Abstract Algebra - Fall 2024

Worksheet 10

Factor (Quotient) groups

Operation for cosets

We know that if H ≤ G then the left cosets of H will form a partition of G. We want to define
an operation on the set of all left cosets that agrees well with the operation on the group, i.e.
for a, b ∈ G we have
(aH)(bH) = (ab)H.
Question 1. Suppose a′ ∈ aH and b′ ∈ bH. What do we need to ensure a′ b′ ∈ (ab)H?

To ensure a′ b′ = (ab)H. Let a′ = ah1 and b′ = ah2 where h1 , h2 ∈ H. To ensure the property,
we need there exists h ∈ H such that ah1 bh2 = (ab)h. Then, h1 bh2 = bh or h1 b = b(hh2 )

That means b−1 h1 b ∈ H for any h1 ∈ H or b−1 Hb ⊆ H.

Definition 1. H is a normal subgroup of G and denoted H ⊴ G if H ≤ G and gH = Hg
for all g ∈ G (i.e. the left cosets are the same as the right cosets).
Question 2. Show that H ⊴ G if and only if gHg −1 = H for all g ∈ G.

(⇒ )

Suppose H ⊴ G, then gH = Hg. For each h ∈ H, there exists h′ ∈ H such that ghg −1 = h′ .
Therefore, gH ⊆ Hg. Similarly, Hg ⊆ gH. To conclude, gH = Hg.

(⇐)

Suppose gHg −1 = H. For each h ∈ H, we have ghg −1 ∈ H, by the assumption that conjugation
by g leaves H invariant. This implies that the set gHg −1 is contained in H.

Now consider the reverse inclusion. Let h′ ∈ H. Since gHg −1 = H, there exists some h ∈ H
such that ghg −1 = h′ . Hence, H ⊆ gHg −1 .

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Combining both inclusions, gHg −1 = H. By definition, this means H is a normal subgroup of
G, denoted H ⊴ G.

Thus, gHg −1 = H ⇔ H ⊴ G.

Question 3. Show that if H is the kernel of a group homomorphism ϕ : G → G′ then H ⊴ G.

Q3: Show that H is the kernel of a group homomorphism.

Let ϕ : G → G′ be a group homomorphism, and suppose H ≤ G.

(1) Suppose H is the kernel of ϕ: ϕ(h1 ) = eG′ , ∀h1 ∈ H.

For each h1 , h2 ∈ H:
ϕ(h1 )ϕ(h2 )−1 = eG′

⇔ ϕ(h1 )ϕ(h−1
2 ) = eG′
⇔ ϕ(h1 h−1
2 ) = eG′

Since ker(ϕ) = H, it follows that h1 h−1

2 ∈ H, and thus H ≤ G.

(2) For each h1 ∈ H, we have:

ϕ(gh1 ) = ϕ(g) · eG′ = ϕ(g) · ϕ(h2 ), ∀h2 ∈ H.

= ϕ(gh2 )
⇒ ϕ(gh1 )ϕ(g −1 ) = eG′
⇔ ϕ(gh1 g −1 ) = eG′
⇒ gHg −1 ≤ ker(ϕ) = H.

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(3) Therefore:
∀h ∈ H, ϕ(h) = eG′ ⇒ ϕ(h)ϕ(g) = ϕ(g).
ϕ(h) · ϕ(g) = ϕ(g)ϕ(h2 ), ∀h2 ∈ H.
⇔ ϕ(h) = ϕ(g)ϕ(h2 )ϕ(g −1 ), ∀h2 ∈ H.
⇔ ϕ(h) = ϕ(gh2 g −1 ), ∀h2 ∈ H.
⇔ ker(ϕ) ≤ gHg −1 .

Therefore, H ⊴ G (i.e., H is a normal subgroup of G)

Question 4. Use question 3 to prove that the alternative group An is a normal subgroup of
Sn .

Question: Use question 3 to prove that the alternating group An is a normal subgroup of the
symmetric group Sn .

Solution:

Consider the homomorphism:

sgn
ϕ : Sn −−→ {−1, 1},
where ϕ maps each permutation σ ∈ Sn to its sign: sgn(σ) = 1 if σ is even, and sgn(σ) = −1
if σ is odd.

The alternating group An is the set of all even permutations in Sn , and thus:

An = ker(ϕ).

By the properties of kernels of homomorphisms, the kernel of a group homomorphism is always

a normal subgroup of the domain. Therefore:

An ⊴ Sn .

Conclusion: Using question 3, we have shown that the alternating group An is a normal
subgroup of the symmetric group Sn .

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Definition 2. Given H ≤ G. We define the left coset multiplication as follows: for a, b ∈ G

(aH)(bH) = (ab)H.

Question 5. Show that the left coset multiplication is well defined if and only if H ⊴ G.

Question 5: Prove that left coset multiplication is well-defined if and only if H ≤ G, given
H ≤ G.

(⇒) Suppose left coset multiplication is well-defined. For any a, b ∈ G and h1 , h2 ∈ H, there
exists h3 ∈ H such that:
(ah1 )(bh2 ) = (ab)h3 .

⇔ (ah1 )(bh2 h−1

3 ) = ab,
−1
⇔ h1 bh2 h3 = b, ∀b ∈ G.

Let h2 h−1 −1
3 = h4 . Then:
b−1 = h1 b = h4 ⇒ H ⊴ G.

(⇐) Suppose H ⊴ G. We need to prove that left coset multiplication is well-defined.

Let a′ H = aH and b′ H = bH, where a′ ̸= a and b′ ̸= b. We aim to prove:

(aH)(bH) = (a′ H)(b′ H),

or equivalently:
(ab)H = (a′ b′ )H.

From a′ H = aH and b′ H = bH, we know:

a′ = ah1 and b′ = bh2 , for some h1 , h2 ∈ H.

Then:
(a′ b′ )H = (ah1 )(bh2 )H
= (ab)(h1 h2 )H.

Since H ⊴ G, there exists h3 ∈ H such that:

(h1 b) = h3 b and (bh2 ) = bh3 .

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Thus:
(a′ b′ )H = (ab)(h1 h2 )H = (ab)H.

Similarly, we can prove that:

(aH)(bH) = (a′ b′ )H.

Therefore, ∀h2 ∈ H, there exists h3 ∈ H such that:

(a′ b′ )h2 = (ab)h3 .

From this, we conclude:

(a′ b′ )H ⊆ (ab)H, and similarly, (ab)H ⊆ (a′ b′ )H.

Thus, (ab)H = (a′ b′ )H, proving that left coset multiplication is well-defined.

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Question 6. Let H ⊴ G and denote G/H to be the collection of all cosets of H. Prove that
G/H is a group under the coset multiplication.

Consider two cosets g1 H and g2 H, where g1 , g2 ∈ G.

(1) We have:
(g1 H)(g2 H) = (g1 g2 )H.

Since g1 g2 ∈ G, it follows that (g1 g2 )H ∈ G/H.

(2) For all g ∈ G, we observe that:

(gH)(eH) = gH,

where e is the identity element of G. This shows that eH is the identity element of G/H.

(3) For all g ∈ G, we have:

(gH)(g −1 H) = (gg −1 )H = eH.

This implies that g −1 H is the inverse of gH.

Thus, G/H satisfies the group axioms: closure, associativity, identity, and inverses.

Therefore, G/H is a group under coset multiplication.

Note: The claim holds true because coset multiplication is well-defined, as H ⊴ G. Hence,
G/H forms a group under coset multiplication.

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Definition 3. Let H ⊴ G. The group G/H is called the factor group (or (quotient group)
of G by H.
Question 7. Find Z/nZ for an integer n. Then show that Z/nZ ∼
= Zn .

(1) Define the set Z/nZ as:

Z/nZ = {nZ, nZ + 1, nZ + 2, . . . , nZ + (n − 1)}.

Here, each coset nZ + k is defined as:

nZ + k = {nx + k | x ∈ Z},

where k ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1}.

(2) Define addition and multiplication in Z/nZ as follows:

(a + nZ) + (b + nZ) = (a + b) + nZ,

(a + nZ) · (b + nZ) = (a · b) + nZ.

The identity element in Z/nZ is 0 + nZ, and the inverse of any a + nZ is −a + nZ.

(3) Define a homomorphism f : Z → Z/nZ by:

f (x) = x + nZ.

Let x1 , x2 ∈ Z. Then:

f (x1 + x2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + nZ = (x1 + nZ) + (x2 + nZ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ).

Thus, f is a homomorphism.

(4) Prove that f is surjective: For any a + nZ ∈ Z/nZ, there exists a ∈ Z such that
f (a) = a + nZ.

(5) Prove that f is injective: ker(f ) = nZ, since:

f (x) = nZ ⇔ x ∈ nZ.

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Question 8. Let H ⊴ G. Show that γ : G → G/H given by γ(x) = xH is a group homomor-
phism with kernel H.

Solution:

Define the map:

γ : G → G/H,
where γ(x) = xH.

To show that γ is a homomorphism:

γ(x) · γ(y) = (xH) · (yH) = (xy)H = γ(xy).

Thus, γ preserves the group operation, proving it is a group homomorphism.

Kernel of γ:

The kernel of γ is:

ker(γ) = {x ∈ G | γ(x) = H}.

This implies:
γ(x) = H ⇐⇒ xH = H ⇐⇒ x ∈ H.

Thus, ker(γ) = H.

Conclusion: The map γ : G → G/H is a group homomorphism with ker(γ) = H.

Question 9. Let ϕ : G → G′ be a group homomorphism with kernel H. Show that G/H is

isomorphic to ϕ(G).

Consider the mapping µ(gH) = ϕ(g).

First, prove that it is well-defined. Suppose there are two elements gH = g ′ H where g, g ′ ∈ G.

We have gH = g ′ H are in the same coset of the kernel H. Through a homomorphism ϕ with
kernel H, ϕ(g) = ϕ(g ′ ) (Theorem 10.7, we can prove directly). So µ is well-defined.

Second, prove that it is one-to-one.

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Suppose there exists two element ϕ(g) = ϕ(g ′ ), therefore, ϕ(g(g ′ )−1 )) = eG′ . Therefore
g(g ′ )−1 ∈ H or g ∈ Hg ′ .

For all h ∈ H, hg ∈ Hg ′ . So Hg ⊆ Hg ′ . For all h ∈ H, hg ′ ∈ Hg. So Hg ′ ⊆ Hg.

So gH = g ′ H since H is normal subgroup of G. Now µ is one to one.

Third, based on the formation of ϕ. For each ϕ(g), there always exists a g ∈ G to define the
set gH. So µ is surjection.

To conclude, µ is isomorphism from G/H to ϕ(G).

Practice: Section 12: 24, 31, 33-35, 36

24. Let K be the subgroup of continuous functions in F. Can you find an element of F/K
having order 2? Why or why not?

Let hK be an element of F/K, where h ∈ G. If h ∈ K, hK = K or the order of h is 1.

Suppose there exists an hK where order is 2 and h ∈/ K. Or h2 K = K. In additive function,

it means there exists for all k1 ∈ K, h + h + k1 ∈ K. We have 2h is non-continuous but k1 is
continous. So 2h + k1 is not continous, which ∈/ K.

So there does not exist such an element.

25. Let H and K be normal subgroups of a group G. Give an example showing that we may
have H K while G/H is not isomorphic to G/K.

Consider subgroup H = {3k, k ∈ Z} and H = {6k, k ∈ Z} of Z. We have HK but G/H is not

isomorphic to G/K

31.

Let F be the set of all functions mapping the real numbers to the real numbers, and let c ∈ R.
The sum of two functions f + g is the function defined by

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x).

Function addition makes F a group. Let ϕc : F → R be defined by ϕc (f ) = f (c).

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1. Show that ϕc is a group homomorphism.

To show that ϕc is a group homomorphism, we must verify that

ϕc (f + g) = ϕc (f ) + ϕc (g), ∀f, g ∈ F.

By definition of ϕc ,
ϕc (f + g) = (f + g)(c) = f (c) + g(c).
On the other hand,
ϕc (f ) + ϕc (g) = f (c) + g(c).
Since ϕc (f + g) = ϕc (f ) + ϕc (g), ϕc is a group homomorphism.
2. Find ker(ϕc ).

The kernel of ϕc is defined as

ker(ϕc ) = {f ∈ F | ϕc (f ) = 0}.

Substituting ϕc (f ) = f (c), we have

ker(ϕc ) = {f ∈ F | f (c) = 0}.

3. Identify the coset of ker(ϕc ) that contains the constant function f (x) = 1.

The coset of ker(ϕc ) containing the function f (x) = 1 is given by

A = {g ∈ F | g(c) = 1}.

4. Find a well-known group that is isomorphic with F/ ker(ϕc ). Use the Funda-
mental Homomorphism Theorem to prove your answer.

From the Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem, the quotient group F/ ker(ϕc ) is iso-
morphic to the image of ϕc , denoted by Im(ϕc ).
To determine Im(ϕc ), observe that ϕc (f ) = f (c) maps each function f ∈ F to a real
number. For any y ∈ R, we can construct a constant function f (x) = y such that
ϕc (f ) = y. Thus, ϕc is surjective, and

Im(ϕc ) = R.

To construct the isomorphism explicitly, define µ : F/ ker(ϕc ) → R by

µ(N g) = ϕc (g),

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 where N g denotes the coset of ker(ϕc ) containing g. Since ϕc is a homomorphism with
kernel ker(ϕc ) and is surjective, µ is well-defined and preserves group structure. Thus, µ
is an isomorphism with R, and
F/ ker(ϕc ) ∼
= R.

Exercise 33: Intersection of Normal Subgroups

We want to prove that the intersection of normal subgroups of a group G is itself a normal
subgroup of G.

Let {Hi }i∈I be a collection of normal subgroups of G. Define their intersection as:
\
H= Hi .
i∈I

To show H is normal, we need to verify that for all g ∈ G and h ∈ H, g −1 hg ∈ H.

1. Since h ∈ H, by definition h ∈ Hi for all i ∈ I.

2. Because each Hi is normal in G, for every g ∈ G, g −1 hg ∈ Hi for all i ∈ I.
3. Therefore, g −1 hg ∈ i∈I Hi = H.
T

Thus, H is normal in G.

Exercise 34: Smallest Normal Subgroup Containing S

We want to show that for any subset S ⊆ G, there is a smallest normal subgroup of G
containing S.

1. Consider the set of all normal subgroups of G that contain S. Denote this collection as:
H = {H ≤ G | H is normal in G and S ⊆ H}.

2. The intersection of all subgroups in H, denoted by N , is:

\
N= H.
H∈H

• H contains H
Since S ⊆ H for all H ∈ H, S ⊆ N .

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 • Normality of N :
By Exercise 33, the intersection of normal subgroups is normal. Hence, N is normal in
G.

• Suppose K is another normal subgroup of G containing S. Since K ∈ H, N ⊆ K.

Therefore, N is the smallest normal subgroup of G containing S.

35.

Let G be a group, and let C be the commutator subgroup of G, defined as the smallest normal
subgroup of G containing all commutators of the form aba−1 b−1 , where a, b ∈ G. We aim to
show that the quotient group G/C is abelian.

A commutator in G is an element of the form aba−1 b−1 for a, b ∈ G. Let C be the subgroup
generated by all commutators in G, which is normal by definition.

In the quotient group G/C, the commutator aba−1 b−1 is in the normal subgroup of C, so it
becomes the identity element in G/C. That is:

aba−1 b−1 ∈ C =⇒ aba−1 b−1 C = C.

For any a, b ∈ G, their images in the quotient group, denoted by aC and bC, commute:

(aC)(bC) = abC,

and
(bC)(aC) = baC.
Since aba−1 b−1 C = C for ∀a, b in G, we can then prove that abC = baC. Therefore, aC and
bC commute, and G/C is abelian.

The quotient group G/C is abelian.

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