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Electrostatics is a branch of physics that studies the behavior of electric charges at rest. It describes the forces between charged objects, electric fields, and potentials. Electrostatics is crucial for understanding phenomena like lightning, static electricity, and electric circuits.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
190 views45 pagesElectrostatics
Electrostatics is a branch of physics that studies the behavior of electric charges at rest. It describes the forces between charged objects, electric fields, and potentials. Electrostatics is crucial for understanding phenomena like lightning, static electricity, and electric circuits.
Uploaded by
fvsCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
I
ELECTRO
In electrostatics we study the properties of
electric charges at rest. Let us recapitulate some
of the basic facts of electric charges and electric
field,
1.1 4 Basic Facts of Electrostatics
From experimental observations and analysis
we know the following facts :
1. All matters are made up of three fundamental
particles—electrons, protons and neutrons.
Electron has negative charge —e, proton has equal
positive charge +e and neutrons are electrically
neutral. In an atom the number of protons is exactly
equal to the number of electrons. Therefore all
matters are electrically neutral.
2. Simply by rubbing two substances or by some
other methods we can produce an imbalance in
the positive and negative charges in those bodies.
Ifa body loses N electrons, it becomes positively
|) charged, its charge is +Ne. Ifit gains N electrons,
| it becomes negatively charged, its charge is —Ne.
| Thus we arrive at very important fact of
| nature.
3. Quantisation of electric charge: All
charges (Q) in nature occur in integral multiple
of the charge (¢) of an electron. -.Q = ne.
Hence in a charged body, there is either an
excess or deficit of electrons.
4. Principle of conservation of electric
Charge : Algebraic sum of electric charges in a
closed system is constant.
Ifin some process electrically charged particles
are created or destroyed, equal and opposite
charges are produced or destroyed. As a result,
total charges before and after the process remains
unchanged. For example, if a photon (y) of
sufficient energy, passing close to a nucleus,
decays, it produces an electron (e~) and a positron
(e*).
3252-1
|
t
yore
STATICS
5. Like charges repel each
other and unlike charges attract
each other, Fig. 1.1.
6. All common materials may
be divided into two categories :
(9 Conductors and (ii) Insulators
or non-conductors. ee
Conductors are mainly metals. In metals there
are free or mobile electrons, which can carry
charges from one part to another. In insulators
there are no mobile electrons and so charges in it
cannot flow from one part to another.
7. Electrostatic induction : In presence of a
nearby charged body equal and opposite charges
are produced in a conductor. This is called
2D
oO
Q
@
electrostatic induction. conductor
Opposite charges are 2)
produced at the near 7 -
end and equal same PoE chree ge charge
charge is produced at ©)
the far end of the Fig. 12
conductor, Fig. 1.2.
This happens because the electric attraction or
repulsion of the charged body moves the mobile
electrons in a conductor nearer to and farther from
it. As a result excess of electrons occur at one
end and deficit of electrons occurs at the other
end. The charge occurring at the far end feels
repulsion and so it readily flows away if connected
to earth or any other body, hence it is called the
free charge. The charge at the near end cannot
flow because of attraction towards the charged
body. Hence it is called bound charge.
8. Electric Polarisation : In presence of
charged body some changes also occur within an
insulator. This is called electric polarisation, We
shall discuss it in detail late,
9. Coulomb s Law : From experimental studies
Coulomb formulated the basic law of interaction 2
between charged bodies. The Iaw may be stated
as follows :
The force (F) of attraction or repulsion between
two charged particles at rest, placed in vaciwm
or air, is proportional
to the product of the
two charges (q,, 42)
and proportional
inversely to the F
square of the
distance (r) between them. The force acts along
the line joining them, Fig.1.3.
Fig. 1.3
Froth
P= K IR
Here K is a constant whose value depends on
the wnits chosen in measuring charges, distance
and force.
Writing in vector form we get the electric force
oon gp exerted by qis given by
Fy =K 22 p= K OD
7
is the unit vector directed from 9, to
dy 7, Fig.1.4. We see that the law is inverse
square law and the force is radial or central,
Le
oF
yo tr
a
~\
Fa Fig.14
i.e., it is either along 7 or along ~7. This central
nature of the force implies that charge is a scalar
quantity.
; Newton's third law
We notice that F,, =—Fiy;
is inbuilt in the law.
Units of electric charge :
(i SI unit: In this unit charge is measured in
coulomb (C), distance in metre (m) and force in
Newton (N). From experimental results and
algebraic convenience, the value of the constant
Kis written as
‘A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSIc5
u x
Numerical values ar¢ Zag, ~ 8-988 * 10?
=9 «10° Nm?/C? and &)=8.85 * 107? C2Nme?,
9 can also be expressed as
y= 8.85 « 10°1? Farad/metre (F/m) [See eqn,
1.68)
eps universal constant, called the permittivity
of vacuum.
We shall use this unit throughout the text.
‘Therefore Coulomb’s law in this unit takes the form
(1)
If two charged particles has charges 1C each
and are separated by a distance of Im, the force
of attraction or repulsion between them is
F = 9109 N= weight of 9*105metric ton.
We find that coulomb is a very large unit of
charge. The charges we generally find are of the
order of mC or HC. Current is 1 ampere (A) if,
charge flows at the rate of 1 coulomb per second.
Dimensions of charge is [0] = [AT]
Dimensions of Eqis
- late
(ol= LT
(i) CGS electrostatic unit :
In this system the unit of charge is so defined
that K=1. The name of this unit is statcoulomb
(stat C). Therefore if two particles each having
charges of | stat C are at a separation of 1 cm in
air or vacuum, the force between them is | dyne.
1C=3 x 10° stat C
This unitis not used nowadays except by some
theoretical physicists.
10. Principle of superposition ; Force
between two charged particles is nor affected by
the presence of
other charges. It
canbe formulated in
reference to Fig 1.5
as follows
Itthere are point
charges 4, 43, 43
sve Gy At different
locations, the force
(M“L3T4A2]
4%,
a
(#) acting on the bed
charge qo placed at P is given by the veetor sum. 4
ELECTROSTATICS
ofthe individual forces exerted by each charge on
4°
wo
if; is the vector distance of the point
P from the charge qj,
Notice each charge produces its own effect
irrespective of the presence of the others: In other
words, electric force is a two-body force. As a
consequence of this fact we can regard electric
forces as vectors. If the force between two
charges could change in presence of other charges,
| electric forces could not be regarded as vectors
Eqn. 1.2 is the result we get by combining
Coulomb’s law and principle of superposition.
| Using this eqn. we can calculate the forces
between any combinations of electric charges at
rest.
Electric interactions between charged bodies
can, however, be discussed, ina much simpler way
by the idea of electric field.
1.24 Electric Field
‘A charge can exert a force on another charge
from a distance without any visible connection.
Faraday invented the idea of electric field. In the
space surrounding a charged body an electric field
is produced by means of which it can exert a force
‘on another charge. The charged body is the source
of the electric field. This field (influence of the
charge) decreases slowly with distance and it is
zero only at infinity (very large distance). Hence
there is no sharp boundary of the electric field.
Initially it was thought that the electric and
magnetic fields are abstract mathematical concepts
by which electric and magnetic interactions can
be discussed in elegant fashions. But it was
discovered later that electric and magnetic fields
have physical existence. A new property develops
at each and every point in the space surrounding a
charged body or a magnet and under suitable
circumstances the fields can propagate from one
point to another. In fact lights are nothing but
clectromagnetic fields propagating in the form of
waves.
|
1.21 Measurement of electric field
Electric Field at different points can be
‘measured by two quantities () intensity of electric
field and (ii) electric potential.
We shall first study the intensity of the electric
field,
Intensity of electric field +
Intensity of electric field or simply the electric
field at a point is defined as the force that acts on
‘a unit positive charge placed at that point. Here
‘we assume that the original field is not changed
significantly by the presence of the electric field
of the unit positive test charge. But this is
admissible only if the test charge is very small.
If 5F be the force on a small charge 8g placed
ata point, then electric field at that point is given
by
1.3)
Some authors take the limit 3q —> Oat this point
to make the expression more rigorous. But charge
is neither a continuous variable nor can its value
be less than e, But we need not worry. From the
above definition, we can get rigorous expression
for electric field in a very simple way as follows.
From coulomb’s law, eqn. 1.1, we can write
the electric force due to a point charge g acting on
another point charge gp placed at P at a distance r
is
a;
Fe Fx
(a, 7 } %
«. Force on a unit positive charge placed at the
point P(gy = + 1), Fig. 1.6, ic., intensity at that
pointis
1.4)
In fact the quantity within the bracket in eqn.
1.4 represents the effect (field) of the charge q at
that point (F) . Whatever charge is placed at that
point, the force of g on it is decided by this vector
quantity & . If the source charge is negative,
has the opposite direction. 4
From eqp. 1.5 it follows that electric field has
the same magnitude at all points on a sphere with
the ol q at the centre; its direction is either
away or towards the centre. In other words, the
slecirie field dae a point charge is central or radial
in nature, ie., itis spherically symmetrical. The
force decreases with distance as 1/7? (inverse
square variation),
Similarly ifthere are several fixed point charges
qn 8 different locations, as shown
force acting on the charge gy placed at
P can be written down from eqn. 1.2 as
pa| lyf;
el SHa)n
Electric field produced at P duc to all these
point charges is given by
sve 1.6)
Looking at eqn. 1.6 we can see that the same
superposition principle holds for electric field.
Suppose there are z
point charges at %
different positions
and we like to
calculate the electric
field at a point P at
position vector F,
Fig.) have to
find the electric fields
due to each charge at
Fig. 1.7
that point separately and find their vector sum.
El?)
(7) +E (F) + BF) +
= LEO) common)
a
Ifcharges are distributed continuously over a
wide region, the above summation can be done by
integration within proper limits, We shall find such
calculations in problems below.
Once we know the
electric field (E') at a point, __
we know the force () that —g———> _.
acts on any charge (y) placed ace
at that point, Fig. 8 ee
Pagk (1.8)
‘A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYsics
We need not bother to know which charge or
charges have produced that field. From this foreg
acceleration of the charged body and its future
motion can be predicted. Here lies the great
advantage of the idea of electric field,
‘Thus we find that in the space in which an
electric field is present, there is a vector E(r)
associated with each and every point. The
magnitude and direction of this vector may vary
from point to point.
Hence electric field is a vector field.
We have studied vector fields in the chapter?
Here we shall find repetition of the same ideas in
reference to electric field.
Unit of E is NIC.
Dimensions of E is (E] a a
= [MLT347)
1.2.2 Electric Field lines
Faraday invented the idea of electric field lines
by which we get a pictorial representation of the
electric field. The properties of electric field lines
as follows :
(i) In absence of other charges, electric field
lines emerge from positive charge proceeding
towards infinity and terminate at negative charge
coming from infinity, Fig.1.9. Hence po
source sink
Fig.
charge is called the source of the electric field
and negative charge is called the sink of electric
field.
(ii) Electric field lines are imaginary lines in
electric field, such that a tangent drawn at any
point ona field line gives the direction of the electric
field at that point, Fig. 1.10. Hence two field lines
o o£
zy
Fig, 1.10 ELECTROSTATICS
Go not intersect. This is e
because if two field lines i
intersect at a point P, then
at that point there are two
directions of electric fields
(E,.E3) along the two
tangents, see Fig.1.11. This
is not possible, at each
Point there is a unique
direction of the field
Gi) The number of electric fil
normally through a unit area about a point in an
electric field is, by definition, taken to be equal to
the intensity of the electric field at that point.
Therefore the field lines are crowded (very
‘uch near to each other) where the field is strong
and the line are farther from each other where the
field is weak. If there is @ uniform field, field lines
are equispaced parallel lines.
Using the above properties we can draw electric
field lines for different arrangements of charges.
For example, in Fig.1.12, we see the field lines for
WN
== @
Hf IIR
{III
I]
Uniform field
Fig. 1.12
two like equal charges (g, q), two unlike equal
charges (q, ~q) separated by a distance and a
uniform field
Fig. 1.11
id Tines passing
1.3 di Electric tlux (®,)
The relation between the electric field and the
charges producing the field can be expressed in a
simple way by means of electrie flux.
In the language of electric field lines, electric
flux through any surface may be defined as the
number of field lines passing normally through that
surface. We have seen above that number of field
5
lines passing normally through unit area about any
point is the intensity at that
point. Now suppose that there
isa uniform field £ anda is $
an area held normally to the. —#
direction of the electric field,
Fig. 1.13. Then electric flux Fig. 1.13
through the area a is, by definition, given by
O,= 1.9)
Wesee that electric field at a point is the electric
flux per unit area about that point, = &, when
a=,
Hence the electric field may be called the
electric flux density i.e, electric flux per unit area.
Note that positive charge is the source of electric
flux; electric ux emerges from it, Negative charge
is the sink of electric flux; electric flux terminates
onit.
Often the field is not ‘uniform. In that case we
‘must take an infinitesimally small area (da) over
Which it has the same value, The area may not be
held normal to the field sin that case we must take
the component ofthe vector area a at right angle
‘othe field & ,Fig 1.14. Ifthe angle between E and
da
dia cos0 |
Fig. 1.14
di is 8, the component of vector area da normal
to the field is dacos 0. Therefore more general
definition of electric fux through area da is given
by
d® g = Edacos0 = Eda
For a big surface S the electric flux,
= [, Baa... (1.10)
For a closed surface 5, the electric flux,
Op =[f, B-da
Thus to find the flux we have to evaluate the
surface integral,
Looking at Fig.1.14, we can see that depending,
on the angle @ between Z and d@, the flux may
be positive or negative. If flux is positive we say it é
is outward flux from the surface and ifit is negative
We say it is inward fux towards the sui
Unitand dimensions of electrie flux
iC lm?
Unit of Dp i
special name.
Dimensions of [4] = [ML3T?C-!)
= (MTA
From the idea of electric flux we can arrive at
Gauss’ theorem,
1.4 4 Gauss’ theorem
Statement : Total
electric flux through any
closed surface (S) in an
electric field is propor-
tional to the net charge
(algebraic sum of the
charges) enclosed by the
closed surface, Fig.1.15. g3 “4,
In vacuum this electric Fig. 1.15
flux is given by
It has no
(11)
Here €q is the permittivity of vacuum and
Dg is the algebraic sum of the charges within
the closed surface.
We notice the remarkable simplicity of the
theorem : Flux does depend neither on the locations
of the charges within the closed surface nor on
the shape and size of closed surface. Charges
residing outside the closed surface have no
contribution towards the flux, though these charges
have their fields at points on and within the closed
surface.
1.44 Derivation of Gaus
Coulomb's law
Let g be a single point charge within a closed
surface S, Fig. 1.16. We imagine an infinitesimally
mall area d@ about a point P on the closed
urface. By Coulomb’s law the electric field at P
sgiven by
s’ theorem from
\
‘A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS
aa
Fig, 1.16
«To find electric flux through the area da
‘we draw an elementary cone with apex at q. The
flux through d@ is given by
= eda=— 4p -aa
ap = Bd = Sha
_ 4 da-cos0__4
= ney 7? Fey 42 ~A-12)
where dQ = solid angle subtended by d@ at
the location of ¢.
Total electric flux through the whole closed
surface S is
or=(he0r-G
2 f ane
* ane fae Ane i
Solid angle subtended by a closed surface at
any point inside the surface is Q= 4z Steradian.
Putting the value of , we get the total flux
Now we suppose that there are several point
charges 41, 43, 43 --» Within the closed surface S.
Then by the principle of superposition, each charge
produces its own effect irrespective of the presence
of others.
». Total flux through the closed surface is
4 i
2.8 Boe.
ia
& &
Now we shall see what happens if a charge q’
lies outside the closed surface S, Fig. 1.17. To find
the flux through S by the same method, we draw
an elementary cone with apex at q'. We notice
that it intersects the surface S twice cutting areas
dé and diz on the opposite sides of S. The two
areas subtend equal solid angle (d®) at q’, but
these have opposite signs as can be seen as follows. ELECTROSTATICS
For da we have dQ = 241-6088),
®
= ve, a8 0; <90,
day-c050,
For da, we have dQ=
?
= ve,"as 0, < 90,
Net flux through these two elementary
4 (dQ- do) =0,
surfaces is
ne,
Summing over all such elementary areas of S,
we shall get flux through S due to charge, q', ®,
= 0, Physically it means as much electric flux from
an outside charge enters the closed surface as it
leaves. So, net flux through it is zero.
This completes the derivation of Gauss’ law
from Coulomb’s law.
From the above derivation we can see that
Gauss's theorem is a consequence of three facts
The first two comes from Coulomb’s law :
(i inverse square nature of the field (E « 1/2)
and
(
off),
Because of these two properties, in fact, the
flux dé, in eqn. 1.12 depends on only one
‘geometrical quantity, namely the solid angle (dQ).
The third fact is
(ii) the principle of superposition.
[Note on plane and solid angle :
A line (AB) subtends a
plane angle @ at a point O.
We get the angle by joining
the point with the end points
of the line, Fig. 1.18. Ifa
small arc of length ds of a
circle of radius r subtends
angle de at the centre O, Fig. 1.19, then by
radial nature of the field (£ is inthe direction
ont
Fig. 1.18
definition, we have
a= % radian
Ifa line of length ds’
making angle @ with ds,
subtends the same angle, we
have
The whole circle subtends angle 2r radian at
its centre, as can be seen below :
a1 gsaly
=> [ds=tx dara on
Itis obvious from Fig.1.20 that not only a circle,
any closed curve also subtends the same angle 27
at any point within it,
ily @ surface (A) subtends a solid angle
(Q) ata point O. We geta cone of the solid angle
by joining the point
with the points on the
periphery of the
surface, Fig. 1.21. If
a small area da of a
sphere of radius r
subtends a solid angle
dQ. at the centre of
the sphere, Fig.1.22,
then by definition, we have
Fig. 1.22
n
Ifanother area da’ making an angle ® with da
subtends the same solid angle at the centre, we
have
dQ =2 stor
-
aq= telcos
Fe
‘The whole sphere subtends
solid angle 4x Steradian at its
centre, as can be seen below :
Ts
SB) Itis obvious from Fig. 1.23 that not only a sphere,
any closed surface subtends angle 47 sq at any
point within it]
1.4.2 Compa
theorem
1 of Coulomb’s law and Gauss?
Coulomb's law was formulated from
experimental observations, giving electric forces
between charged particles or uniformly charged
bodies af rest. It is applicable approximately for
moving bodies only if the speed is very small.
Calculation of electric field using this law is
complicated except for simple configurations of
electric charges.
Gauss’ theorem is derived from Coulomb’s law
and principle of superposition, But it expresses an
essential characteristic of electric field, which is
valid for both static and moving charges. Gauss?
law is valid even when the field varies with time.
Moreover calculations of electric fields for different
charged bodies are extremely simple if we apply
Gauss’ theorem, provided the charged bodies are
symmetric, Also Coulomb’s law can be deduced
from Gauss” theorem.
Hence we can say that Gauss’ theorem is a
more fundamental law than Coulomb’s law and it
includes the latter as special case.
4.4.3 Derivation of Coulomb’s law from Gauss?
theorem
Starting from Gauss’ theorem we like to arrive
at Coulomb's law. Let g be
apoint charge placed at the
origin O, Fig.1.24. We are {
to find the field at
distance r from O. From
Gauss’ theorem we can
say that the electric flux
through any closed surface surrounding charge q
is
Fig. 1.24
4g
Op= f Bdi=%
But we do not know how £ depends on r,
Coulomb's law tells that, but we like to deduce the
law from the above theorem.
At this point we have to take into account the
symmetry of the situation. A point charge is totally
symmetric, so the electric field should be the same
in all directions. In other words we assume
spherical symmetry. We imagine a sphere of radius
‘A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYsics
+ with the charge q at its centre. Now we are
justified in assuming that the field is directed radially
‘outward and it depends only on the distance from
the charge.
E@)=EWF
-. From (i) we can write :
peda = _4
oO; Geo da =(, E(r)da = a
since f and d@ are parallel.
‘As the magnitude of the field (7) has the same
value at all points on the circumference of the
circle, from (iii) we get
E ae
E(nyfh da = Br) An Fe nol)
From (iv) we get the electric field at a distance
from charge g given by
E(F)=
i)
4%
FTtEq 7?
If there is a charge q’ at a distance r from g,
the force on q’exerted by q is given by
gE)
‘Thus we arrive at Coulomb's law from Gauss!
law. Notice that Gauss’ law does not imply
symmetry of the field of a point charge, We have
to assume it to get Coulomb's law.
1.5.4 Some applications of
theorem
Gauss’ theorem : Electric flux through a closed
surface S,
@,=(,E dane (1.13)
q is the charge enclosed by the surface S.
Applying Gauss’ theorem electric field due !?
a distribution of charges can be calculated vet)
easily, if the distribution of charge has enough
symmetry,
So, we first have to find the symmetry of the
situation. Depending on the symmetry we have 0
choose a closed surface S surrounding the charges
such that the normal component of the electric
Sield (E) is constant over the whole surface
Such a surface is called the Gaussian surface. FOt
such a surface the field £ comes out of the intee™
and we can find the field very easily. Now let
see how we choose the appropriate Gaussil
surface and find the electric field.
Fey,
Gauss’ ELECTROSTATICS
(i) Bleotric field due to point charge :
Suppose a point charge q is at O, Fig, 1.25. We
like to find the field ata distance r from g applying
Gauss’ theorem. Obviously, the situation has
ig. 1.25
spherical symmetry : If we imagine a sphere of
radius r about O, field £ is radially outward and
have the same magnitude at all points on that
sphere. Hence the sphere is the Gaussian
surface S
Since £ is parallel to dé, #-da = Eda
Substituting in eqn. 1.13, we get
=[f_2-aa= E-4nr? =
Oe nf, Baa Blfete Setar? a
ae
Frey 7?
Writing as a vector we find the electric field
due to a point charge q at a distance r:
god
roe (1.14)
(ii) Electric field due to a line charge of infinite
length :
We considera uniformly charged infinitely long
straight line. Suppose the charge per unit length is
2 (line density of charge). We are to find the
electric field at P at a distance r from the line, Fig.
1.26. The line is infinitely long that means very
large compared to the distance r and itis uniformly
Fig. 1.26
charged. As a consequence if the point P moves
up or down parallel to the line there should not be
any change in the field. Moreover if P moves round
circle of radius r in a plane at right angle to the
9
line, the field should not change. Hence there is
ovlindrical symmetry and the field should be
radially away from the line. Therefore we take a
coaxial cylinder of radius r and length / as the
Gaussian surface S. The field has the same value
at all points on the surface of the cylinder and is
directed perpendicular to the curved surface of
the cylinder.
The closed cylinder has three surfaces : 5,
(curved surface), S, (surface at the top) and S
(Surface at the bottom),
«Electric flux through this closed cylindrical
surface is
Op =, E-4a
Enda + | B-day + [ B-day
S Ss Sy
As the field is directed af right angle to line
charge, & and da, are parallel, but E is
perpendicular to both da, and das.
+ [B-day = JE-da; =0.
Ss Ss
Og =f, E-aa= B Jan =E-2nrl
Charge enclosed by the closed eylinder, q =
Substituting these values in eqn.1.13, we get
E-2nrl = AL
eo
Its direction will be along the line OP, if we
take unit vector in that direction as #., the electric
fieldis given by
fh
ivtne (Le15)
No real line charge can be infinitely long, but
the above result gives the approximate value of
the field ata point close to the line charge. We see
1
that Eo
,
(ii) Electric field duetoa;
uniformly charged cylinder of!
infinite length :
We are to find the field
due to a uniformly charged
infinitely long cylinder of
radius a, charge per unit
length being 4, Fig, 1.27,
For a point P outside the
cylinder, by the same
‘arguments as above, we shall
Fig, 1.27 10
get the same field as given by eqn.1.15.
sen( 115A)
# (for r > a).
EG) -—*
BO) = Teor
We notice that radius of the cylinder does not
affect the field.
For a point P* within the cylinder, we have to
calculate the new value of charge per unit length
Q) for the coaxial cylinder of radius r (7 < a).
This can be done easily as follows :
Let the charge per unit volume of the eylinder
be p. Then charge per unit length is given by
na? xIxp.
+. New value of 2 is 2! = m2 x1 p
field at P' is
hyp
Inegr — 2nega’ 7
Variation of the electric field £() with
distance ris shown in Fig.1.28.
FO
o
Fig. 1.28
(iv) Electric field due to a uniformly charged
solid sphere :
We consider a uniformly charged sphere of
radius a, Fig.1.29. Charge per unit volume is p
(volume density of charge) . We are to find the
Fig. 1.29
electric field at distance r from the centre O of
the sphere.
We first consider that the point is ouside the
sphere at P. “. r>a.
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSicy
Distribution of charge is uniform. Thereforeit
the point P is moved around at different points o,
the surface of the concentric sphere of radius ,
awe should observe the same field. In other w
the field has a spherical symmetry. The field has
the same value at each and every point on the
surface of the sphere and should be directed away
from the centre along the radius. We take this
sphere as the Gaussian surface S. For this sphere
E and d@ are parallel.
«. Electric flux through Sis
Op =(f, Fda = E[f,da= Ean?
Charged enclosed by the sphere, q
/olume*
=372°P= Q, total charge in the sphere.
‘Substituting in eqn. 1.13, we get
B-dnp? = 2 214 53;
Bednr? =F = 2 xa
If unit vector along the line OP be # , we have
EG
or ney)
In terms of p, we have,
ap
Begr
Now we consider that the point is inside the
sphere at Po. ra
+ As before electric flux, = E-4nr?~
Charged enclosed by the Gaussian surface
4
g=zm'p.
Substituting in eqn. 1.13, we get
Now let us see the implications of the above
results. g
From eqns.1.17 or 1.18, we see that the electt
field at a point outside the uniformly charged spl®®
is the same as that of a point charge Q placed!
way ELECTROSTATICS
its contre; the whole charge may be assumed to
be concentrated at the centre. Notice, different
small portions of the sphere are at different
distances and produce different fields at different
directions, but after lot of cancellations, we are
left with the field as given by eqn.1.17. The field
decreases as square of the distance.
Ext(r>ay
From eqn. 1.19 we see that within the sphere,
the field is directly proportional to r. Ex r(r
Fig.1.32.
By the same
arguments as above, ~
we arrive at the ae
following results :
B@y- 2 re AE = EE forza.
Aregr?— 4negr? €or?
B= for (r= a) and E(F)=0 forr 0...(1.249)
2e9
=O h for 2 <0...(1.240)
26 i
2. Electric fi
E
|
ed ELECTROSTATICS
We find an interesting result. The field is
perpendicular to the sheet of charge and its value
dependent of the distance of the point from
the sheet. Of course, this simplicity results from
the ideal case of E
infinite extension of i‘
the sheet and
uniform chai
distribution, but this
is almost correct for
a wide sheet and at
points near to the %,
sheet. The uniform
field due to the
infinite sheet of
charge is represented graphically in Fig. 1.35. We
see a discontinuity in electric field as we cross the
sheet.
Discontinuity, AE,
Fig. 1.35
1.25)
We shall study some more applications of
Gauss’ theorem later.
1.6. Conservative nature of electro-
static field
We have seen in Chapter 2 on vector analysis
that a vector field is conservative in nature if its
line integral is independent of the path. We can
easily prove that electrostatic field is a
conservative field. 7
Suppose a point charge gis placed at the origin
O. The electric field at a point P (7) due to the
point charge, Fig.1.36, is given by
Fig. 1.36
The line integral of the electric field along the
path APB is given by
[oa = [ofr
rg Feo Im 7?
13
From the figure we see :
#-dl = dlcos(n-8) =—dl cos0 = —dr.
+. Line integral depends on displacement along
the vector 7.
[Bg =-—9_ [74 g fiy
gfiia
neg L744" (1.26)
We see the line integral over the path APB
depends upon the initial and final positions (7, and
%, ) of the path, but otherwise it has the same value
for all paths joining 4 and B. Also it is obvious
from the above derivation that this property is a
consequence of the radia! nature of the field.
For a closed path C, r4 = rg. Therefore for a
closed path the line integral is zero.
flé-a=0
c
(1.27)
Applying Stokes’ theorem of vector analysis,
we can write from eqn. 1.27 :
(lé-a=J@x#)-aa=0,
c 3
where S'is the surface enclosed by the closed path
C. da is infinitesimal vector area on the surface
S. Since this relation is true for any closed path, it
follows that the integrand must be zero.
Thus we get another important property of
electrostatic field :
Curl of electrostatic field is zero.
Curlf=9xE=0 (1.28)
2. Electric field is irrotational.
We have proved the above result for the electric
field due to a single charge. But by superposition
principle, each charge produces its own field
irrespective of the presence of others. Therefore
the resultant field (#) for any configuration of
charges is the vector sum of individual fields.
B=, +B,+By+
x Ba 0xB, + 0x8, + Vx
Hence the above property is true for any
electrostatic field.
We have seen in vector analysis that a
conservative vector field or a vector field whose
curl is zero, can be derived from a scalar field by
taking the gradient of the scalar field. 14
‘Therefore electrostatic field can be expressed
as
This scalar field 1
potential,
‘Thus electric field is the negative gradient of
the electric potential. The negative sign comes
from a physical consideration: electric field is
directed from a region of higher potential to a
region of lower potential, whereas vector 7 (7) is
defined as the vector directed in the opposite
direction.
‘The above definition, however, does not specify
potential uniquely, there is an ambiguity. Ifwe add
a constant Vy to V(F), we get the same field,
WN +%)=-9V(F)-V%
=~) = EG)
From eqn.1.29 we can write down the line
integral of electric field E(F) between any two
points 4 and B in the field as
Be Be
fe@-ai - [lived
finitesimal displacement we have,
be Thus we find that potential difference
ey
tween the two points 4 and B is equal to the line
integral of the electric field between the two points,
But how we may get the absolute value of the
potential at a point 2
‘To get the absolute value of the potential at a
point AC ), we have to take the other point 4 a
andard, whose potential we can take to be zero,
Generally we take the potentia
as the field is zero there.
«Potential at the point BC
Gs
[BG at sess
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYsics |,
So, we see that electric potential at a point jg
the negative line integral of electric field from
infinity to the point in question.
Which physical quantity line integral of electrig
field corresponds to ? Blectric field is the force on
a unit positive charge. Line integral of a force ig
the work done against or by the force. Therefore
electric potential V(7) at a point 7 is the work
required to be done to take a unit positive charge
from infinity to the point.
From the eqn. 1.31, we can easily see thet
potential also satisfies the principle of superposition
If the electric field E is the resultant of a large
number of fields due to different charges, we have
E@)=8,+E,+By+
VO) = [Bd =f G+ By +B
FHM AE +R +
We shall discuss more about electric potential
later.
1.7 4 Ditterential torm of Gauss’ law
Applying divergence theorem of vector analysis
‘we can get Gauss” law in differential form, in the
case of continuous distribution of charge.
Gauss’ law in integral form is given by eqn.
113
By divergence theorem we can write
(hea fe i)
5 ,
where Vis the volume enclosed by the closed
surface S,
Now suppose that charge is distributed uniformly
over a volume F. If charge per unit volume or the.
volume density of charge in that volume Vis, We
can write the sum in the RHS of eqn. (i) as the
integral over the volume.
fra Gi
ay ~
Substituting ii) and (i) we get from (i)
o. Baye
(¥- B= fpav
[Dares ELECTROSTATICS
ince this relation holds forany arbitrary volume.
the integrands on the Wo sides must be equal. We
get
0 (1.32)
This is the differential form of Gauss’ theorem.
This relation holds at each and every point in
an electric field, Thus we get the relation between
electric field and the charge density at each location
in the field.
1.7.4 Poisson's equation and Laplace's
equation
Substituting relation 1.29 in 1.32, we get
div: grad V 30.9 (F)
seeds (1.33)
It relates the second partial derivatives of
electric potential ata point to the charge density at
that point. This equation is known as the Poisson’s
equation.
Patti
p= 0, we get the Laplace’s equation:
vr=0 5 (1.34)
Obviously Laplace’s equation holds at all parts
in an electric field where there is no charge. This
very important equation in electrostatics.
;ppose there is electric field between two charged
conductors. We are to find the electric field in the
space in between, From Laplace’s equation we
can find V with the knowledge of boundary
conditions. Then we can find the field using the
equation E =-VY
1.8 Electric potential
Electrostatic field produced by static charges
can be described either by electric field E(F) or
by electric potential, V(#).We have already
‘d the relation between electric field and
cctric potential and their physical significances.
Now we like to discuss those two quantities again
in more simple terms.
When an electric field is established in a space,
‘wo properties develop at each and every point.
‘ld E(#) which is simply the force
Which a unit positive charge feels when itis placed
at any point in that ficld. The other is electric
Potential (7) by virtue of which some definite
amount of work is to be done to take a charge
de
Oneis electric
1S
from one point to another point B, Fig. 1.37, From
the nature of the electric field it follows that this
work does not depend upon the path chosen, but it
depends upon the difference in potentials of the
two points.
We know that work = force * displacement in
its direction or equivalently work isthe line integral
of the force. Obviously, electric field and potential
are closely related.
If potentials at two points 4 and B are 1, and
Vp, then the work necessary to take a unit charge
from A to Bis Vg — ¥. From this work we may
know the potential difference between any two
points B and 4, but we cannot know the absolute
value of the potential at B, because ¥, is not zero.
The electric field due to any distribution charge
over a finite region, we know, is zero at infinity:
therefore electric potential is also zero at infinity.
So we can define electric potential ata point in an
electric field as follows.
Definition : Electric potential at a point in an
electric field is the total work required to be done
to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to
point in question.
It follows from the definition that if electric
potential at a point is Vand charge Q is brought to
the point from infinity, work to be done is
W=VxO (1.35)
Here we should note instead of taking potential
at infinity to be zero, we could take any other body,
for example the earth, as standard, whose potential
is taken to be zero.
4.8.1 Electric potential due to a point charge
Now let us calculate the value of potential due
to a point charge from the above definition,
Suppose there is positive point charge gat ori
O. Electric field produced by q at any point PCF) is
‘This is the force on a unit positive charge placed
at that point. Hence the work done by an external
gent to take a unit positive charge from 4 to B,
ig. 1.38 is From the fig
# dl = dlcos(x —8) = —dl-cos® =
ape yt 4
We Trapt = Tae
-f1-4]
= Freq | 75 vl
Notice, the external agent exerts force exactly
equal to force of that field. Hence the charge does
not gain any kinetic energy. Also notice that the
work is positive as it should be according to our
convention: work done by extemal agent is positive,
work done by field is negative.
But the most interesting fact we find from eqn,
1.36 is that the work depends only on the initial
and final positions (7-y,r) of the unit charge and
does not depend on ihe detail nature of the path
followed by it. This has been emphasized above
from more general properties of the electric field
‘Now we imagine that the initial point 4 is moving
away towards infinity.
From the above definition, as 4 ><0, W—>Vp.
+. We get potential at B is
(1.36)
= Z(t
Freq Lr
Using this result in eqn. 1.36, we find that work
done to take a unit charge from A to B is
W=Vq—V, = potential difference between B
and 4.
Unit of W, Vand O are respectively joule, volt
and coulomb . Therefore the work to be done to
move IC charge through a potential difference of
1Vis U.
(1.37)
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYsi¢
Dimensions of potential
[ML?T3A7}]
4.8.2 Work done by whom ?
Work can be done either by an external agen,
or by the field and these two works are givey
positive and negative sign respectively.
If the source charge q is positive, Fig.1.3y
then work is done by an external agent to bring
Fig. 1.39
the unit positive charge to the field point P(F)
against repulsion. Therefore potential due to q
positive charge is positive.
If the source charge is negative, then workis
done by the field itself to bring the unit positive
charge to the field point P(#)by its own attraction,
Therefore potential due to a negative charge
is negative.
When external agent does the work, we can
suppose that the corresponding energy is stored
up as electric potential energy in the unit positive
charge. If work is done by the field, the
corresponding energy is gained by the unit positive
charge and its kinetic energy increases by that
amount.
Now let us see the relation between potential
difference and the direction of electric field.
In Fig 1.40, potentials due to source charge +
at A and B are j
Vee aa 1
4 aneg rg and YB = * Tree
+g-—______8 F 4
"ty ta why
higher lower
DE ¢ 18
electric potential at Pata distance r from the centre
O of the sphere
We consider a thin elementary ring XY belonging
to the spherical shell, which subtends angle 40 at
O. Thickness of the ring is ad®, radius is a sin 0.
“. Area of the ring = 2za sin Oad9.
Let charge per unit area on the spherical
surface be o.
‘Total charge in the ring is dq =[Link] Oad®c.
Each point on the ring is ata distance x from P.
By superposition principle, electric potential at P
due to the ring is,
a= 4
ney x
In the triangle OXP, x? = a? +r
2. 2x de == 2ar sin © d0
1
aney
2nasin@ad0o
x
+ 2ar cos 6.
‘Ine
Now we suppose that the point P is outside
the sphere, a a), the
al shell is
4npR dR
ci
y Jane {r2
114 ggiy - 1 2
Greg 73? ~ ney r
Again we find the same result. The charge of
the whole sphere can be supposed to be
concentrated at its centre, we get the same field.
Now suppose the point P is inside the sphere
(
We know that at any point within a conductor,
electric field E is zero
Hence £= 0 at each point on the Gaussian
surface 5.
+. LHS = 0. -.Charge within S, q = 0
The surface 5 can be expanded slowly until it
is just below almost coinciding with the bounding
surface of the conductor. We shall arrive at the
same conclusion. Therefore no excess charge can
reside within conductor. Hence all the excess
charge must flow to surface and reside right at
the outer surface of the conductor,
This remarkable property of the conductor is a
Conclusion from Gauss’ theorem and the theorem
itself is a consequence of inverse square nature of
Coulomb's law,
(ii) Surface of charged conductor is
equipotential
If electric potentials at different points on the
Surface of a charged conductor are not equal, then
Positive charges from a region of higher potential
‘A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSicg
would flow to regions of lower potential unt,
rental all points are equal. In other words the
charges on outer surface of a conductor are sq
distributed over the surface that the surface wily
1¢ an equipotential surface.
We nave een above tat electric eld o fl
lines are perpendicular to an equipotential surface,
Therefore field lines emerge normally from q
positively charged conducting surface or
terminate normally at a negatively charged
conducting surface.
(iv) Electric potential at all points withing
charged conductor is constant.
We have seen above that electric field at all
points within a charged conductor is zero. Potential
is negative space rate of change of potential,
Therefore potential is constant throughout the
volume inside a charged conductor.
E(F)=0, EF) vey
+V@) = constant at all points within a
conductor.
The space with a conductor may be called
equipotential volume.
Also we note that this potential should be the
same at that at the surface of the conductor,
because otherwise charges would flow.
(v) Electric field near a charged conductor:
In Fig.1.49, we see a
Bs,
sf)
We
charged conductor. We like to
find the electric field E at the
surface of the conductor,
where surface density of
Lo
charge is o. a
We know that the electric | £=0
field # is perpendicular to the
surface of a charged
ae ¢ Nconductor
conductor. To apply Gauss Fig. 1.49
Jaw we take a cylinder as the
Gaussian surface S, whose base area Aa is very
small and whose curved side is perpendicular to
the plane of the conductor. Half of the cylinder
extends within the conductor. Surface S consists
of three parts 5, S, and S.
The electric flux through $ is
O, =f Baa
JE-da,+ [B-aa,
= [Baa +
Ss S
| EN 0. as field is normal
oF and so parallel to
the field at the surface of the
pose that area Aa to be very
eld E and charge density
rake # as the unit vector normal to the
@ conductor, we get the electric field
ce of the conductor given by
so(1.40)
that electric field is discontinuous at
boundary of the conductor; the field is
= ci |e, outside the conductorand E =0 inside.
©. Discontinuity is az =
0
we compare the field of eqn. 1.40 with that
2, we find that the field is half there.
ne reason is simple. In the case of a charged
Jneet electric flux emerges from both sides equally,
cvhile in the case of a conductor flux emerges from
one side only, the field on the other side being zero.
(vii) Electric pressure on a charged
conductor, energy density of electric field:
‘When a conductor is charged, the whole charge
is distributed over the surface and these charges
repel each other. Therefore it is not difficult to
infer that all portions of the surface of the conductor
will feel an outward force. We are to find the
outward pressure acting on the surface of the
charged conductor.
We imagine that the surface of the charged
conductor is made up of two parts: a small surface
S, and the rest of the surface Sj, Fig.1.50. We
consider two points A and B, A is just outside 5,
‘and B is just on other side of S inside the conductor.
The electric fields at A and B due to charges in
5, should be equal but in opposite directions. If
the fields are E,and Ey. Then E,=~Ey-
21
The electric fields at land B due to the charges.
in other surface S, must be equal and in the same
© chatged
conductor
Fig. 1.50
direction, because the two points are very near to
each other, just on the two sides of S,. Let this
field be £’. The point B is inside the conductor.
Therefore net field at B must be zero.
E'+,=0-. =~ Ey and B'= E,.
Hence the net field at 4 due to the whole
surface S,and S, is +E,
From Gauss’ theorem we know this net field
where o is the charge per unit area in the
surface S,.
55
2ey”
Thus we can say that due to charges in the
surface S, the field acting on each point of the
surface S, is E". If area of the surface S; is Aa,
charge on the surface S, is o-Aa.
. Outward force acting on the surface S,
exerted by the rest of the surface of the conductor
is
85
oAS5 8,
Outward pressure on the surface of a charged
conductor is
AF =0-As-E
(1.4la)
Pe Deg”
0
Interms of the field & near the surface of the
conductor, the above pressure can be written as
Fey BE? = ZOE on ee( AID) 22
Applications :
1. Energy density of electric field +
From this expression of pressure we can
calculate energy per unit volume of the electric
field. Suppose unit area of the conductor is pressed
t this pressure and moved by a small
distance dx, The work done is
again
prt Legk ds
Asa result the volume of the field increases by
dy * 1 = dv and the above work is stored up as
clectric energy in this extra volume ereated in the
field. Therefore energy contained per unit volume
is given by
eg E? (1.42)
2. Electrified soap bubble :
We know that soap bubble tends to shrink
because of surface tension of the soap solution
Therefore the pressure of the air inside a soap
bubble must always be somewhat bigger than the
pressure outside. The excess pressure inside the
soap bubble over the outside pressure is, we know,
given by
4
4p =— Nim?,
where surface tension of soap solution is TN/m
and r is the radius of the sphere.
Excess pressure inside an wicharged soap
47
bubble is P= ——-
Ifthe soap bubble is given some electric charge
Q, it will spread over its surface, as soap solution
is conducting. As a result there would be an
outward pressure due to electric repulsion. The
bubble will expand a little.
Suppose the charge per unit area is o. Then
excess outward pressure produced as a result of
electrification is
is the
new radius of the bubble.
__ Owing to expansion of the bubble, the pressure
inside will decrease and at equilibrium the total
excess pressure is
‘A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSics
Substituting the value of G, we get
o
e A
28x ey) ©
Ifitis found that the pressures inside and outside
the bubble are equal, we have P’ = 0.
2807 FF EgT
or, O°
Q=8nr' Regr'T
If instead of charge, we know the potential J,
we have
2Y2Tr' /e,
ner" 5 °
Let us find the increase of its radius,
During expansion mass of the air inside the
bubble does not change. Therefore, By Boyle's
law, we have
1 K
Pressure, P Frogs * Faeyr5
Similarly, work done to take the charge q, to D
in presence of gy, 4 and qs is
ids
=a¥y=
Wy = 4aV3= Fnegry ” Feo
jem of charges is the sum of
345
Treg *
+
Energy of the
these works.
Now we suppose that there are 1 such point
charges. Then from above results we can write
the electrostatic cnergy of an assembly of charges
as
a (4
(HB
Arey (ris 3 24
To write the relation in compact form we first
rearrange and write
Notice, the factor 1/2 comes because each term,
is counted twice andr) =r), etc. Now we can
write
p21
rae
Trey 2
© 2g
Qa
1 fy
Now the question is: where is this energy
stored? So far as electrostatics is concemed we
‘can suppose that itis stored up either in the system
of charges or in the electric field
We notice that the charges are repelling each
other and so these charges must be held in their
positions with great force. If the charges are
released, they move away from each other and
the above energy is converted more and more to
kinetic energies of the charged particles. After a
very long time, the whole of this energy will be
converted to their kinetic energies. Hence the
above work is reversible.
‘We see that the potential at the location of the
#-th charge due to all other charges is given by
Ley
ane 9 ¢ my OF)
FFA) oennsn( 143)
Therefore electrostatic energy of the assembly
of charges is
=a (1.44)
a
We have got the energy in terms of the
potentials at the locations of the different charges.
‘The charges may not be point charges. If there
is a continuous distribution of charges the above
discrete sum are to be replaced by integration.
For example, ifthe charges are distributed over
a volume and charge per unit volume is p,
integration should be done over the volume v
occupied by the charges,
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSi¢g
“The volume of integration vin the above integra,
should have the minimum value to include aj
charges present, but we can take the volume of
integration to any large value we like, because iq
that extra space p = 0 and contribution to the
integral from that space is zero,
Similarly if the charges are distributed overa
surface and charge per unit area is o, the sum
would be a surface integral :
four was
(1.46)
If charges are distributed over a line and charge
per unit length is, the sum would bea line integral:
U,
aa parear we (1.47)
Now we like to express the energy in terms of
electric field E alone. To do this we require a
Jong chain of reasoning. We start with the eqn. 1.45.
(1.48)
We know the vector identity :
V(EV)=(0- EV + E87).
Substituting for (7. By , we get
(1.488)
SIF a)-B-Gryav
By divergence theorem we can convert the first
volume integral into a surface integral :
J¥-Gr)dv=(f\VE-4a., wnere the surface S
y 5
encloses the volume v and we substitute Gy =
in the second volume integral. We get from
eqn. 1.48(a)
rea. fe
We have seen above that the volume of |
integration v can be made as large as we like |
without changing the value of U, . Let us see the
effect of enlarging the volume on the two integrals
inthe right hand side of the equation. As volume
increases the value of the volume integral can only
(1.48b) ELECTROSTATICS
ce as the integrand is £2
the
a s positive.
value of the surface integral must
decrease in order to keep the value of U
unchanged, .
Now let us sce how surface integral decreases
with increase of volume, To find the surface
we have to take the values of the fields 7
on the surface S. As the surface S
es, bork V and & decrease.
We know Vxcd
Ex
Boch
Vea.
The surface area is proportional to 72,
Therefore surface integral
If we increase v to include all space, we have
qe di +0, asr 0,
5
Therefore if we increase v to include all space,
the surface integral vanishes and we are left with
the volume integral. Therefore we can write from
eqn. 1.48b
J Bea (1.49)
whole space
Thus we are able to arrive at very remarkable
property of electric field. We see that the energy
of the electric field can be known from the
knowledge of the electric field. The electric
charges produce the electric field, but the energy
contained in the field can be known by the electric
field alone; we need not bother with the detail
distribution of the charges producing the field.
In above volume integral of eqn. 1.49, the
regions where & #0 contribute to the integral and
the regions where £ =0 have zero contribution.
Hence we can interpret the eqn. 1.49 as
follows: energy is continuously distributed
throughout the space and we can write the energy
per unit volume or energy density of the electric
field as follows.
Energy density, “e ek. (1.50)
Total energy, Up= fo tev (1-51)
whol space
25
This is a very satisfactory result; we have to
know only the electric field at a location and we
know the energy perunit volume there, This relation
is true even when the field varies with time.
1.114 Electric Dipole
Electric dipole consists of two equal and
opposite charges +q separated by a small distance
21. The system as a whole is electrically neutral.
The line joining the two charges is called the axis
of the dipole. In spite of mutual attraction, the two
opposite charges are maintained at a short a
distance apart by some other forces present.
Electric dipoles are, in fact, abundant in nature.
‘We shall see below that many atoms and molecules
are themselves dipoles and all others become
dipoles under the influence of electric field. Hence
the distances 2/ between the two opposite charges
are almost always very small.
Also we should note that all the basic properties
of electric dipoles that we shall discuss below are
true for magnetic dipoles.
We first like to calculate the potential and
electric field in the space surrounding a dipole.
4.14.1 Electric potential and field due to a
dipole
Potential due toa dipole: In Fig. 1.53, we see a
dipole and we like to calculate the potential at the
point P(r, 6). We suppose that r is very large
compared to 2/.
Potential at P due to +g and —q are
1 q q
v(r,8) aol tee ates)
_ 4 __2lcos8
~ Gy 7? —P cos? 0
SincerO 7, we can neglect /? cos? @ in
comparison to 7? and we put p = q°2l.
2lcos)__1
Pr Ane OP
Vr) = a
We notice that :
(i) The potential due to the dipole depends on
the product q and 2/ and not on their individual
values. That means that the behaviour of a dipole
is characterised by this product p; itis called the
moment of the dipole or dipole moment.
. Moment of a dipole, p = q * 2. be
26
Here we should note that in most situations we
Suppose that the distance 21 0 and the
Magnitude of the charges -4q increase so that the
Product remains finite. Such a dipole is often
relerred (0 as point dipole or ideal dipole.
Fig. 1.53
For such a dipole placed in an electric field, we
can suppose that the same field acts on both the
two charges
Unit of dipole moment is C-m.
We shall see below how all behaviours of a
dipole are decided by its dipole moment,
(ii) The potential V depends not only on distance
from the centre O of the dipole but also on the
polar angle (0).
The potential changes from
(i) the maximum value, V(r, 0) =
the axis of the dipole,
(ii) the minimum value, V(r, 1/2) = 0 at right
angle to the axis.
We have seen that the potential due to a point
charge (monopole) depends only on r and so the
field is central and so charge is regarded as scalar,
But here we find that potential due to a dipole
depends on r and 0. Therefore the field due to
dipole is not central as we shall see below. Hence
the dipole moment should be regarded as a
vector.
The direction of dipole moment is taken from
the negative charge to the positive charge of the
dipole, as indicated in the figure. If there is more
than one dipole at some region, the vector sum of
individual dipoles is to be found to get the resultant
field,
‘A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSics
The potential at the point (r, 8) can be writen
as
ve
(1.53)
Atty
The electric field is the negative space rate of
change (gradient) of potential. Hence we can fing
easily the electric field due to the dipole in directions
of increasing r and increasing 0, Fig. 1.53 and
Fig. 1.54.
Frey
8
wy
Na
Fig, 2.54 %,
In the radial direction (along #) the electric
2pcosd
fieldis g, = 9 :
or ~ Anegr3
In the transverse direction (along 6) the
Lav __psind
electric field is Ey =
par
v0 dnegr?
+. Electtic field due to a dipole at is given by
E(F)=B,F+ Bd i
1 P+sind6
= Frag 200807 +sin08) son 1548)
‘The eqn. 1.54a can be written ina more general
form as follows.
Fay LB Pe0s 07 — pcos 0# + psin 90]
0
=
* Gneq 73
[3(pcos6)# -(pcos6F — psin06)]
It is obvious from the figure that peos0 =
and (pcos0?— psin06) = p
£G)=z4-406-AF-Al
1b)
ae . (1.54) ELECTROSTATICS
The magnitude of the field is
We see that the electric field due to electric
dipole decreases faster than that due to point
charge. The reason is that the field of the positive
charge is partly cancelled by that of the negative
charge. Also we notice that the field due toa dipole
is never zero, other that for r > =,
Electric field makes angle © with the direction
# given by
teng=ftend
Any position on the 7
axis of the dipole (0 = 0) <—+,
is called the end-on
position and any po:
"on the perpendicular
bisector (8 = 1/2) is
called the broad-on
position. Fig. 155.
Field due to a dipole atthe end-on position,
Fig, 1.55
. 2 .
s ae a 1.53a)
Field due to a dipole at the broad-on position,
é, 12 1.556)
4ne
1 Ey = 2Ey (1.56)
1.11.2 Dipole in a uniform electric field
We like to see what happens when a dipole of
| moment (p = 4°-2/) is placed in a uniform electric
‘field, £, making an angle ®
| with the field, Fig.1.56. The
positive charge experi-
ences a force gE in the
direction of the field and
|the negative charge
| experiences an equal force
in the opposite direction.
Hence the dipole experi-
[ences no net force ; only @
|couple acts on it. This
couple tend to rotate the dipole towards the
Fig. 1.56
Girection of the field. The mot
the torque acting on
= gE * sin
Writing in vector for
Beeb
When the dipole moment is parallel to the
field £.6=0. z= 0 Hence the dipole, driven by
this couple. oscillates about the direction of the
field for some time and ultimately comes to rest
with p parallel to E. This is the equilibrium
position of the dipole. As this torque tends to take
the dipole back to its equilibrium position itis called
the restoring torque.
From the above egn. 1.57a, we find
When £=1,8 . Thus we find that
dipole moment of 2 dipole is numerically equal to
the restoring torgue that acts on the dipole when
it is held at right angle to a unit field.
4.44.3 Dipole in a non-uniform field
Ina non-uniform field the dipole experiences a
restoring torque and a net force.
Letus see how. First we suppose that the dipole
has a very small length 5/as it has in most situations.
Now suppose the electric field at the location of
charge -q is E and that at the location of +g is
E
+q is q( ESE). The two equal and opposite
. Then force on —q is -qE and that on
forces (-g E , gE) form a couple and there is a
net force gE on the dipole. Therefore it aligns
itselfalong the field E and has translational motion
due to the net force.
We consider first a very simple situation. We
suppose that there is a non-uniform electric field
F(x) along X-axis, Field at location of -q is E.
Therefore the field at the location of +q is E +
