Jaipur Engineering college and research

centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-

2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

5. Solar Photovoltaic
Technologies-Amorphous, monocrystalline, polycrystalline; V-I characteristics of a PV
cell, PV module, array, Power Electronic Converters for Solar Systems, Maximum Power
Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithms. Converter Control.
Introduction
What is photovoltaic (PV) technology and how does it work? PV materials and devices convert
sunlight into electrical energy. A single PV device is known as a cell. An individual PV cell is
usually small, typically producing about 1 or 2 watts of power. These cells are made of different
semiconductor materials and are often less than the thickness of four human hairs. In order to
withstand the outdoors for many years, cells are sandwiched between protective materials in a
combination of glass and/or plastics.
To boost the power output of PV cells, they are connected together in chains to form larger
units known as modules or panels. Modules can be used individually, or several can be
connected to form arrays. One or more arrays is then connected to the electrical grid as part of
a complete PV system. Because of this modular structure, PV systems can be built to meet
almost any electric power need, small or large.
PV modules and arrays are just one part of a PV system. Systems also include mounting
structures that point panels toward the sun, along with the components that take the direct-
current (DC) electricity produced by modules and convert it to the alternating-current (AC)
electricity used to power all of the appliances in your home.
The largest PV systems in the country are located in California and produce power for utilities
to distribute to their customers. The Solar Star PV power station produces 579 megawatts of
electricity, while the Topaz Solar Farm and Desert Sunlight Solar Farm each produce 550
megawatts.
Monocrystalline pv panels:
Like their given name, the monocrystalline solar panels are composed of monocrystalline cells.
They are that type of cell that, a simple view, can be identified by its “black” color and with
the corners cut with a chamfer (result of the cut of the cell).
The most common mode of manufacture of monocrystalline silicon cells (sc-Si) consists of
starting from a single crystal silicon ingot, obtained by the methods of Czochralski (Cz) or the
floating zone (FZ), and cut into wafers which constitute the substrate on which all the remaining
process takes place (union “pn”, metallization, etc.).

1|P a ge
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

Fig.1. monocrystalline

The above image is an example of this type of cell that we discussed. In addition to this, note
that monocrystalline solar panels are the most efficient of all available in the sector.
Polycrystalline Solar Modules:
As we discussed with monocrystalline models, polycrystalline solar panels are composed, in
this case, of polycrystalline cells. We can differentiate it by its “bluish” color and do not have
the chamfer in the corners like the monocrystalline ones.
Polycrystalline silicon (mc-Si) cells also use silicon wafers as a substrate, but unlike
monocrystallins, they come from cutting a silicon block that has been slowly allowed to solidify
in a crucible and is made up of many small crystals of silicon.
This type of processing is less costly than the previous one, but considerably reduces the
efficiency of the cells.

Fig.2.polycrystalline
We see in the image the visual difference between a polycrystalline cell and the previous
monocrystalline cell from the previous point.
More recent advances, such as diamond wafer cutters, used by manufacturers such as
SolarWorld, have led to an improvement in the silicon utilization efficiency (less material is
wasted) and to wafer wafer thickness of less than 200 microns, although this thickness is close
to its physical limit because we must take into account that the cell must be strong enough not
to break in its subsequent manipulation for the manufacture of the panel.

2|P a ge
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

In addition to this, it has been possible to improve the losses by reflection and a better capture
of the light inside the cell by means of texturizing techniques and antireflective treaties.
As can be seen in the image, a series of micro-perforations with the aspect of an inverted
pyramid have been practiced on the cell, which they do is to help improve the uptake of sunlight
from the cell and, consequently, from the solar panel.
As we have already mentioned in previous articles, the conducting grid that forms the front
contact of the cell usually consists on a series of “fingers” that are in direct contact with the
semiconductor and that are connected between them by means of metallic strips (what is
usually called Bus Bar).
The design of these “fingers” and the Bus Bar that cover the cell affects the solar panels
efficiency in two ways:
On the one hand, it involves a shading that prevents some of the available radiation from
reaching the interior of the cell and, on the other hand, introduces a resistance, due to the metal-
semiconductor junction and the resistance of the material used. In this sense, it has evolved
from the conventional technique of screen printing to laser buried contact, achieving a 25%
improvement in the efficiency of the cell without raising the cost of manufacturing.
Both the mono and polycrystalline cells described have approximately 0.5 volt open circuit
(Voc) and about 3 amps short current (the current is directly proportional to the cell area).

Fig.3.PV Panel

3|P a ge
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

Of course, once the cells are obtained, they are assembled and passed a production process to
give rise to what we end up seeing in our photovoltaic installation, which are the
monocrystalline or polycrystalline solar panels depending on the type of cell.
3 Amorphous silicon panels (thin film):
Although the most common types of panels are the ones described, mono and polycrystalline,
we must not forget also amorphous silicon solar panels, or also called “thin film”.
The operation of a thin film solar cell of amorphous silicon is the same as the crystalline but
its elaboration is very different. The characteristic aspects of this technology are:
Simple manufacturing process and easy automation.
Need for little active material and reduction of energy and cost.
Easy to realize flexible modules and with optimal quantum efficiency in a wide range of the
spectrum.
Amorphous silicon cells have been the first thin-film cells to be marketed. However, due to the
drop in prices experienced by crystalline solar panels, they have been losing positions in the
market and are currently very small.
A-Si amorphous silicon technology has a considerably lower efficiency than those based on
crystalline silicon, mainly due to the poor quality of the silicon used, whose internal structure
makes it difficult to collect the photogenerated carriers. However, they are especially suitable
for use in cloudy places, in dusty atmospheres, etc.

Fig.4. amorphous
As can be seen in the picture, amorphous silicon solar panels do not consist on the attachment
of individual cells as in the crystalline solar panels, but in a tailor-made sheet in which thin
strips are seen separating the cells, created and connected to each other during the elaboration
of the module itself, whose framing facilitates the handling and assembly thereof. The range
of voltages is also wider than in crystalline silicon, ranging from a few volts to tens of volts
and makes them interesting also for solar pumping systems.
Commercially, solar panels are classified by their peak power (Wp), which is the power they
can generate under standard conditions of measurement (STC), in other words, the power

4|P a ge
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

indicated in the product data sheet. Another of the data that usually look at the nominal voltage,
which will indicate if the panel will be suitable for isolated systems of 12V, 24V or for network
connection and self-consumption.
V-I characteristics of a PV cell:
Solar cell is the basic unit of solar energy generation system where electrical energy is extracted
directly from light energy without any intermediate process. The working of a solar cell solely
depends upon its photovoltaic effect, hence a solar cell also known as photovoltaic cell. A solar
cell is basically a semiconductor p-n junction device. It is formed by joining p-type (high
concentration of hole or deficiency of electron) and n-type (high concentration of electron)
semiconductor material. at the junction excess electrons from n-type try to diffuse to p-side
and vice-versa. Movement of electrons to the p-side exposes positive ion cores in n-side, while
movement of holes to the n-side exposes negative ion cores in the p-side. This results in an
electric field at the junction and forming the depletion region. When sunlight falls on the solar
cell, photons with energy greater than band gap of the semiconductor are absorbed by the cell
and generate electron-hole (e-h) pair. These e-h pairs migrate respectively to n- and p- side of
the pn junction due to electrostatic force of the field across the junction. In this way a potential
difference is established between two sides of the cell. Typically a solar or photovoltaic cell
has negative front contact and positive back contact. A semiconductor p-n junction is in the
middle of these two contacts like a battery. If these two sides are connected by an external
circuit, current will start flowing from positive to negative terminal of the solar cell. This is
basic working principle of a solar cell. For silicon, the band gap at room temperature is Eg =
1.1 eV and the diffusion potential is UD = 0.5 to 0.7 V. Construction of a Si solar cell is depicted
in Fig.5.

Fig. 5: Construction of a solar cell

Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curve is the superposition of the I-V curve of the solar cell

5|P a ge
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

diode in absence (dark) and in presence of light. Illuminating a cell adds to the normal "dark"
currents in the diode so that the diode law becomes

where I0 = "dark saturation current" or diode leakage current in absence of light

q = electronic charge
V = applied voltage across the terminals of the diode
n = ideality factor
k = Boltzmann’s constant
T = temperature
IL = light generated current.

Fig.6. Circuit for I-V characteristics of solar cell

6|P a ge
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

Fig.7.
Short Circuit Current of Solar Cell
The maximum current that a solar cell can deliver without harming its own constriction. It is
measured by short circuiting the terminals of the cell at most optimized condition of the cell
for producing maximum output. The term optimized condition I used because for fixed exposed
cell surface the rate of production of current in a solar cell also depends upon the intensity of
light and the angle at which the light falls on the cell. As the current production also depends
upon the surface area of the cell exposed to light, it is better to express maximum current
density instead maximum current. Maximum current density or short circuit current density
rating is nothing but ration of maximum or short circuit current to exposed surface area of the
cell.

Where, Isc is short circuit current, Jsc maximum current density and A is the area of solar cell.

Open Circuit Voltage of Solar Cell

It is measured by measuring voltage across the terminals of the cell when no load is connected
to the cell. This voltage depends upon the techniques of manufacturing and temperature but not
fairly on the intensity of light and area of exposed surface. Normally open circuit voltage of
solar cell nearly equal to 0.5 to 0.6 volt. It is normally denoted by Voc.
Maximum Power Point of Solar Cell
The maximum electrical power one solar cell can deliver at its standard test condition. If we
draw the v-i characteristics of a solar cell maximum power will occur at the bend point of the
characteristic curve. It is shown in the v-i characteristics of solar cell by Pm.

7|P a ge
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

Fig.8.
Current at Maximum Power Point
The current at which maximum power occurs. Current at Maximum Power Point is shown in
the v-i characteristics of solar cell by Im.
Voltage at Maximum Power Point
The voltage at which maximum power occurs. Voltage at Maximum Power Point is shown in
the v-i characteristics of solar cell by Vm.
Fill Factor of Solar Cell
The ratio between product of current and voltage at maximum power point to the product of
short circuit current and open circuit voltage of the solar cell.

Efficiency of Solar Cell

It is defined as the ratio of maximum electrical power output to the radiation power input to
the cell and it is expressed in percentage. It is considered that the radiation power on the earth
is about 1000 watt/square metre hence if the exposed surface area of the cell is A then total
radiation power on the cell will be 1000 A watts. Hence the efficiency of a solar cell may be
expressed as

PV modules generate DC current and voltage. However, to feed the electricity to the grid, AC
current and voltage are needed. Inverters are the equipment used to convert DC to AC. In
addition, they can be in charge of keeping the operating point of the PV array at the MPP. This
is usually done with computational MPP tracking algorithms.

8|P a ge
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

There are different inverter configurations depending on how the PV modules are connected to
the inverter . The main types are described in this chapter. The decision on what configuration
should be used has to be made for each case depending on the environmental and financial
requirements. If the modules are not identical or do not work under the same conditions, the
MPP is different in each panel and the resulting voltage-power characteristic has multiple
maxima, which constitutes a problem, because most MPPT algorithms converge to a local
maximum depending on the starting point. If the operating point is not the MPP, not all the
possible power is being fed to the grid. For these reasons each case has to be carefully studied
to optimize the plant and obtain the maximum performance.
The different configurations are described shortly in this chapter because they are not the focus
of this thesis. More information about all the following topologies can be found in and .
Central inverter
It is the simpler configuration: PV strings, consisting of series connected PV panels, are
connected in parallel to obtain the desired output power. The resulting PV array is connected
to a single inverter, as is shown in Figure 9. In this configuration all PV strings operate at the
same voltage, which may not be the MPP voltage for all of them.
The problem of this configuration is the possible mismatches among the different PV modules.
If they are receiving different irradiation (shading or other problems), the true MPP is difficult
to find and consequently there are power losses and the PV modules are underutilized.

Fig.9. Central configuration

9|P a ge
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

String inverter
In this configuration, every string of PV panels connected in series is connected to a different
inverter, as can be seen in Figure 10. This can improve the MPP tracking in case of mismatches
or shading, because each string can operate at a different MPP, if necessary, whereas in the
central inverter there is only one operating point which may not be the MPP for each string,
thus leading to power losses. On the other hand, the number of components of the system
increases as well as the installation cost, as an inverter is used for each string.

Figure 10 - String configuration.

Multi-string inverter
In this case each string is connected to a different DC-DC converter, which is in charge of the
MPP tracking of the string, and the converters are connected to a single inverter, as depicted in
Figure 11. The advantages related to MPP tracking are the same as in the string configuration;
each string can have a different MPP. The disadvantages, an increase in the price compared to
the central inverter, as a converter is used for each string.

10 | P a g e
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

Fig.11.- Multi-string configuration.

Module integrated inverter
In this configuration, as shown in Figure 12, each PV module is connected to a different inverter
and consequently the maximum power is obtained from each panel as the individual MPP is
tracked by each inverter. This configuration can be used when the differences in the operating
point of the different modules are large. However, it is more expensive because each panel has
its own inverter.

Fig.12. Individual inverter.

11 | P a g e
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms

As was previously explained, MPPT algorithms are necessary in PV applications because the
MPP of a solar panel varies with the irradiation and temperature, so the use of MPPT algorithms
is required in order to obtain the maximum power from a solar array.
Over the past decades many methods to find the MPP have been developed and published.
These techniques differ in many aspects such as required sensors, complexity, cost, range of
effectiveness, convergence speed, correct tracking when irradiation and/or temperature change,
hardware needed for the implementation or popularity, among others.
The P&O and the InCond algorithms are the most common. These techniques have the
advantage of an easy implementation but they also have drawbacks, as will be shown later.
Other techniques based on different principles are fuzzy logic control, neural network,
fractional open circuit voltage or short circuit current, current sweep, etc. Most of these
methods yield a local maximum and some, like the fractional open circuit voltage or short
circuit current, give an approximated MPP, not the exact one. In normal conditions the V-P
curve has only one maximum, so it is not a problem. However, if the PV array is partially
shaded, there are multiple maxima in these curves. In order to relieve this problem, some
algorithms have been implemented as in. In the next section the most popular MPPT techniques
are discussed.
Hill-climbing techniques
Both P&O and InCond algorithms are based on the “hill-climbing” principle, which consists
of moving the operation point of the PV array in the direction in which power increases . Hill-
climbing techniques are the most popular MPPT methods due to their ease of implementation
and good performance when the irradiation is constant . The advantages of both methods are
the simplicity and low computational power they need. The shortcomings are also well-known:
oscillations around the MPP and they can get lost and track the MPP in the wrong direction
during rapidly changing atmospheric conditions. These drawbacks will be explained
later.Perturb and observe The P&O algorithm is also called “hill-climbing”, but both names
refer to the same algorithm depending on how it is implemented. Hill-climbing involves a
perturbation on the duty cycle of the power converter and P&O a perturbation in the operating
voltage of the DC link between the PV array and the power converter. In the case of the Hill-
climbing, perturbing the duty cycle of the power converter implies modifying the voltage of
the DC link between the PV array and the power converter, so both names refer to the same
technique.
In this method, the sign of the last perturbation and the sign of the last increment in the power
are used to decide what the next perturbation should be. As can be seen in Figure 13, on the
left of the MPP incrementing the voltage increases the power whereas on the right
decrementing the voltage increases the power.

12 | P a g e
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

Fig.13. PV panel characteristic curves.

If there is an increment in the power, the perturbation should be kept in the same direction and
if the power decreases, then the next perturbation should be in the opposite direction. Based on
these facts, the algorithm is implemented. The process is repeated until the MPP is reached.
Then the operating point oscillates around the MPP. This problem is common also to the
InCond method, as was mention earlier. A scheme of the algorithm is shown in Figure 14.

Fig.14 - The flowchart of the P&O Algorithm.

13 | P a g e
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

Incremental conductance
The incremental conductance algorithm is based on the fact that the slope of the curve power
vs. voltage (current) of the PV module is zero at the MPP, positive (negative) on the left of it
and negative (positive) on the right, as can be seen in Figure 13:
By comparing the increment of the power vs. the increment of the voltage (current) between
two consecutives samples, the change in the MPP voltage can be determined.

By comparing the increment of the power vs. the increment of the voltage (current) between
two consecutives samples, the change in the MPP voltage can be determined.A scheme of the
algorithm is shown in Figure 15.

Fig. 15 Incremental Conductance algorithm.

In both P&O and InCond schemes, how fast the MPP is reached depends on the size of
the increment of the reference voltage.

14 | P a g e
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

The drawbacks of these techniques are mainly two. The first and main one is that they can
easily lose track of the MPP if the irradiation changes rapidly. In case of step changes they
track the MPP very well, because the change is instantaneous and the curve does not keep on
changing. However, when the irradiation changes following a slope, the curve in which the
algorithms are based changes continuously with the irradiation, as can be seen in Figure 15, so
the changes in the voltage and current are not only due to the perturbation of the voltage. As a
consequence it is not possible for the algorithms to determine whether the change in the power
is due to its own voltage increment or due to the change in the irradiation.

Fig.15. P-V curve depending on the irradiation.

The other handicap of both methods is the oscillations of the voltage and current around the
MPP in the steady state . This is due to the fact that the control is discrete and the voltage and
current are not constantly at the MPP but oscillating around it. The size of the oscillations
depends on the size of the rate of change of the reference voltage. The greater it is, the higher
is the amplitude of the oscillations. However, how fast the MPP is reached also depends on this
rate of change and this dependence is inversely proportional to the size of the voltage
increments. The traditional solution is a trade off: if the increment is small so that the
oscillations decrease, then the MPP is reached slowly and vice versa, so a compromise solution
has to be found.

15 | P a g e
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

Control Schemes For DC/AC Converter

For grid connected inverter, control strategies need to be employed on two parts i.e. control
for dc side (PV module) and control for AC side (grid). In order to extract maximum amount
of power from the power module MPPT technique is widely used on the DC side. For AC side
control different types of current controllers are used for synchronisation with grid. MPPT and
different controllers are discussed below in briefly.
DC Side Control Using MPPT
There is a difference between the mechanical tracking (sun tracking) and MPPT of solar PV
modules. In the case of mechanical tracking, we mechanically rotate PV modules in order to
intercept maximum radiation by the module (hence maximizes power generation) under a given
condition, But in MPPT, There is no need of mechanical rotation of the PV module; this part
is carried out by the electronic circuit. The MPPT mechanism uses an electronic circuitry and
an algorithm. The MPPT mechanism is depends upon on the principle of impedance matching
between the load and PV module, which is essential to transfer the maximum power. Different
Methods are there for MPPT namely Perturb and observe, Incremental conductance, Fractional
open circuit etc. Comparisons between few MPPT methods are given below .
Table : Comparision In MPPT Techniques

AC Side Current Control Techniques

Current control is necessary for the stability of grid current. A controller is design such that it
compares grid reference current with actual grid current. The current controllers are divided
into two types: linear and non-linear current controllers. In linear current control techniques

16 | P a g e
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

are sub divided into PI current control, PR resonant current control and dq frame current
controls. The non linear current control techniques are sub divided into dead beat control,
hysteresis current control and sliding mode control. These all controllers we will be briefly
discuss below:
PI Current Control
The PI controller is part of the classical controller’s family. This family consist of proportional
integral derivative (PID), Proportional controller and Proportional derivative (PD) controllers.
The proportional part of the PI controller is related to reduce the ripple or transients while
integral part is related with the minimization of the error. The proportional controller’s steady
state error is minimized by adding an integral component to a transfer function. The error signal
is generated by comparing output current of the inverter with the reference current obtained
from grid voltage. Then error signal is controlled by PI controller. The control signal from PI
controller is then compared with triangular signals with constant switching frequency is used
for obtaining PWM pulses. The advantages of PI controllers are: less effect of DC side ripple
on AC output waveforms of inverter and reduction in steady state error. The typical block
diagram of PI current control is shown below:

Fig .16. PI Controller

DQ Current Control
The current control gets easy when we convert AC component of current into DC. Using
Clark’s transformation three phase AC current component can equivalently converted into DC
component. Tracking controllers used for AC component of current are more complex than Set
Point controllers used for DC components. So in DQ current control three phase AC
components of currents are transformed into two DC components namely d and q, which 90°
apart from each other. Application of PI controller is there in dq control. Here as shown in
figure (6)

17 | P a g e
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

Fig .16. dq Control Strategy

PR Resonant Control
The implementation of the control technique is much simpler in PR compared to dq0. PI and
PR controllers works in similar manner but they operate in two different operating frame. PI
controller is efficient in tracking DC component while PR controllers are good in tracking AC
signals. The integration take place in PI and PR are different. In PR controller integrator
integrates frequencies which are closer to resonant. Harmonic compensation in PR controller
is poor .
Hysteresis Controllers
Hysteresis control is one of the non linear current control techniques. It is simple and robust
control technique. An adaptive band of controller must create to attain stable switching
frequency, which is necessary step for the implementation of the hysteresis controller.
Following is the block diagram for the hysteresis controller implemented to grid connected PV
system.

Fig .17. Hysteresis Control Technique

Sliding Mode Control
It is another non linear current control technique. Due to its robustness and improved
performance it have been used extensively for the regulation of PWM inverter’s output voltage.
The performance of sliding mode control depends upon sliding surface and sampling time.

18 | P a g e
 Jaipur Engineering college and research
centre, Shri Ram ki Nangal, via Sitapura Academic year-
2020-2021
RIICO Jaipur- 302 022.

Advantage of sliding mode control technique is it’s insensitivity towards parameter changes
and load disturbance. Thus it is suitable for time varying system. It regulates system to follow
trajectories defined by sliding surface which is similar to hysteresis band in hysteresis
controller. To work system in desired manner, system has to be in equilibrium state. For design
of sliding mode control three elements are necessary: sliding surface, equivalent control and
selecting non linear control input to meet Lyapunov stability criterion .
Modified Ramp Control
In this control phase shift error is absent because phase shifter is used in it. A comparison is
done between triangular waves and error signal. Triangular waves are of constant amplitude
and frequency while error signals are derived from current controller. It is a non linear current
control technique.
Predictive Controllers
With use of system model, predictive controllers predict the future response of the controlled
parameters. Although it is easy in implementation it has more number of calculations than PI
or PID controllers. Deatbeat controller is type of predictive controller. In which error is
nullified at end of each cycle by selecting proper voltage vector. Model predictive controller
(MPC) is also one of the types of predictive controllers.
Current Regulated Delta Controller
In this controller the switching frequency can be controlled desirably by using latching device.
This controller is same as hysteresis controller except latching device. The latching device can
enable by using clock signal.
Direct Power Control
In conventional direct power control method, three phase quantities are converted into dq axis
frame and by using current control loop active and reactive power was derived. But in direct
power control method using sliding surface three phase abc vectors transformed into αβ
stationary reference frame. Then actual power is calculated using following equations
P(actual) = -1.5(VgαI gα + VgβI gβ) (1)
Q(actual) = -1.5(VgβI gβ - VgαI gα) (2)
The actual value of power is compared with reference value. Then state variable of sliding
surface F is calculated with respect to power P and Q [3][23]. After that Vg is calculated using
following equation
Vg = (1/D)[( Fp + Kp1sgn(Sp) + Fq + Kq1sgn(Sq))] (3)
Finally using pulse width modulation, gate pulses are given to inverter. The advantage of this
method is fast dynamic response.

19 | P a g e