LangTime Reference Grammar

and Lexicon

by [[Your Name Here!]]

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 2

1. NewLang Language Description

Phonology:
• The phonetic inventory of NewLang is listed below:

Consonants
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal

Stops p/b t/d, ts/ tʃ/dʒ k/g q/ɢ ʔ

dz

Fricativ f/v θ/ð s/z ʃ/ʒ x/ɣ χ/ʁ h

es

Approx. w l, ɾ, r j

Nasals m n ɲ ŋ ɴ

Vowels
Front Central Back

High i, y ɨ u, ɯ

Mid e, ø, ɛ, œ ǝ o, ɤ, ɔ, ʌ

Low a, ɑ

• The symbols listed in the tables above are phonetic symbols. These will be used to
transcribe NewLang words, but not to write them. To write them, we utilize a
romanization system that should make the pronunciation fairly transparent. That
transcription system is listed below:

๏ The following sounds will be written using the same letter as their phonetic
symbol: p, b, w, m, n, s, z, l, k, g, t, d, ts, dz, q, i, e, u, o, ǝ and a.

๏ The sounds [tʃ] (kind of like the "ch" in "charge") will be spelled ch.

๏ The sounds [dʒ] (kind of like the "j" in "jar") will be spelled j.

๏ The sound [ʝ] (similar to the "z" in "azure") will be spelled zh.
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๏ The sound [ɖ] (no English equivalent) will be spelled d.

๏ The sounds [ɟ] and [ʝ] (kind of like the "j" in "jar") will be spelled j.

๏ The sound [j] (like the "y" in "yellow") will be spelled y.

๏ The sound [ç] (like the "h" in "heat") will be spelled hy.

๏ The sound [ʍ] (like the "wh" in old pronunciations of "which") will be spelled
hw.

๏ The sound [ŋ] (like the "ng" in "sing") will be spelled ng.

๏ The sound [ɲ] (like the "ni" in "onion") will be spelled ny.

๏ The sound [ɴ] (no English equivalent) will be spelled n when occurring before
uvular consonants.

๏ The sound [θ] (like the "th" in "thin") will be spelled th.

๏ The sound [ð] (like the "th" in "this") will be spelled dh.

๏ The sound [ʃ] (like the "sh" in "she") will be spelled sh.

๏ The sound [ʒ] (like the "z" in "azure") will be spelled zh.

๏ The sounds [ɣ] and [ʁ] (no English equivalent) will be spelled gh.

๏ The sound [ɢ] (no equivalent in any well-known languages) will be spelled qg.

๏ The sound [ħ] (no English equivalent; sounds a bit like fogging up a mirror) will
be spelled h.

๏ The sounds [x] and [χ] (like the "ch" Scottish "loch") will be spelled kh.

๏ The sound [ɾ] (like the "t" or "d" in "matador") will be spelled r.

๏ The sound [r] (like the "rr" in Spanish "perro") will be spelled r.

๏ The sound [ʔ] (like the "-" in "uh-oh") will be spelled '.
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 4

๏ The sound [ʕ] (no English equivalent; sounds a bit like gagging) will be spelled
' (i.e. with an apostrophe).

๏ The sound [ɑ] (like the "a" in "father") will be spelled a. (Note: For the sake of
simplicity, the sound [ɑ] will be transcribed [a] in the phonetic transcriptions
below.)

๏ The sound [ɛ] (like the "e" in "get") will be spelled e. (Note: For the sake of
simplicity, the sound [ɛ] will be transcribed [e] in the phonetic transcription given
in the relevant entries below.)

๏ The sound [e] (like the "e" in "hey") will be spelled ei.

๏ The sound [æ] (like the "a" in "bad") will be spelled a.

๏ The sound [ɪ] (like the "i" in "kid") will be spelled i.

๏ The sound [ɨ] (like the "e" in "chicken") will be spelled i.

๏ The sound [ɔ] (like the "aw" in "law") will be spelled o.

๏ The sound [œ] (no English equivalent; like the "ö" in German "hören") will be
spelled ö. (Note: For the sake of simplicity, the sound [œ] will be transcribed [ø]
in the phonetic transcription given in the relevant entries below.)

๏ The sound [y] (no English equivalent; like the "ü" in German "für") will be
spelled ü.

๏ The sound [ɤ] (like the "o" in "stoke", but with the lips left unrounded) will be
spelled ë.

๏ The sound [o] (like the "o" in "rote") will be spelled ou.

๏ The sound [ʊ] (like the "oo" in "wood") will be spelled u.

๏ The sound [ɯ] (like the "u" in "rune", but with the lips left unrounded) will be
spelled ï.
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 5

๏ The sound [y] (no English equivalent; like the "ü" in German "für") will be
spelled ü.

๏ The sound [ǝ] (like the "a" in "sofa") will be spelled a.

๏ Long vowels will be written with a doubled version of the vowel (so [iː] will be
written ii).

Romanization and Pronunciation:

• This is the romanization system, which will be used to spell the language using the
Roman alphabet. The full system is described in detail below:

๏ A, a: Pronounced like the “a” in “father”.

๏ Aa, aa: Pronounced like the "a" in "father", but held slightly longer.

๏ B, b: Pronounced like the "b" in "bad".

๏ Ch, ch: Pronounced like the "ch" in "each". Unlike the sound "ch" in English
"chair", there is no discernible puff of air that accompanies this sound. If one
holds one's breath while pronouncing the "ch" in English "chair", one will
pronounce this sound correctly.

๏ D, d: Pronounced like the "d" in "diet".

๏ Dz, dz: Pronounced like the "ds" in "mods".

๏ E, e: Pronounced like the "e" in "get".

๏ Ǝ, ǝ: Pronounced like the "a" in “sofa”.

๏ F, f: Pronounced like the "f" in "fog".

๏ G, g: Pronounced like the "g" in "goat" (never like the "g" in "genius").

๏ Gh, gh: Pronounced like the "r" in French "rouge" (never like the "gh" in "ghost").

๏ I, i: Pronounced like the "i" in “machine".

๏ Ii, ii: Pronounced like the "i" in "machine", but held slightly longer.
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 6

๏ J, j: Pronounced like the "j" in "jam".

๏ K, k: Pronounced like the "k" in "sky" (this sound features no aspiration.

Aspiration is the puff of air that occurs in the "k" in "kite". Compare the "k" in
"kite" and the "k" in "sky" [try holding your hand in front of your face when
pronouncing both]. The NewLang k should always be pronounced like the "k" in
"sky"; never like the "k" in "kite").

๏ K', k': There's no English equivalent to this sound. This is an ejective consonant. In
the case of k', it's pronounced just like k, but with one's breath held. The result is
a little "popping" sound that immediately follows the production of the k. You
can think of it as a k that's followed by a glottal ' sound. Producing those two
sounds in short succession will result in a sound very close to k'. Continue to
practice and you should be able to get it.

๏ Kh, kh: Pronounced like the "ch" in the German pronunciation of "Buch". In
English, this sound is commonly used with onomatopoeic words associated with
disgust, like "blech!" or "ich!" To pronounce it correctly, put your tongue in
position to pronounce a k, but release it slowly; allow the air to pass through the
constricted space. The result should be a sound like white noise.

๏ L, l: Pronounced like the "l" in "love".

๏ M, m: Pronounced like the "m" in "matter".

๏ N, n: Pronounced like the "n" in "never".

๏ Ng, ng: Pronounced like the "ng" in "sing".

๏ O, o: Pronounced like the "o" in "tote".

๏ Ö, ö: Pronounced like the "œu" in French "sœur", or the "ö" in German "hören".

๏ P, p: Pronounced like the "p" in "spike" (this sound features no aspiration.

Aspiration is the puff of air that occurs in the "p" in "pike". Compare the "p" in
"pike" and the "p" in "spike" [try holding your hand in front of your face when
pronouncing both]. The NewLang p should always be pronounced like the "p" in
"spike"; never like the "p" in "pike").
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๏ Q, q: This is likely the most difficult sound in NewLang for an English speaker to
master. The sound is produced by touching the back of the tongue to the uvula
and making a constriction as one would for a k. One pronounces this sound like
any other stop (p, t, k), it's just pronounced further back in the mouth than an
English speaker is used to. Think about when the doctor asks you to go,
"Ahhhhhhh…" Try doing that, and as you're doing it, take the back of your
tongue, without moving it, and plug up the opening in the back of your mouth.
That should put you in perfect position to pronounce q.

๏ R, r: Pronounced like the "r" in Spanish "pero". Nearly identical to the "t" or "d"
sound in English "matador" (pronounced quickly).

๏ S, s: Pronounced like the "s" in "sad".

๏ Sh, sh: Pronounced like the "sh" in "shade".

๏ T, t: Pronounced like the "t" in "stake" (this sound features no aspiration.

Aspiration is the puff of air that occurs in the "t" in "take". Compare the "t" in
"take" and the "t" in "stake" [try holding your hand in front of your face when
pronouncing both]. The NewLang t should always be pronounced like the "t" in
"stake"; never like the "t" in "take").

๏ Ts, ts: Pronounced like the "ts" in "cuts".

๏ U, u: Pronounced like the "u" in "ruminate".

๏ Uu, uu: Pronounced like the "u" in "ruminate", but held slightly longer.

๏ Ü, ü: Pronounced like the "u" in French "rue", or the "ü" in German "für".

๏ Üü, üü: Pronounced like the "u" in French "rue", or the "ü" in German "für", but
held slightly longer.

๏ V, v: Pronounced like the "v" in "van".

๏ W, w: Pronounced like the "w" in "walk".

๏ Y, y: Pronounced like the "y" in "yet".

๏ Z, z: Pronounced like the "z" n "zebra".

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 8

๏ Zh, zh: Pronounced like the "z" n "azure".

๏ ': This is referred to as a glottal stop, and is pronounced just like the catch in one's
throat that occurs in between the "uh" and "oh" in English "uh-oh". This isn't a
difficult sound to produce; it just requires a bit of practice to insert it into words.
It will occur naturally in a string of vowels pronounced separately in English
(e.g. if one were to say "A A A A A A A" [saying the actual name of the letter each
time] over and over, a glottal stop will naturally occur before each instance of the
vowel). If one simply stops pronouncing a word mid-vowel and starts again, it
will naturally occur. (Note: It is important to remember that this apostrophe is
not a stray mark, and not simply there for decoration. The apostrophe stands for
a consonant which has the same status as g or k or any other consonant.)

๏ Double Consonants: Doubled consonants, or geminates, occur frequently in

NewLang. To pronounce a doubled consonant, simply pronounce it twice. You
might think of it as lingering over the consonant. Think of the "s" sound you
pronounce in "Miss Sally". It's a longer "s" than if you pronounce the similar
phrase "Miss Ally". The same goes for the doubled consonants of NewLang. One
important note about the romanization: If a digraph (e.g. kh, gh, etc.) is doubled,
only the first letter will be doubled (hence, kkh not khkh). The consonant is
pronounced like a doubled consonant, though, as actual combinations such as k
followed by kh are impossible.

Orthography:
• NewLang has a unique orthography used to write it. The font face is called
NewLang-Regular.ttf. Below is a short description of how it is used:

๏ Å is used for ‘, the glottal stop. It also doubles as the vowel a. It is used in
conjunction with Ŷ to form the vowel e (i.e. e), and used in conjunction with Ù to
form the vowel o (i.e. o).

๏ ß is used for b.

๏ Ç is used for ch. Note that this is a combination of ts (i.e. Ž) and y (i.e. Ŷ).

Note that there is no character used for ǝ. For the orthographic number system of
NewLang, see the section on numbers below.

Stress:
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 9

• [[If the language has stress, list the stress rules here, with examples if necessary.]]

Tone:
• [[If the language has lexical tone, state whether it’s register or contour, then list
either all the tones, or all the tone melodies. Also make a note if tone is used
grammatically.]]

Morphology and Syntax

• NewLang is a [[list dominant word order and level of synthesis. List order of AN,
NR, DN, PN, and GN]].

Nouns:
• NewLang nouns [[state whether nouns inflect for number, case, gender, or
possessive status. If they do, list which categories are relevant for each]].

• Noun Function: [[State how you know who does what to whom, even if it’s word
order. This section may be renamed Noun Case.]]

• Noun Number: [[State how number works.]]

• Noun Gender: [[State which genders are present and how they’re reified.]]

• Noun Possession: [[If not already indicate, state how noun possession works.]]

Adjectives:
• NewLang adjectives [[state how adjectives work, including whether or not they
agree with nouns in case, number, or gender, and if they inflect for degree of
comparison. If there are no adjectives, delete this section.]]:

• Adjective Placement: [[Show how adjectives work when modifying a noun, and
state if it’s possible to have predicative adjectives.]]

• Adjectival Agreement: [[Show how adjectival agreement works, if adjectives agree

with nouns.]]

• Comparison: [[Show how adjectives inflect or otherwise showcase comparison. If

not relevant, delete.]]

Demonstratives:
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• [[State various types of demonstratives in NewLang. Usually it’ll be deictic

demonstratives, but there may be a reason to include others. What demonstratives
there are, state how the relevant categories work with respect to those
demonstratives (e.g. case, number, gender).]]

Verbs:
• NewLang verbs [[state whether verbs conjugate for tense, aspect, modality, voice, or
polarity. State whether verbs agree with anything. State whatever else is relevant in a
top-level introduction to verbs]]:

• Copula: [[State how copular constructions work, even if there is no copula.]]

• Negation: [[State how negation works.]]

• Participles: [[You know, why not… If there are participles, put them here.]]

Adverbs:
• There are three types of adverbs: manner, locational, and temporal. [[State where
adverbs occur. If there’s an obvious derivation connection between manner adverbs
and adjectives, maybe mention that]]:

Coordination:
• [[State how coordination works.]]

Relative Clauses:
• [[State how relative clauses work, then show examples of the various types]]:

๏ Subject: example that you know.

Example that you know.
“Example that you know.”

๏ Direct Object: example that you know.

Example that you know.
“Example that you know.”

๏ Indirect Object: example that you know.

Example that you know.
“Example that you know.”

๏ Adposition Object: example that you know.

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 11

Example that you know.

“Example that you know.”

๏ Possessive: example that you know.

Example that you know.
“Example that you know.”

Questions:
• Yes/No Questions: [[State how yes/no questions work, and show examples.
Probably good to do negative yes/no questions too.]]

• WH-Questions: WH-questions are so called because in English, most WH-questions

feature a word that has "w" and "h" in it (i.e. who, why, what, where, when or how
[or even which]). [[State how WH-questions work briefly, then given an example of
each below.]] Examples are given below:

๏ Who: example what? (Test)

Example what?
“Example what?”

๏ What: example what? (Test)

Example what?
“Example what?”

๏ Where: example what? (Test)

Example what?
“Example what?”

๏ When: example what? (Test)

Example what?
“Example what?”

๏ How: example what? (Test)

Example what?
“Example what?”

๏ Which: example what? (Test)

Example what?
“Example what?”
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 12

๏ Whose: example what? (Test)

Example what?
“Example what?”

๏ How Many: example what? (Test)

Example what?
“Example what?”

๏ Why: example what? (Test)

Example what?
“Example what?”

Historical Notes

• Below is a behind-the-scenes description of the historical processes that gave rise to

the alternations seen in NewLang. In the descriptions below, a segment, word or
phrase preceded by an asterisk (*) is a proto-form. A proto-form is an older form
that's no longer present in the modern language. [[List all of the sound changes in
order.]]

๏ Loss of Schwa: *ǝ > Ø / _,G

The basic schwa was lost next to glides and the glottal stop. These sounds
affected a change in the surrounding vowels, resulting in modern i, u, and a,
as well as older *ai and *au.

๏ Loss of Diphthongs: *ai, *au > e, o

The diphthongs *ai and *au became e and o, respectively.

๏ Schwa Lowering: *ǝ > a / {C[+back], G}_

Schwa lowered to a when it followed q, kh, gh, w, y or ‘.

๏ Vowel Lowering: *i, *u > e, o / [+back]_

Vowels lowered when they followed q, kh, gh, or ‘.

๏ Stop Insertion: Ø > C[-cont] / N_L

A homorganic stop is inserted in between a nasal and a liquid.

๏ Nasal Assimilation: N > [αplace] / _,C[αplace]

Nasals assimilate in place to a following or preceding consonant, with few
exceptions. One exception is the velar nasal, which doesn’t assimilate in place
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 13

to a following consonant unless that consonant is y. Other exceptions will be

noted when they occur.

๏ Vowel Fronting: V[-low] > [+front] / V[+front]…_#

In many instances, the vowels u and o fronted to ü and ö respectively when
occurring after the vowels i, ü, ö or e. This only happened when there were no
other intervening vowels or glottalic consonants (t', ts', k', q', ', *b', *d'), and
preferentially in closed syllables. Also, it only occurred with *e (not *ai).

๏ Vowel Devoicing: V > [-voice] / C[+CG]_C[-voice]

Vowels devoice in between ejectives and voiceless sounds.

๏ Progressive Voicing Assimilation: C > [αvoice] / _C[αvoice]

Generally a consonant takes on the voicing of the one following it.

๏ Back Vowel Lenition: V[+back, -low] > v / _V

Where ordinarily vowel hiatus would result in either a diphthong or two
vowel nuclei separated by a glottal stop, non-low back vowels instead
become the semi-vowel/fricative v. This occurs, for example, when the
perfect prefix k'u- occurs directly before a vowel-initial verbal stem other than
u or ü.

๏ Loss of Implosives:
All implosives became simple voiced plosives in all environments: *b' > b,
and *d' > d.

๏ Affricate Gemination:
Sequences of affricates become a single affricate with a geminate onset: tsts >
tts, dzdz > ddz, ts'ts' > tts'.

๏ Word-Final Stop Simplification: *C[+stop] > [-voice, -CG] / _#

All stops became plain voiceless stops at the end of a word. (Note that q'
becomes k at the end of a word.)

๏ Compensatory Lengthening: *V > Vː / _C[+voice]

All vowels lengthened before word-final voiced obstruents that became
voiceless as a result of the previous change. Prominent vowels in diphthongs
became long, destroying the on- and off-glide-like vowels in the process.

๏ Glottalic Dissimilation: C > [-glottalic] / C[+glottalic]V_

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 14

This rule prevents consecutive ejectives from occurring in the language.

๏ Loss of Voiced Velar Stop: *g > ng

This was a ubiquitous sound change.

๏ Loss of Long Mid Vowels: *ey, *ee > ii; *ow, *oo > uu
This was a ubiquitous sound change.

๏ Diphthong Simplification: *aw > o; *ew > u; *ay > e; *oy > i / _, Stress; *uw > uu;
*iy > ii
A diphthong will become the corresponding monophthong when it is
unstressed. The latter two changes affecting a sequence of a high vowel
followed by a glide occur in all instances.

๏ Nasal Assimilation: C[+nasal] > [αplace] / _C[αplace]

This happened with all nasals.

๏ Fortition: V > Vː / _k', ch', t', ', h, w, y; t, k, s, sh, kh, l, m, n, ng, ny, b, d, j > tt, kk,
ss, ssh, kkh, ll, mm, nn, nng, nny, bb, dd, jj
Stressed syllables strengthen either by lengthening the vowel or doubling the
coda consonant. What happens with each specific coda consonant is shown
above.

๏ Lenition: *t', *ch', *k', *t, *ch, *k, *b, *d, *j, *kh, *h > t, ch, k, d, j, *g, m, n, ny, Ø, Ø
Lenition occurs outside of the first syllable at the head of a strong syllable
(stressed CVC syllable). To give an example, with an underlying form like /
tak-u-n-s/, the result would be takkunaas. With an underlying form like /
tak-tak-u-n-s/, though, the result would be tattagunnas, with the
underlying /k/ leniting to g (note: this sound later changed to ng, so the final
form would be tattangunnas).

๏ Devoicing: C[+obs] > [-voice] / _C[-voice]

The voiced obstruents *z, *v, *b, *d and *g devoice to s, f, p, t and k
respectively when occurring before s, h, p, t and k. Also, *z devoices to s in
word-final position.

๏ Voicing: C > [+voice] / C[+nasal]_, _C[+voice, -cont]

The voiceless stops *p, *t and *k voice to b, d and g after nasals and before b, d
and g.
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 15

๏ Fortition I: C > [+stop] / C[+nasal]_

The fricatives/approximants *v, *z, *l, *r and *s all become stops when
occurring after nasals. The fricative *v becomes b after nasals, and the other
consonants become d. (Important note: This sound change continues to occur,
and is applied again after the last rule listed here.)

๏ Fortition II: C[+lateral] > [+stop] / _V[+high]

The approximants *l and *r become d when occurring directly before u or i.
Note that this does not occur if the vowel has resulted from a sequence whose
first vowel wasn't high and which occurred as a result of glide simplification
(see below).

๏ Glottal Deletion I: C[+glottal] > Ø / V_V[-back], _#

The voiceless fricative h disappears after a vowel and before i or e. The h is
retained if the vowels are identical. The consonant h is always lost word-
finally, though (occasionally reappearing if the word comes before another
that begins with a vowel).

๏ Glottal Deletion II: C[+glottal] > Ø / C[+obs]_

The voiceless fricative h disappears after stops, fricatives and approximants.

๏ Hiatus: VV > CV, V

The following happens when two vowels come into contact: *aa, *ea, *oa > a;
*ii, *ei > i; *uu, *eu, *ou > u; *au, *ao > o; *ai, *ae, *oi > e; *ia > ya; *ua > wa;
*ie > ye; *ue > we; *io > yo; *uo > wo; *iu > yu; *ui > wi.

๏ Glide Gemination: Cx[+glide]Cx[+glide] > [+continuant]

When two glides come into contact with one another, it produces the
following results: *ww > v; *yy > j; *hh > h. Note that the latter rule applies
even in situations where h would ordinarily be deleted (see above).
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 16

2. NewLang Reference Grammar

Personal Pronouns
Singular Plural

First Person fill fill

Second Person fill fill

Third Person fill fill

Nouns
Nominal Inflection
Word “meaning”, wordy “meaning”
Singular Plural

Plain Objective Vocative Plain Objective Vocative

Def. worda wordinna wordish wordiva wordimma wordiship

Ind. word wordin word wordip wordim word

Nominal Derivation
wang wang wang wang
Nominal Derivation “house" “house" “house" “house"

Augmentative
zhowang zhowang zhowang zhowang
zho-/zha(w/v)-

Diminutive
chawang chawang chawang chawang
cha-/chi(y/‘)-

Verbs
Conjugation
Intransitive Dynamic Verbs
jul “sleep”
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 17

Active Standard Imperfective Inceptive

Gnomic jul gǝn jul yu jul

Perfective jul nǝkh gǝn jul nǝkh yu jul nǝkh

Intransitive Stative Verbs
chuf “be quiet”
Active Standard Imperfective Inceptive

Gnomic jul gǝn jul yu jul

Perfective jul nǝkh gǝn jul nǝkh yu jul nǝkh

Transitive Verbs
vugh “eat”
Active Standard Imperfective Inceptive

Gnomic jul gǝn jul yu jul

Perfective jul nǝkh gǝn jul nǝkh yu jul nǝkh

Derivation
V- C- (Voiceless) C- (Voiced)
Verbal Derivation
(V>V) ag pul ghor
“to come” “to drink” “to cross”

Reversive
knag kǝmpul kǝngghor
kǝn-/kn-

Intensive
knag kǝmpul kǝngghor
vu(kh)-

Repetitive
knag kǝmpul kǝngghor
(C)V-

Adjectives
Comparison
Adjectives
zho “large”
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 18

Prenominal Postnominal

Positive zho zho

Equative yu zho zho yu

Comparative dzok zho zho ghor

Superlative dzok zho zho ghor mem

Contrastive ung dzok zho ung zho ghor

Sublative ung dzok zho ung zho ghor mem

Derivation
zho “large”; chuf “quiet”; mǝn “soft”
ADJ >N V-Final C-Final (Voiceless) C-Final (Voiced)

Quality zhobe chufpe mǝmbe

Person zhozukh chufsukh mǝndzukh

Place zhoda chufta mǝnda

il “bright”; chuf “quiet”; zho “large”

ADJ > ADJ V-Initial C-Initial (Voiceless) C-Initial (Voiced)

Negative unil unjuf unjo

Opposite knil kǝnjuf kǝnjo

Intensive vukhil vuchuf vuzho

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 19

Number System
# Glyph Roman # Glyph Roman # Glyph Roman

1 ing 11 nining 21 zol ing

2 kan 12 ninkan 30 zunen

3 zu 13 ninzu 40 kanzol

4 fin 14 ninpin 50 nendrep

5 ingrep 15 zurop 60 zuzol

6 ping 16 zurping 70 zuzol nen

7 zuyunen 17 zurkan 71 zuzol nining

8 kanyunen 18 kanyuzol 80 zolyuvan

9 inyunen 19 inyuzol 90 nenyuvan

10 nen 20 zol 100 van

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 20

3. How to Read the Dictionary

Below is a sample dictionary entry from the NewLang-English side of the dictionary.
Each item has a number which corresponds to an explanation below the entry:

êχåɱƥ£€1 example2 egzampul3 [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl]4 *gzmpl5 (n.)6 {00}7 example8 (and an

interesting one)9

1. Orthographic Form: This is how the words will look in the native NewLang writing
system. The text is a reproduction of the Typographic Form below.
2. Typographic Form: This is exactly what you type to produce the NewLang forms in
the Orthographic Form. Pay very close attention to the quality of vowels in
the orthographic form, as they may differ from the citation form.
3. Citation Form: NewLang words will be listed by their citation form. This is the basic
romanized form that will be used in scripts and translations. When preparing
artwork, the Orthographic Form should be used, in which case the
Typographic Form should be followed closely to produce an accurate result.
4. Phonetic Form: This is how the word is pronounced. The transcription will be
written in IPA, and will be more or less phonetic (unimportant details being
left out).
5. Etymology: This is the etymology for each word. It will prove crucial in derived
languages; in NewLang, it’s more or less a repetition of the information
already provided.
6. Part of Speech: The part of speech refers to the NewLang part of speech, and not the
English part of speech. Below is a list of the NewLang parts of speech:
• (adj.) = adjective
• (adv.) = adverb
• (cc.) = coordinating conjunction
• (cir.) = circumposition
• (conj.) = conjunction
• (det.) = determiner
• (expr.) = expression
• (n.) = noun
• (nm.) = name
• (np.) = noun phrase
• (part.) = particle
• (pl.) = plural
• (post.) = postposition
• (pref.) = prefix
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 21

• (prep.) = preposition
• (pron.) = pronoun
• (sc.) = subordinating conjunction
• (sg.) = singular
• s/o = someone
• s/t = something
• (suf.) = suffix
• s/w = somewhere
• (v.) = verb
• (vi.) = intransitive verb
• (vt.) = transitive verb
• (vp.) = verb phrase
7. Word Type: This system identifies how common a given word is and whether or not
it's impolite—plus it identifies words that may be interesting examples to
share. The system is described below:
• {0…} = The word is common and likely to be used by all people in most
situations.
• {1…} = The word is marked for some reason (either it's a rare technical word,
or the least common word used amongst a family of synonyms, or is
only used in formal situations, or some other specific context).
• {…0} = The word is polite, or, at the very least, neutral, and will likely not
cause offense if used in mixed company.
• {…1} = The word is crude or insulting and would be likely to cause offense if
used in mix company.
• {…}* = This word is unique or interesting enough to pay attention to. It may
be a word that plays a crucial role in the lore of the world or that has to
do with gameplay. The asterisk following the curly bracket will make
these words easy to search for.
8. Definition: Some words will have single word definitions, others multiword
definitions.
9. Extra Information: Extra information will appear in parentheses. The extra
information is there to give the reader a clearer idea of exactly how the word
is used. Often sociocultural information about a given word will appear in
parentheses. In this case, [[list whatever’s in the parentheses above]].

* * *

The English-NewLang side of the dictionary is fairly straightforward, and will attempt
to provide the reader with a one-to-one translation of a given word. The parts of speech
should be familiar (they're English parts of speech). Where a one word gloss is
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 22

insufficient to understanding how a given NewLang word is to be used, I've added the
parenthetical comment (see entry). It's advisable that the language user reference the
entry for words with this parenthetical comment in the NewLang-English side of the
dictionary.
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 23

4. NewLang Overall Word Count

Letter Words Letter Words Letter Words

A 99 J 99 T 99

B 99 K 99 U 99

C 99 L 99 V 99

D 99 M 99 W 99

E 99 N 99 Y 99

Ǝ 99 O 99 Z 99

F 99 P 99 ' 99

G 99 Q 99
Total
H 99 R 99 Number of 2673
Words
I 99 S 99

Letter Stems Words W/S Letter Stems Words W/S Letter Stems Words W/S

A 99 99 1.0 I 99 99 1.0 Q 99 99 1.0

B 99 99 1.0 J 99 99 1.0 R 99 99 1.0

C 99 99 1.0 K 99 99 1.0 S 99 99 1.0

D 99 99 1.0 L 99 99 1.0 T 99 99 1.0

E 99 99 1.0 M 99 99 1.0 V 99 99 1.0

F 99 99 1.0 N 99 99 1.0 Y 99 99 1.0

G 99 99 1.0 O 99 99 1.0 Z 99 99 1.0

H 99 99 1.0 P 99 99 1.0 Total 2277 2277 1.0

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 24

5. NewLang to English Dictionary

A
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 25

B
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 26

C
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 27

D
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 28

E
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 29

Ǝ
Though the letter ǝ is an official part of the NewLang romanization system, there is no word of
NewLang that begins with ǝ.
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 30

F
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 31

G
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 32

H
Though the letter h is an official part of the NewLang romanization system, it is not used
independently. Consequently, there are no words beginning with the h in NewLang.
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 33

I
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 34

J
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 35

K
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 36

L
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 37

M
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 38

N
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 39

O
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 40

P
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 41

Q
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 42

R
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 43

S
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 44

T
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 45

U
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 46

V
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 47

W
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 48

Y
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 49

Z
êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

êχåɱƥ£€ example egzampul [ɛɡ.ˈzæm.pl] *gzmpl (n.) {00} example

 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 50

'
Though the letter ‘ is an official part of the NewLang romanization system, it is not used word-
initially, as every word beginning with a vowel actually begins with ‘. For words beginning with
‘, please look to the entry for the next vowel in the word.
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 51

7. English to NewLang Dictionary

A
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
to abandon (v.) xxxx
to awaken (v.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 52

B
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
back (n.) xxxx
by (prep.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 53

C
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
to call (v.) xxxx
cycle (n.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 54

D
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
dad (n.) xxxx
duck (n.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 55

E
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
eagle (n.) xxxx
eye (n.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 56

F
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
face (n.) xxxx
fur (n.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 57

G
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
to gather (v.) xxxx
to guide (v.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 58

H
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
hair (n.) xxxx
to hunt (v.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 59

I
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
I (pron.) xxxx
it (pron.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 60

J
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
jewel (n.) xxxx
just (adj.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 61

K
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
to kill (v.) xxxx
to know (v.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 62

L
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
to lack (v.) xxxx
to loose (v.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 63

M
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
magnificent (adj.) xxxx
mouth (n.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 64

N
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
nadir (n.) xxxx
number (n.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 65

O
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
oath (n.) xxxx
owl (n.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 66

P
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
part (n.) xxxx
to push (v.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 67

Q
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
quail (n.) xxxx
quiet (adj.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 68

R
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
rabbit (n.) xxxx
rough (adj.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 69

S
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
sans (prep.) xxxx
swollen (adj.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 70

T
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
tail (n.) xxxx
type (n.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 71

U
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
up (adv.) xxxx
upward (adv.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 72

V
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
vacant (adj.) xxxx
vine (n.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 73

W
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
to wait (v.) xxxx
wrist (n.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 74

X
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 75

Y
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
you (pl.) (pron.) xxxx
you (sg.) (pron.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 NewLang Reference Grammar and Lexicon—[[Your Name Here!]] 76

Z
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
to zap (v.) xxxx
zenith (n.) xxxx

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ