Unit 4: Microbial Diversity (Chapters 14–18) from Brock's Biology of Microorganisms, 16th
Edition. The discussion includes detailed and specific information for better understanding.
Chapter 14: Microbial Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
Microbial Phylogeny
● Three Domains of Life:
○ Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya, based on comparative ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
sequencing.
○ The small subunit (16S or 18S rRNA) is universally conserved and serves as a
molecular marker.
● Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT):
○ Challenges the traditional "tree of life" concept.
○ Mechanisms include:
■ Transformation (uptake of free DNA).
■ Conjugation (DNA transfer via pili).
■ Transduction (bacteriophage-mediated DNA transfer).
○ Example: HGT events in thermophilic bacteria and archaea adapted to high
temperatures.
Evolutionary Processes
● Core vs. Accessory Genome:
○ Core genome: Shared by all strains of a species.
○ Accessory genome: Variable genes acquired through HGT.
○ Example: Antibiotic resistance genes in Escherichia coli strains.
● Molecular Clocks:
○ Based on mutation rates, used to estimate divergence times.
○ Assumes a constant rate of genetic change over time.
Building Phylogenetic Trees
● Methods:
○ Neighbor-joining, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian approaches.
● Importance:
○ Understand evolutionary relationships among microbial taxa.
○ Reconstruct ancestral states.
Chapter 15: Functional Diversity of Bacteria
Functional Diversity
● Diversity is categorized by:
○ Metabolism (e.g., phototrophy, chemolithotrophy).
○ Morphology (e.g., cocci, rods, spirilla).
○ Ecological niches (e.g., extremophiles, soil bacteria).
Major Groups of Bacteria
1. Proteobacteria (Gram-negative):
○Subgroups: Alpha-, Beta-, Gamma-, Delta-, and Epsilon-proteobacteria.
○Examples:
■ Alpha-proteobacteria: Rhizobium (nitrogen-fixing symbionts in plants).
■ Gamma-proteobacteria: Pseudomonas (degradative enzymes),
Escherichia coli (model organism).
2. Cyanobacteria:
○ Oxygenic photosynthesizers; ancestors of chloroplasts in eukaryotes.
○ Key feature: Heterocysts for nitrogen fixation.
○ Example: Anabaena.
3. Firmicutes (Gram-positive):
○ Spore-forming bacteria: Bacillus and Clostridium.
○ Lactic acid bacteria: Lactobacillus, used in fermentation.
4. Actinobacteria:
○ High G+C content Gram-positive bacteria.
○ Produce antibiotics (e.g., Streptomyces produces streptomycin).
5. Spirochetes:
○ Helical-shaped, motile bacteria with endoflagella.
○ Example: Treponema pallidum (causes syphilis).
Chapter 16: Archaea
Unique Features of Archaea
● Membrane lipids:
○ Ether-linked lipids with isoprenoid chains.
○ Provide stability under extreme conditions.
● Cell walls:
○ Lack peptidoglycan; some have pseudopeptidoglycan or proteinaceous S-layers.
Physiological and Ecological Diversity
1. Euryarchaeota:
○ Methanogens: Produce methane in anaerobic environments.
■ Example: Methanococcus in cow rumens.
○ Halophiles: Thrive in high salt concentrations.
■ Example: Halobacterium in salt flats.
2. Crenarchaeota:
○ Thermophiles and acidophiles.
■ Example: Sulfolobus grows in hot, acidic environments.
3. Thaumarchaeota:
○ Ammonia-oxidizing archaea important in nitrogen cycling.
■ Example: Nitrosopumilus.
Chapter 17: Eukaryotic Microbial Diversity
Fungi
● Characteristics:
○ Heterotrophic, non-motile, have chitin in cell walls.
○ Reproduce sexually and asexually via spores.
● Functional Roles:
○ Decomposers: Break down organic material.
○ Pathogens: Candida (yeast infections), Aspergillus (aflatoxin production).
○ Industrial applications: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (bread and beer production).
Protists
● Unicellular eukaryotes, diverse in form and function.
● Types:
1. Algae:
■ Photosynthetic protists with chlorophyll.
■ Examples: Diatoms (silica cell walls), dinoflagellates (red tide causative
agents).
2. Protozoa:
■ Non-photosynthetic, motile.
■ Examples: Plasmodium (malaria), Giardia (intestinal parasite).
3. Slime Molds:
■ Exhibit characteristics of both fungi and protozoa.
Algal Diversity
● Green algae (chlorophytes): Closest relatives of land plants.
● Red algae (rhodophytes): Contain phycoerythrin, enabling them to photosynthesize in
deep waters.
Chapter 18: Viruses
Structural Features
● Components:
○ Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA): Single-stranded or double-stranded.
○ Capsid: Protein shell surrounding the genome.
○ Envelope (in some): Lipid membrane derived from the host.
● Shapes:
○ Helical, icosahedral, or complex.
Viral Life Cycles
1. Lytic Cycle:
○ Virus replicates and lyses the host cell.
○ Example: Bacteriophage T4.
2. Lysogenic Cycle:
○ Viral genome integrates into the host DNA (prophage state).
○ Example: Lambda phage in E. coli.
Classes of Viruses
1. Bacteriophages:
○ Infect bacteria.
○ Applications: Phage therapy for antibiotic-resistant infections.
2. Animal Viruses:
○ Examples:
■ DNA viruses: Herpesviruses.
■ RNA viruses: Influenza, SARS-CoV-2 (causative agent of COVID-19).
3. Plant Viruses:
○ Example: Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV).
Evolution and Ecology of Viruses
● High mutation rates facilitate rapid evolution.
● Roles in ecosystems:
○ Drive microbial diversity through predation.
○ Influence biogeochemical cycles.
Key Takeaways
● Microbial diversity reflects adaptations to various environments.
● Phylogenetic studies reveal evolutionary relationships between organisms.
● Functional diversity highlights ecological and metabolic roles of microorganisms.
● Viruses contribute to microbial ecology and impact human health.
