Chapter Two

Physical Modeling of Dynamic Systems and

Lumping of Parameters
 Contents
 Introduction
 Assumptions
 Physical Modelling
 Mechanical Elements
Discrete (and their equivalency) and Continuous
 Tables
 2.1 Introduction
 The main purpose of modelling systems is to obtain the
mathematical equation describing the system.
 Accurate mathematical modelling of any physical system will
lead to non-linear differential equations governing the behaviour
of the system.
 Often, these non-linear differential equations have either no
solution or difficult to find a solution.
 When analysing the results obtained from the mathematical
model, one should realise that the mathematical model is only an
approximation to the true or real physical system and therefore
the actual behaviour of the system may be different.
 Assumptions are made to linearize a system, which permits quick
solutions for practical purposes.
 Cont...
 A linearizing assumption leads either to the removal of nonlinear
terms in the governing equations or to the approximation of
nonlinear terms by linear terms.
 A geometric nonlinearity occurs as a result of the system’s
geometry. For example, if θ is very small, sin θ= θ and the
differential equation is linearized.
 If the spring in the system is nonlinear, the force-displacement
relation in the spring may be F=K1x+K3x3. The resulting differential
equation that governs the motion of the system is nonlinear. This is
an example of a material nonlinearity.
 The assumption is often made that either the amplitude of
vibration is small (such that K3x3<<K1x and the nonlinear term
neglected).
 Cont...
 The advantages of linear models are the following:
(1) their response is proportional to input
(2) superposition is applicable
(3) they closely approximate the behaviour of many dynamic
systems
(4) their response characteristics can be obtained from the form
of system equations without a detailed solution
(5) a closed-form solution is often possible
(6) numerical analysis techniques are well developed, and
(7) they serve as a basis for understanding more complex non-
linear system behaviours.
 Cont…
 For vibration analysis it is always essential to follow the
procedure given below.
 2.2 Assumptions

 If all effects are included in the modelling of a physical system,

the resulting equations are usually so complex that a
mathematical solution is impossible.
 When assumptions are used, an approximate physical system is
modelled.
 An approximation should only be made if the solution to the
resulting approximate problem is easier than the solution to the
original problem and with the assumption that the results of the
modelling are accurate enough for the use they are intended.
 Cont…
Some of assumptions are used that include:

(a) A physical system can be treated as a continuous piece of

matter
(b) Newton’s laws of motion can be applied by assuming that the
earth is an inertial frame of reference.
(c) Gravity is the only external force field
(d) The systems considered are not subject to nuclear reactions,
chemical reactions, external heat transfer, or any other source of
thermal energy.
(e)All materials are linear, isotropic, and homogeneous.
(f) The usual assumptions of mechanics of material apply. This
includes plane sections remaining plane for beams in bending
and circular sections under torsional loads do not warp.
 2.3 Physical Modelling
 Mechanical systems are complicated and made up of many
interconnected parts that influence their dynamic behaviour.
However, some parts may be more important compared with
others for the investigation of a specific problem.
 The physical model of mechanical systems consists of elements with
known mechanical behaviour.
 These elements are the mass, spring, rod, beam, plate, etc. And
used as building blocks in the development of physical models of
dynamic systems.
 Examples

 Machine placed on a floor in an industrial plant (Fig. a)

The problem has been idealized as a machine mounted on a fixed-pinned beam.
(Fig. b) SDOF model of mass on beam accounting for inertia effects of beam (Fig.
c). In fig. d) a two degree-of-freedom model of the machine when a vibration
isolator is placed between the machine and the beam (Fig. d) .
 Cont...
 Investigation of vibration of an automobile as it goes over a road bump
An automobile has many parts that influence its dynamic performance.
However, one can assume that when driving over a bumpy road, the
deflection of the body with its parts, the engine, passengers, etc., is
much smaller than the motion of the car with respect to the road. The
flexibility of the tyres and the springs is much higher than the flexibility of
the body of the car.
In the first simplified model (Fig. b) it is assumed that the body with all the
parts and the tyres are rigid, the body will experience only vertical
motion and the springs and dampers are represented by a linear spring
and dash pot. In the second model (Fig. c), the flexibility and the mass
of the tyres and the rotational motions due to its length is taken into
account. In (Fig. d) besides that of model (Fig. c) the rotational motions
due to the width is considered.
Cont...
 Cont…

 Model of a Motorcycle
The figure below shows a motorcycle with a rider. Develop a
sequence of three mathematical models of the system for
investigating vibration in the vertical direction. Consider the
elasticity of the tyres, elasticity and damping of the struts (in
the vertical direction), masses of the wheels, and elasticity,
damping, and mass of the rider.
Cont…
 Cont...
 a cantilever beam subjected to a concentrated load F at its end
 2.4 Mechanical Elements
 In this section some essential elements for the construction of
mechanical models will be presented.
 The essential properties of a machine or its part to experience
vibration are
 Inertia
 Elasticity and
 Damping
 Model can be
 Discrete vibration model or a discrete/lumped system
 Continuous model or continuous system
 2.4.1 Discrete System Elements
 The elements that make up discretized models of vibrating
systems are the spring, the damper and the mass
 The development of discrete mechanical model thus requires
at first, the identification of the basic parts that are relevant to
the problem followed by their discretization as lumped masses,
springs and dampers.
 2.4.1.1 Springs
 In discrete mechanical equivalent models, the spring is a
massless element that possesses the property of elasticity.
 To store or release potential energy
 Spring → Stiffness (N/m or Nm/rad)
 Spring has the characteristic that force is the function of
deformation: F = k(x). If k is constant, the spring is linear.
Practically it is not constant. k is generally slope of the F-x
curve, and is known as the stiffness.
Cont...
 Cont...
 Springs that deform in twisting (φ) with the application
of torsional moment (Ms) are said to be a torsional
spring.
 Analogous to the translatory spring, the linear torsional
spring characteristic is given by
 Stiffness of Mechanical Members

 Stiffness is the property of the object which depends mainly on its

shape (e.g. A and L) and material properties, e.g. E.
 Usually it is difficult to find the equivalent spring constant K of a
real mechanical system and requires experimental measurement.
 From mechanics of materials, the spring constants of some spring
elements can be easily determined.
 In the following tables spring constants/stiffness of some
important elements that we encounter in many practical
problems and obey the linear law are given.
Cont...
Cont...
Cont...
Cont...
 2.4.1.2 Masses
 In a discretized mechanical model, a lumped mass, is the
element that possesses the inertia property
 To store / release kinetic energy
 2.4.1.3 Dampers
 It is an element used to dissipate energy
 The damping in a system is a property that can not be
described easily like the stiffness and the mass because it occurs
in different forms, i.e., friction between slidding parts, intercristal
motion in material, external fluid resistance, structural damping
etc.
 Damping model mostly used in practice is linearly proportional
to velocity. This is specially a good approximation for fluid
damping with laminar fluid media and is known as viscous
damping.
 Damper → viscous damping coefficient (Ns/m or Nms/rad)
Tables

 Tables:
Spring constants of elements with linear law
Torsional spring constants of elements with linear law
Lumped equivalent Masses and Moment of Inertia of rigid and elastic bodies
Linear damping constants of elements with linear law
Cont...
Cont...
Cont...
Cont...
Cont...
Cont...
Cont...
 2.4.1.4 Equivalent Spring Stiffness,
Damping Coefficients and Masses
 The criteria of equivalence of the installed and equivalent springs,
which provides the equality of the two, is the potential or strain
energy stored.
 The equivalent lumped mass of a number of interconnected
masses is based on the kinetic energies of the equivalent lumped
mass to that of the original system.
 The criteria of equivalence in dampers is based on the power
dissipated by the two damper systems.
 Generally, the lumped elements should possess however, the
same properties which is satisfied through the equivalence in
kinetic, potential and dissipation energies.
 Combination of Springs
 Parallel Combination
 Series Combination
 General Combination of Springs

The calculated stiffness value, keff, is used in modeling the

system.
 Combination of Masses
Translational Masses Connected by a Rigid Bar

 In many practical applications, several masses appear in

combination.
 For a simple analysis, we can replace these masses by a
single equivalent mass.
 Cont’d
 Let the masses be attached to a rigid bar that is pivoted at one end, as shown
above.
 To be specific, we assume the location of the equivalent mass to be that of mass
𝑚1 . The velocities of masses 𝑚2 (𝑥2 )and 𝑚3 𝑥3 can be expressed in terms of the
velocity of mass 𝑚1 by assuming small angular displacements for the bar, as

 By equating the kinetic energy of the three-mass system to that of the equivalent
mass system, we obtain

 This equation gives,

Translational and Rotational Masses Couple
Together
 Cont’d
 Let a mass m having a translational velocity 𝑥 be coupled to another mass
(of mass moment of inertia 𝐽𝑜 ) having a rotational velocity 𝜃, as in the rack
and pinion arrangement shown.
 These two masses can be combined to obtain;
1. A single equivalent translational mass 𝑚𝑒𝑞 .
 The kinetic energy of the two masses is given by

 and the kinetic energy of the equivalent mass can be expressed as

 Cont’d

𝑥
 Since 𝑥𝑒𝑞 = 𝑥 and 𝜃 = 𝑅 the equivalence of T and 𝑇𝑒𝑞 gives

2. A single equivalent rotational mass 𝐽𝑒𝑞

 Here 𝜃𝑒𝑞 = 𝜃 and 𝑥 = 𝜃𝑅, and the equivalence of T and 𝑇𝑒𝑞 leads to
 Combination of Dampers
 Parallel Combination
 Series Combination
 General Combination
 2.4.2 Continuous System Elements

 These extended element models fit when one drops out the
assumption of rigidity of the body and the masslessness of the
spring.
 Distributed damping elements can also be considered similarly.
 2.4.2.1 One Dimensional Continua
 In one dimensional continua one coordinate along the length
axis suffices to describe fully the motion of the element.
 In the remaining coordinate directions in y and z, the cross-
sectional area and its properties are assumed to remain
unchanged.
 Therefore, in this case the geometry is given fully by the length
L and the cross-sectional area A.
Cont…

 One dimensional continua are further classified based

on the type of deformation resistance they possess and
the resulting vibration taking place.
 Strings-doesn’t support compressive load
 Bar-support both tension and compression loading
 Torsion rod (shaft)-support twisting load
 Beams-support transverse loads
 2.4.2.2 Two Dimensional Continua
 A two-dimensional continua is a plane type body which
requires two coordinates x and y (Cartesian coordinate
system) to describe its motion, the third coordinate z remains
perpendicular.
 The thickness of the body is small compared with the other
dimensions, i.e., x and y directions.
 The membrane
 Plates
The END!