increase in Ic has immediately a reaction change of
feedback so as to correct the situation.
hT ita.
52 Basic Electronics & Fundamentals of IT
1.12.1 R-C Coupled Amplifier
+Vcc
RA Rc
out
Cin Vout
RE
CE
Fig: R-C Coupled Amplifier
Circuit description
The figure shows the single stage common emitter R-C Coupled ampli-
fier circuit.Here both forward bias voltage at emitter-base junction and
reverse bias voltage at the collector-emitter junction are derived from
the single supply voltage Vcc.
The magnitude of these bias voltages are adjusted to operate the
transistor in active region.ln this arrangement base is the
input terminal/
and collector is the output terminal. The resistors R1, R2 and Rp
the biasing network.In multistage
form
amplifiers coupling
from one stage
to next stage is obtained by a coupling capacitor followed by a connec-
tion to a shunt resistor,therefore such amplifiers are called Resistance-
Capacitance coupled or R-C Coupled amplifiers. The input capacitor
Cin Couples a.c sigrnal voltage to base of the transistor.In the absenceof
Cin the signal source will be in parallel with resistor R2 and the bias will
affected.Thus the function of Cin is to allow only the alternating cur-
rent from the sigrnal source to flow into the input circuit. The emitter
bypass capacitor Cs, offers low reactance path to the signal. If it is not
present, then the voltage drop across R will reduce the effective volt-
age available across the base-emitter terminals (the input voltage) and
thus reduces the gain. The coupling capacitor Cou transmits a.c signal
but blocks the d.c voltage of the first stage from reaching the base of
the second stage in the case of multistage amplifiers.Thus the d.c bias-
ing of the next stage in not intertered with.for this reason,the coupling
capacitor Cout is also called the blocking capacitor.
Basic Circuit
Components 53
Working
When an input signal is applied in the emitter-base junction,the signal is
1Derimposed in the d.c voltage at emitter-base junction.Therefore dur-
ing the positive half-cycle of the input signal the forward bias across the
iunction increases, because it is already positive with respect to ground.
This increase in forward bias increases the base current Ig. Due to in-
crease in base current the collector current also increases. In CE
config-
uration the corresponding increase in collector current will be B' times
the increase in lg. This increase in collector current produces more volt-
age drop across the output terminal.During negative half-cycle of the
input signal the forward bias across emitter junction will be decreased
and decreases base curent. This decrease in base current results in corre-
sponding (B-times) decrease in collector current.Consequently the drop
across output terminals will be decreased. It is clear that the collector
current varies according to the input signal applied and variation is ß-
times to that of input current variation. Due to this action an amplified
form of input signal can be obtained at the output terminal.
In common emitter amplifier the input and output voltages are of
180 degree out of phase,even though the input and output currents
are in phase. It means that when the input voltage increases in pos-
itive direction the output voltage increases in negative direction and
vice versa.When the input signal increases in the positive half cycle it
increases the forward bias on emitter junction,which in turn increase
the base current and results in increase of collector current.Hence the
drop across Rc increases. Vcc is kept constant. The output of the cir-
cuit is taken from collector and emitter and is given by the equation,
VCE =Vcc -IcRc. This indicates that as the signal voltage increases in
the positive half cycle, the output voltage increases in negative direc
tion.
Frequency Response and Bandwidth
An important characterization of an amplifier is in terms of its response
to input sinusoids of different frequencies. Such characterization of am-
plitier performance is known as frequency response of the amplifier.
The ratioof the amplitude of the output sinusoid (V,) to the amplitude
Or the input sinusoid (Vi) is the magnitude of the amplifier gain at fre-
quency, f.
Avf)= and Av) = 0
of lT
54
54 Basic Electronics & Fundamentals
measured with difterent trequencies of
The values of lAy| and oAy are
and phase angle are plotted
theinput sinusoid and the gain magnitude constitute the frequency re-
with frequency. These two plots together
sponse of the amplifier; the
first is known as amplitude response and
in decibel(dB) may
second is known as phase response.The voltage gain
be expressed as
Voltage Gain in dB = 20log10
Vo
The frequency response curve of a typical R-C Coupled amplifier is
shown in figure. At lower frequencies (below 50Hz) higher capacitive
low freq: range mid freq: range high freq: range
Am
3 dB
.707 Am
Band Width
F F2 Freq:
Fig: Frequiency Response of an RC Coupled Amplifier
reactance of coupling capacitor allows very small part of signal to pass
from one stage to next and also because of
higher reactance of emitter
bypass capacitor CE, the emitter resistor Rg is not shunted. Thus the
voltage gain falls off at low frequencies.
In the mid frequency range (50Hz -20KHz), the
voltage gain of the am-
plifier is constant. With increase in frequency in this range, the reactance
of the coupling capacitor reduces thereby
increasing the but at the
same time lower capacitive reactance causes higher loading resulting in
gain
lower voltage gain.Thus the two ettect cancel each other and uniform
gain is obtained in mid frequency range.
At high frequencies (exceeding 20 KHz), gain of amplifier decreases
with increase in frequency. At high frequencies, the reactance of cou-
Basic Circuit Components 55
pling capacitor become very small and it behaves as a short-circuit. This
increases the loading of the next stage and reduces the voltage gain.The
other factor responsible for the reduction in gain
at higher frequencies
is the presence of inter electrode capacitance Che between base and col-
lector. It connects the output with the input. Because of this, negative
feedback takes place in the circuit and the gain decreases. This feed-
back effect is more, when Cbe provides a path for higher frequency ac
currents.
In the figure, Am is the maximum gain of the amplifier and fi,f2
are lower and upper cut-off frequencies respectively. The difference be-
tween upper cut-off frequency (f2) and lower cut-offfrequency (f1) is called
the Bandwidth (BW).
Bandwidth = fa-fi|
At these frequencies, the output voltage is times the maximum volt
V2
age. Since the power is proportional to the square of the voltage, the
output power at these cut-off frequencies become one half of the power
at mid-freaquencies. On dB scale this is equal to a reduction in power by
3dB. For this reason these frequencies are called 3 dB frequencies and
corresponding gain is called3 dB gain or mid band gain.
Advantages of R-C Coupled Amplifier
Excellent frequency response.
Cheaper in cost.
Very compact circuit.
DIsadvantages of R-C Coupled Amplifier
Low voltage and power gain.
Tendency of becoming noisy with age.
Poor impedance matching.
Applications
because of their excellent audio-
dely used as voltage amplifiers
ndelity over a wide range of frequency.
Vin
+Vcc
INPUT SIGNAL
Rc
R
Cc
Cin
Vout
RS
1 ET V out RL
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
R2
IE e
RE CE
Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier Circuit With Self Biasing
Fig. 12.30
