DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 325 324 SE 051 659

TITLE Science Framework for California Public Schools.

Kindergarten through Grade Twelve.
INSTITUTION California State Dept. of Education, Sacramento.
REPORT NO ISBN-0-8011-0870-5
PUB DATE 90
NOTE 238p.; For previous edition, see ED 164 358.
Developed by the Science Curriculum Framework and
Criteria Cormaittee under the direction of the
Curriculum Development and Supplemental Materials
Commission.
AVAILABLE FROM Bureau of Publications, Sales Unit, California Dept.
of Education, P.O. Box 271, Sacramento, CA 95802-0271
($6.50 plus sales tax).
PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052)
-- Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055)

EMS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.

DESCRIPTORS Educational Improvement; *Educational Objectives;
*Elementary School Science; Elementary Secondary
Education; Evolution; Professional Development;
*Science Curriculum; Science Education; *Science
Instruction; *Secondary School Science; State
Curriculum Guides
IDENTIFIERS *California

ABSTRACT
This science framework is about connections. Each
section draws on and contributes to those that precede and follow it.
The framework opens with a discussion of the nature of science and
the need for science educators to model the attributes of scientific
investigation including objectivity, testability, and consistency.
The framework also calls for a thematic presentation of science
concepts so that students appreciate the connections across science
disciplines and learn how science relates to other subjects. Three
chapters address the content of science. The repeated use of
"sidebars" helps teachers appreciate zhe connections among the
sciences. The final part of the framework demonstrates how science
education might be implemented in the 1990's. There are specific
recommendations for the teaching of science and the restructuring of
science education at the elementary, middle, and high school levels.
There are also suggestions for attracting into science classes
students who historically have been underrepresented in those
classes. "inally, the framework closes with ideas on how other facets
of the system, including staff development, assessment, and,
especially, instructional materials, need to be changed to help all
students achieve scientific literacy. Appendices include: (1)
"Significant Court Decisions Regarding Evolution/Creation Issues";
(2) "Education Code Sections of Special Relevance to Science
Educators"; and a list of 33 selected refereaces. (CW)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.
****** ******* *******1. ********** ****** **T
 1

U.S. DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATION

Once el Educational Research and Impro.amant
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

SC ENCE
CENTER (ERIC)
This document has bean reoroduced as
received Nom the gorsOn Or organization
ongnating it
0 Minoz changes have been made to emprove
rploducnon Quality
Ram101y9.401 odmonsstatod in thd clocu-

FRAMEWORK
mint do not neCessargy
Doicy
represent otnoat
OERI pc,soon or

for California Public Schools "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

MATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLY

Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

T. Smith

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

cr4

/
,

CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Bill Honig, State Superintendent of Public Instruction
Sacramento, 1990

2
SCIENCE
FRAMEWORK
for California Public Schools
Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve

Developed by the
Science Curriculum Framework
and Criteria Committee
under the direction of the
Curriculum Development and
Supplemental Materials
Commission

Adopted by the
California State Board of Education
 Publishing Information
The Science Frimework for California Public Schools was adopted by the
California State Board of Education on Novemlzr 9, 1989, and the
members of the Board at that time warn Francis Laufenberg, President;
Joseph D. Crerabino, Vice-President; Agnes Chan; Lee Manolakas; Marion
McDowell; Para: Mehta; Kenneth L Peters; David T. Romero; and Joseph
Stein. The framework was developed by the Science Curriculum Frame-
work and Criteria Ccmmittee and recommended to the State Board for
adoption by the Curriculum Development and Supplemental Materials
Commiision. (See pages ix and x for the membership of the full canmiuce
and the. names of the principal writers and others who made significant con-
uibutions to the document.)

The Science FraMework was edited for publication by Marilyn Butts and
Stephanie Prescott, working in cooperaticn with Bill Andrews and Thomas
P. Sachse of the Mathematics, Science, and Environmental Education Unit.
The document was prepared for photo-offset productien by the staff of the
Depaitment of Education's Bureau of Publications, under the direction of
Theodore R. Smith, Editor in Chief. Cheryl Shawver McDonald designed
and prepared the layout for the framework, and Steve Yee prepared the
cover, using a photo provided by the Naticnal Aeroniud= and Space
Administraticn (NASA). The typesetting was done by Merribeth Carlson,
Jeanneue Huff, and Carey Johnson. The framework wxt published by the
California Department of Education, 721 Capitol Mall. Sacramento,
California (mailing address: P.O. Box 944272; Sacramento, CA 94244-
2720). It was printed by the Office of State Printing snit distributed under
the provisions of Goyernmem Code Section 11096 Ind the Library
Distributicn Act, which means that it is available through the public
libraries in California.

et 1990 California Department of Education

Ordering Information
Copies of the Science Framework are available for 36.50 per copy, plus
sales tax for California residents, from the Bureau of Publications, Sales
Unit, California Department of Education, P.O. Box 271, Sacramento, CA
95802-0271 (pi: AC; 916-445-1260). A partial list. of other publications that
are available from the Department of Education appears at the end of this
document.

Cover Photo
The photo used for the cover was provided by courtesy of NASA. It was
photographed through the aft flight deck of is space shuttle and shows
astronauts David C., Leestma (left) and Kathryn D. Sullivan prepare for
extravehicular activity (EVA), the first suen feat for an American woman.

ISBN 0-8011-0870-5
 /7!" ,.'-'!!"^".7"m"'"'",'"T"17""...rry!".-"11.91117,

Contents

Page Page

State Board's Message D. Energy: Sources and Transformations 61

Foreword vii E. Energy: Heat 64
Preface viii F. Energy: Electricity and Magnefism 67
Acknowledgments ix G Energy: Light 72
State Board of Education Policy on the Teaching H. Energy: Sound 75
of Natural Sciences xi
Chapter 4. Earth Sciences 79
Executive Summary 1

Part J. What Is Science9 1 A. Astronomy 79

Part II. The Content of Science 2 B Geology and Natural Resources 90
Part III. Achieving the Desired Science C. Oceanography 98
Curriculum 3 D. Meteorology 106
Introduction 7 116
Chapter 5. Life Sciences
Part I. What Is Science? 11 A. Living Things 116
Chapter 1. The Nature of Science 12 B. Cells, Genetics, and Evolution 126
C. Ecosystems 136
A. Introduction 12
B. The Joy of Science 13
Part III. Achieving the Desired
C. Teaching What Science Is 14
Science Curriculum 143
D. Scientific Practice and Ethics 18
E. Social Issues in Science 19 Chapter 6. Science Processes and the Teaching
of Science 144
Chapter 2. The Major Themes of Science 26
A. Scientific Thinking Processes 144
A. Introduction 26
B. Why Themes Are Essential 27 B. The Processes in the Context of Child
Development 152
C. Some Major Themes of Science 28
D. Incorporating Themes 33 C. Developing Science Concepts 155
D. The Role of Direct Experience in Science
Part II. The Content of f'..cience 37 Learning 156
38 E. Values and Ethics 157
Overview
F. Science, Technology, and Society 158
Chapter 3. Physical Sciences 41 G. Elementary School Science 160
A. Matter 41 H. Middle School Science 161
B. Reactions and Interactions 48 I. High School Science 163
C. Force and Motion 53 J. Teaching All Students 167

5
 Page
Page

Chapter 7. Implementing a Strong Science D, Pedagogy 207

Program 172 E. Local Considerations 211
A. Introduction 172 F. Conclusion: Putting Criteria into Practice 211
B. Implementation Planning 173
C. Staff Development 175 Appendix A
D. Assessment 176 Significant Court Decisions Regarding
E. Resources 178 Evolution/Creation Issues 214
F. An Implementation Model 180
G. Relationship with Other Frameworks Appendix B
195
Chapter 8. Instructional M nerials Criteria Education Code Sections of Special Relevance
198 to Science Educators 215
A. Introduction 198
B. Content Appendix C
200
C. Presentation 203 Selected References 218

List of Figures
Figure Page Figure Page
I. Darwin's Conception of How Lineages of 5. Cladogram 124
Organisms Diversify and Evolve 22 6. Punctuational Evolution Contrasted with
2. Reconstruction of Continents' Relative Gradual Evolution 131
Positions 200 Million Years Ago 92 7. The Carbon Cycle in the Ecosystem 138
3. Geologists' Use of Rock Strata to 8. The Implementation Process 174
Reconstruct Ancient Environments 100
4. Amino Acid Sequences in the Cytochrome
C Molecules of 14 Organisms 117

List of Tables
Table Page Table Page
1. Matching Science Processes and Content 6. Content Matrix: Example ASubconcepts
with Children's Cognitive Development, in the Grade Four Curriculum Keyed
Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve 151 to Themes 189
2. A Matrix for Program Elements in Science 7. Content Matrix: Example BKindergarten
Education 181 Through Grade Six 191
3. A Pattern for a Content Matrix in Science 8. Content Matrix: Exampk, BPhysical
EducationKindergarten Through Science 192
Grade Six 183 9. Content Matrix: Example BSubconcepts
4. Content Matrix: Example AKindergarten in the Grade One Com Curriculum
Through Grade Six 186 Keyed to Themes 194
5. Content Matrix: Example AEarth 10. Weighting of Criteria for Adoption
Science 187 of Instructional Materials 199

lv
State Board's
Message

THE 1990 Science Framework deals with the convic- impmvements in the way science is taught and
tions of modern'science. More than any previous learned. Thematic teaching, coupled with active
framework, this document addresses the science learning, is the best way to provide students with the
enterprise and the effects of this powerful force on science education they will need as voters, consum-
our daily lives. Much has been written about the new ers, and parents in the future. As the State Board of
"State-Board of Education Policy on the Teaching of Education, we join with science teachers, science
Natural Sciences." This new policy was drafted and specialists, and the educational community in support
approved by the State Board of Education because of science education in the 1990s that provides a
our conviction that all science should be taught lifetime of learning and living in the year 2000 and
nondogmatically needed clarification and amplifica- beyond.
tion. As the State Board of Education, we needed to
go on record in support of modern science. We California State Board of Education
wanted to ensure that the ideas of science are made
clear to students and that they begin to learn and FRANCIS LAUFENBERG, PRESIDENT
appreciate the distinctions between fact and theory, JOSEPH D. CARRABINO, VICE-PRESIDENT
between belief and dogma. Students in today's AGNES CHAN
culture must routinely be reminded that skepticism
LEE MANOLAKAS
and understanding are characteristics of a scientifi-
cally literate mind. MARION MCDOWELL
There is much in this Science Framework for the PARAS MEHTA
State Board of Education to endorse. Beyond the KENNETH L. PETERS
Board's resolve to support modern science is the
DAVID T. Rommo
predisposition toward major reforms that can improve
science education significantly. We look forward to JOSEPH STEIN

7
THIS Science Framework calls for a new dynamic in Just as we want students to be active learners, we
science learning. We want our students to be actively also want an active response to the challenges posed
engaged in learning about the natural and technologi- in how science education is organized. Testing and
cal world in which they live. We want our students to accountability mechanisms must move toward more
grapple with the ideas of science as they learn the authentic assessment. Instructional materials must
inner workings of the counterintuitive universe. We exploit electronic technologie§ and refined pedagogy.
want students to enjoy learning science and to de- The high school program must be reorganized to
velop an interest in and responsibility for protecting compete with science education on an international
the environment. The expectation that students be scale. The middle school science program must
active learners is favored throughout the curriculum, reflect the unique needs of students as they move
but nowhere is it more demonstrable than in applying through adolescence. The elementary school program
the five senses to the learning of science. must be a well-organized effort in which teachers
By active learning we mean instructional activities collaborate to offer a sound science experience at
where students take charge of learning the major each grade level. Overall, we need to fashion science
ideas in science. There are many ways in which education to present students with the lively, engag-
students can be active learners. In science classes we ing stories that science reveals.
typically think of hands-on laboratory experiences, This framework is designed to help science educa-
but there are many other forms of active learning, tors at all levels understand and appreciate the needed
including active reading, listening, discoufse, and reforms before us. Accordingly, this is a complex and
using new learning technologies. The important challenging manuscript. The reader is directed to the
common denominator for active learning is that introductory materials, which emphasize the appro-
students regularly make new associations between priate sections for each audience and purpose. I look
new ideas and their previous conceptions of how the forward to a time when every student is involved in
world works. learning science every year. California is technologi-
We are learning more each year about how students cally advanced because of the ways we use science.
develop conceptual understanding in science. So far, We can perform no better service than helping all
we have learned that teachers must be cognizant of students share in the science-rich heritage that defines
the conceptions students hold about how things work. California.
And we know that students must create meaning for
themselves, which means we need to feature, rather
than sterilize, the context in which science is pre-
sented. We need to move beyond a simplistic dichot-
omy that emphasizes just content or process. Instead,
we need to merge the two in ways that students see
State Superintendent of Public Instruction
the meaning and utility of the scientific issues and
ideas.

vii

8
 THIS new Science Framework arrives at a time when framework also calls for the thematic presentation of
educators throughout California and indeed the science concepts so that students appreciate the
United States are grasping for a way to help all connections across science disciplines and learn how
students achieve scientific literacy. Two previous science relates to other subjects.
frameworks, issued in 1978 and 1984, attempted to Three chapters address the content of science. The
address the definition and development of scientific repeated use of "sidebarb" helps readers appreciate
literacy. Surely, those frameworksand the experi- the connections among the three branches of science.
ences learned in their implementationhave had an Part III of the framework demonstrates how science
'important impact on the directions of the science education might be implemented in the 1990s. There
reforms for the 1990s. There will likely be one are specific recommendations for the teaching of
additional framework before the close of the millen- science and the restructuring of science education at
nium, but for the students in the class of 2000, this the elementary, middle, and high school levels. There
framework represents the best chancc to make the are also suggestions for attracting into science classes
necessary improvements systemwide. Therefore, the students who historically have been underrepresented
ideas and strategies contained in this document are in those classes. Finally, the framework closes with
especially important for addressing the crisis in ideas on how other facets of the system, including
science education. We urge readers of this document staff development, assessment, and, especially, in-
to reflect on how the efforts made by each student, structional materials, need to be changed to help all
teacher, school, and school district can contribute to students achieve scientific literacy.
refortning science education in California and in the Ultimately, the implementation of the ideas in this
nation. framework rests with California's classroom teachers.
This framework is about connections. As James To the extent that they make these connections
Burke writes, "This interdependenc13 typical of manifest for their students, teachers will be modeling
almost every aspect of life in the modern world. We the spirit and practice of science in their classrooms.
live surrounded by objects and systems that we take As we reach for scientific literacy by the year 2000,
for granted, but which profoundly affect the way we we salute California's science teachers in their quest
behave, think, work, play, and, in general, conduct to make science basic for all students.
our lives and those of our children."1'yhe framework
embodiesihis sense of connections: Each section
draws on and contributes to those that precede and JAMES R. SMITH WALTER DENHAM
DeputySuper intendent Administrator
follow it. Curriculum and Instructional Office of Mathematics,
The framework oNns with a discussion of the Leadership Branch Science,l1 calf 11,Nutrition,
nature of science and the need for science educators and Physical Education
to model the attributes of scientific investigation, FRANCIE ALEXANDER
Associate Superhuendetu THOMAS P. SAC HSE
including objectivity, testability, and consistency. The andDirector Administrator
Curriculum, Instruction, Mat hematics,Scie nee, and
'James Burke, Connections. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1980. and Assessment Division Environmental EducationU nit

9
Acknowledgments

Contributing Writers Kathryn E. DiRanna, Executive Director, California

Science Implementation Network, University of
The following indiyiduals made significant contribu-
California, Irvine
tions in the writing of the chapters or sections
Thomas C. Edholm, Science Teacher, Fresno Unified
noted for each:
School District
Kathryn E. DiRanna, Executive nirector, California
Gary E. Estep, Science Teacher and Department Chair,
Science Implementation Network, University of
Chico Unified School District
California, Irvine (Implementation) Philip D. Gay, Science Curriculum Coordinator, San
Peter Giddings, Meteorologist, KGO-Television, San
Diego Unified School District
Francisco (Meteorology) Judith S. Gordon, Science Resource Teacher, Los
Scott Hays, Teacher and Curriculum Coordinator,
Angeles Unified School District
Coffee Creek Elementary School District (Physical
Scott Hays, Teacher and Curriculum Coordinator,
Sciences Implementation) Coffee Creek Elementary School District
Arie R. Korporaal, Science Constultant, Office of the
Helen E. Huey, Teacher, Ukiah Unified School
Los Angeles County Superintendent of Schools
District
(Science Piocesses, Teaching'All Students)
Michael E. Jay, Product Analyst, Apple Computer, Inc.
Lawrence S. Lerner, Professor of Physics and
Arie R. Korporaal, Science Consultant, Office of the
Astronomy, California State University, Long
Los Angeles County Superintendent of Schools
Beach (Heat, Electricity and Magnetism, Light,
Lawrence S. Lerner, Professor of Physics and
Sound; Earth Sciences; The Nature of Science)
Astronomy, Californizi State University, Long
Larry Lowery, Professor of Education, University of
Beach
California, Berkeley (Science Processes)
George E. Miller, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry,
George E. Miller, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry,
University of California, Irvine
University of California, Irvine (Physical Sciences,
Gary A. Nakagiri, Coordinator of Mathematics and
Secondary School Science) Science Education, Office of the San Mateo County
Kevin Padian, Associate Professor of Integrative
Superintendent of Schools
Biology and Curator, Museum of Paleontology,
Kevin Padian, Associate Professor of Integrative
University of California, Berkeley (The Nature of
Biology and Curator, Museum of Paleontology,
Science, Life Sciences, Earth Sciences.
University of California, Berkeley
Instructional Materials Criteria)
Joe Alfonso Smith, Teacher, Ramona Unified School
Wendell Potter, Associate Professor of Physics,
District
University of California, Davis (Physical Sciences)
Dorothy J. T. Terman, Science Curriculum
Coordinator, Irvine Unified School District
Science Curriculum Framework
and Criteria Committee
California Department of Education
Danielle A. Andrews, Teacher and Elementary
Science Specialist, Vacaville Unified School Bill Andrews, Consultant, Mathematics, Science, and
District Environ-rtental Education Unit

lx

10
Jerry Cummings, Consultant, Curriculum Framework California (formerly Lawrence Hall of Science,
and Textbook Developinent Unit University of California, Berkeley)
Gayland Jordan, Consultant, Mathematics, Science, Ann Chlebicki, Assistant Superintendent, Saddleback
and Environmental Education Unit Valley Unified School District
Thomas P. Sachse, Administrator, Mathematics, Charles Kocpke, Teacher, Upland Unified School
Science, and Environmental Education Unit District
Zack Taylor, Consultant, Mathematics, Science, and Jesse Perry, Program Manager for English Language
Environmental Education Unit Arts, San Diego Unified School District
Glen Thomas, Administrator, Curriculum Framework Roger Tom, Director of Curriculum and Staff
and Textbook Development Unit Development, San Francisco Unified School
District
Science Subject Matter Committee of the Tom Vasta, Teacher and Science Resource Specialist,
Curriculum Development and Supplemental Elk Grove Unified School District
'Materials Commission
Elizabeth K. Stage (Chair), Executive Director,
California Science Project, University of

x
11
On January 13 , 1989, the State Board of Education adopted the following policy statement on the teaching of natural
sciences.This statemera supersedes the Board's 1972 Antidogmatism Policy that xas distributed statewide in 1981 and
printed in the 1984 Science Framework Addendum. To this new policy statement are appended standard scientific dictionary
definitions of several scientific terms to emphasize their meanings in scientific contexts.

State Board of Education Policy on the

Teaching of Natural Sciences

The domain of the natural sciences is the natural theories am constantly subject to testing, modifi-
world. Science is limited by its toolsobservable cation, and refutation as new evidence and new
facts and testable hypotheses. ideas emerge. Because scientific theories have
predictive capabilities, they essentially guide
Discussions of any scientific fact, hypothesis, or further investigations.
theory related to the origins of the univeise, the
earth, and of life (the how) arc appropriate to the From time to time natural science teachers arc
science curriculum. Discussions of divine crea- asked to teach content that does not meet the
tion, ultimate purposes, or ultimate causes (the criteria of scientific fact, hypothesis, and theory
why) are appropriate to the historysocial science as these terms am used in natural science and
and Englishlanguage arts curricula. defined in this policy. As a matter of principle,
science teachers are professionally bound to limit
Nothing in science or in any other iield of their teaching to science and should resist pres-
knowledge shall be taught dogmatically. A
sure to do otherwise. Administrators should
dogma is a system of beliefs that is not subject support teachers in this regard.
to scientific test and refutation. Compelling
belief is inconsistent with the goal of educa- Philosophical and religious beliefs are based, at
tion; the goal is to encourage understanding. least in part, on faith and arc not subject to scien-
tific test and refutation. Such beliefs should be
To be fully informed citizens, students do not discussed in the social science and language arts
have to acpt everything that is taught in the curricula. The Board's position has been stated in
natural science curriculum, but they do have to
the Board's adopted policy, Moral and Civic
understand the major strands of scientific Education and Teaching About Religion (1988),
thought, including its methods, facts, hypotheses,
and in the HistorySocial Science Framework
theories, and laws. (1988). If a student should raise a question in a
A scientific fact is an understanding based on natural science class that the teacher determines
confirmable observations and is subject to test is outside the domain of science, the teacher
and rejection. A scientific hypothesis is an should treat the question with respect. The
attempt to frame a question as a testable proposi- teacher should explain why the question is
tion. A scientific theory is a logical constnict outside the domain of natural science and encour-
based on facts and hypotheses that organizes and age the student to discuss ihe question further
explains a range of natural phenomena. Scientific with his or her family and clergy.

xl 12
 Neither the California nor the United States section of animals. (See California Education
Constitution requires, in order to accommodate Code sections 51550 and 32255.1 [Chapter 65,
the religious views of those who object to certain Statutes of 1988], respectively.) However, the
material or aztivities that art presented in science United States Constitution guarantees the free
classes, that time be given in the curriculum to exerche of religion, and local governing boanis
those particular religious views. It may be uncon- and districts are encouraged to develop state-
stitutional to grant time for that reason. ments like this one that recognize and respect that
Nothing in the California Education Code allows freedom in the teaching of science. Ultimately,
students (or their parents) to excuse class atten- students should be made aware of the difference
dance based on disagreement with the curricu- between understanding, which is the goal of
lum, except as specified for certain topics dealing education, and subscribing to ideas, which is not.
with reproductive biology and for laboratory dis-

tiorn`ffOrriti*BaiOail Dictiologeienee. Mapleweed; If.I.:-Hamthond,irie., ©1986.

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'044t5f,;..,-k".4_ ffypoUiesis designate:5 a merely
tOtita*t 141g**100 of *-04.zbithoo.4 or
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11140:41,-, ..P11.694-0faideil?Os0 on _ _: Of0Yisi*Ally;offeti at-1114.baits.-Of a
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yOneAli4lias' been tested and çonfiimed-is eV:dine/it,. ..

1S
xH
Executive Summary

Science is guided by a particular kind of theory that

can be tested in the natural world, with methods that
any practitioner of science can and must follow. The
scientific method aims to be testable, objective, and
Chapter 1 consistent. Science is opcn-ended, but scientists
The Nature el Science operate with expectations based on predictions of
theory. Scientists use a preexisting body of observa-
Science is a field that is constantly adapting to new tions, facts, inferences, hypotheses, and theories to
advances in basic knowledge, medicine, and technol- build expectations of what will happen and to guide
ogy. An understanding of the nature of science and an further inquiry. Teachers must strive to show students
appreciation of its methods and philosophy continue how expectation and openness both play important
to be necessary parts of education. How the natural roles in science. Scientific knowledge must be
world works is important to everyone's education. presented as authoritative, not authoritarian. We can
Students need to understand the way of thinking and depend on scientific knowledge and theory, yet we
asking questions that is the essence of science. can always learn more and must constantly revise
Science is also important for its own sake. A person what we know in the light of new discoveries.
can carry an appreciation of science all through life Science is based on observations set in a testable
and use it to learn more about the natural world. framework of ideas. To observe is to use the evidence
Technology is based on fundamental science. of our senses to obtain the information on which
Educators have the chance to prepare students for the scientific work is based. Scientific inquiry is guided
technology of the finure by helping them develop a by theory, which is a logical construct of facts and
deeper knowledge of basic science. We must clearly hypotheses that attempts to explain a range of natural
present how science works, what processes and phenomena. Theories are sometimes replaced wholly
methods expand scientific knowledge, and what or in part by new theories. The new theory does this
science is and what it is not. by explaining everything that the old theory ex-
To be effective, science education should be plained, as well as other evidence that might not have
enjoyable. Science is a source of enjoyment much as fit very well in the old theory. This is how science
music is. The appreciation of science is likely to proceeds. But science never commits itself irrevoca-
increase as the audience becomes more knowledge- bly to any fact or theory, no matter how firmly it
able about the workings of the discipline. Science is appears to be established in the light of what is
concerned with all of nature, medicine, and technol- known. This is not a weakness of uncertainty but a
ogy; it can prepare students for decisions they must strength of self-correctability. Science is not a matter
make as adultsdecisions that are increasingly of belief; rather, it is a matter of conclusive evidence
dependent on a clear understanding of science. that can be subjected to the tests of observation and

Execulive Summary

14
 objective reasoning. The open competition of ideas is this intellectual habit will carry over and enrich other
a major part of the excitement of science. Emphasis fields and disciplines.
in the classroom should be placed not on coming up Themes should be used to integrate concepts and
with the right answers but on doing science the right facts at all levels of the curriculum. Through the use
way.
of themes, such as those of scale and structure and
There are scientific issues that arouse controversy. s3 lems and interactions, students can see how the
Some of these issues are ethical, some involve
parts fit toge ,ther logically and how The information
clarification of scientific methods and philosophy, they are learning is used to describe other kinds of
awl some are not strictly within the realm of science. phenomena.
School boards, administrators, and parents must
Within individual disciplines, such as physical
support the teaching of rigorous science, a iational
sciences, earth sciences, and life sciences, themes
application of science to scientific and technological need to be instituted and developed throughout a
activities. Science instruction should respect the year's study and from one year to another.
private beliefs of students; on the other hand, the
Themes should be used to integrate the main
teaching of science cannot be suppressed simply subfields of scientific disciplines. The subfields of
because some individuals disagree with findings on life sciencegenetics, evolution, and paleontology
religious or philosophical grounds.'
are connected by using the themes of evolution as
well as those of pattern. lf change and scale and
Chapter 2 stnicture.
The Major Themes of Science Themes in science shou... direct the design of
classroom activities. They can connect classroom
activities and provide them with a logical sequence
This Science Framework differs from previous and scope of instruction.
frameworks and addenda in its emphasis on the major
themes of science. Assessment should be thematically and conceptu-
ally based. Instead of repeating facts learned in chap-
Themes are the big ideas of science, 1' Tier than
ters and units, explaining the connections among
facts and concepts; they link the theoretical structures
concepts in the light of themes represents an improve-
of the various scientific disciplines. Themes am a
ment in assessment practices.
way to integrate the overarching concepts of science
The use of conceptual themes will not by itself
into a curriculum, much as theories encompass and
solve all the problems of science education. However,
connect the basic data and evidence of science.
the incorporation of themes in thoughtful and judi-
Six major themes are developed in this framework:
cious ways should improve the integration of facts
(1) energy, (2) evolution; (3) patterns of change; (4)
and ideas, the interrelationships of theories and
scale and structure; (5) stability; and (6) systems and
disciplines, and the quality of instructional materials.
interactions. Educators and developers of instruc-
tional materials are encouraged to weave these or
alternative thematic strands into science curricula.
These major themes occur again and again in the
sciences, whether one studies ecology, plate tecton-
ics, meteorology, or organic chemistry. THE content of a science program is its heart. The
Themes are necessary in the teaching of science
thematic approach described in this framework makes
because they are necessary in the doing of science. In
connections among the scientific disciplines that have
order for science to be a philosophical discipline and
traditionally been taught as separate subjects. Here
not merely a collection of facts, there must be a
we illustrate one way that a conceptual approach can
thematic connection and integration. Themes provide
be organized within the traditional content areas of
a framework to guide teachers in developing instruc- science.
tional tools. If curricula and instructors are successful
It is important to distinguish between theories,
in developing themes for students to use in connect-
ing and integrating scientific concepts and facts, then which are conceptnal and empirical entities within a
discipline that unify u`te content of that discipline, and

2 Science Framowork 15
themes, which are pednogical tools to unify ideas their senses and extensions of their senses to see,
among different disciplines. touch, and otherwise view the world, observing its
Some ideas, such as energy and evolution, appear characteristics and behaviors as objectively as pos-
as both theories and themes. Evolution, for instance, sible. Scientists describe and picture what they
is the theory that unifies the content of biology. observe in various ways, thus communicating their
Evolution is also a theme that unifies the content of ideas to others so that they can exchange views and
various disciplines by observing evolution in both interpretations and pass along information. They test
geological and biological history. what they know against what they do not yet know,
Within the traditional areas of physical sciences comparing features and behaviors for similarities and
(Chapter 3), earth sciences (Chapter 4), and life differences. Scientists organize their understandings,
sciences (Chapter 5), we describe the underlying ordering and categorizing them into broader, more
theories in the discipline. Then wc present a set of general groupings and classifications. They study the
questions central to the content area. These are interactions among objects and describe the events,
followed by a narrative description of content, written relating factors that reveal deeper insights into causes
from the perspective of one or more of the major and effects. Scientists hypothesize and predict what
themes of science, appropriate to various grade will happen, based on accumulated knowledge and on
levels. The purpose of this approach is to avoid an the events they expect to take place, inferring some-
emphasis on isolated facts and definitions that have thing that they have not seen because it has not yet
long dominated science instruction. happened or because it cannot be observed directly.
The choice of questions is not definitive nor exclu- And as knowledge grows through the use of these
sive; we did, however, concentrate on areas that have scientific thinking processes, scientists develop
been poorly represented in the past. For instance, the expertise, applying both knowledge and processes for
framework may emphasize learning the causes of useful purposes, to make still further extensions of
weather, rather than how to read a weather map the explanatory power of theory and to perceive fresh
(though students will still learn this, but it is an activ- possibilities.
ity already well represented in traditional materials). In developing science concepts, a teacher should:
The intended audience for these descriptions is not (1) pose questions to determine what ideas students
students but educators and textbook publishers. hold about a topic before beginning instruction; (2) be
sensitive to and capitalize on students' conceptions
aboutscience; (3) employ a variety of instructional
Part ni Actheving the'Desired techniques to help students achieve conceptual
Science Curriculum understanding; and (4) include all students in discus-
sions and cooperative learning situations.
It is necessary to engage students in science activi-
Chapter 6
ties by placing them in a position of responsibility for
Science Processes and the Teaching
the learning task. Students should be provided with
of Science experimental problcm-solving experiences where the
Students should be helpcd to increase their knowl- result has direct meaning for them.
edge of the natural world and to understand its As a human endeavor, science has a profound
connection to our technologically advanced society. impact on society. Values and ethics arc important
A student-centered science program can be created by components of science teaching and must be consid-
teachers who are free to design the types of experi- ered by teachers, textbook authors, and curriculum
ence that best fit their-students. writers. It is important to (1) identify thc commonly
The content of science consists of a highly strtic- shared values of the scientific community; (2) pro-
lured, complex set of facts, hypotheses, and theories mote scientific values in the classroom; and (3)
in a context where many observations have meaning. develop rational decision-making skills applicable to
Th3ory development is progressive; theory suggests major issues of personal and public concern.
further observations that often make possible further Science is directed towards a progressively greater
elaboration and testing of the theory. Scientists use understanding of the natural world. Technology is

Executive Summary 3

16
 related to science as a human endeavor, but the while acquiring English. The strategies described
direction is toward using accumulated knowledge here can be used by teachers to lower the linguistic
from science and other fields in order to control and barriers that prevent access to their disciplines.
alter the way things work. Teaching a Science,
Technology, and Society (STS) approach is invari- Chapter 7
ably interdisciplinary, with strong connections to
historysocial science, mathematics, literature, and implementing a Strong Science Program
the arts. Teaching science in the context of STS helps
A well-formufated districtwide plan for science
reveal the situations in which science has meaning. education provides the basic design for the establish-
The elementary science program holds great ment of an effective science program. Proof of the
potential for exploring natural phenomena and establishment of a good science program lies in
technological applications in science. At a time when student growth in understanding and enthusiasm for
children are most curious about the world, teachers science.
can capitalize on this joy of learning in ways that Implementation entails more than the dissemination
make science enjoyable, interesting, and meaningful. of information, materials, and programs. To ensure
In most curricular areas, middle school programs that an adopted science curriculum results in knowl-
are seen as transitions from a sound basis provided edge, experience, and understanding for students, the
during elementary grades to the specialization of high program must be challenging, stimulating, and useful,
school. For students in middle school, it is important Students should be doing science in their classrooms,
to provide a semester of health and relevant adoles- not merely readin About it.
cent topics as well as electives for those interested. The changes suggested by this framework build on
The high school science curriculum is less subject the preceding Science Framework and Science
to mandate than that of die elementary school. Not all Framework Addendum and sirengthen the position
students take more than a minimum of science in high that students should actively experience science
school, and no textbook adoption process is used
rather than passively read about it. The changes in
beyond grade eight. In spite of strong traditions re- practice that are requiml to implement this
garding what high school biology, chemistry, and framework faithfully involve a shift from instruction
physics courses should be like, many excellent that emphasizes accumulation of knowleige to a
options for teachers and students have been devel- program that develops concepts and an understanding
oped. The process of science as an aesthetic pursuit of the connections among the disciplines of science.
and an effective tool with the power to both create
Effective implementation incorporates both a
and solve problems must be apparent to graduates districtwide plan and plans for individual schools. A
from high school. whole range of people should participate throughout
With concerns of domestic equity and international the implementation processprincipals, governing
competitiveness, science educators must help ensure boards, district and county personnel, and local
that all studentsincluding the historically under- college and university representatives.
representedhave an equal opportunity to succeed in An effective science program depends primarily on
science-related endeavors. By all reports and analy- teachers who are enthusiastic, informed, and provided
ses, females,-minoritygroups, and persons with with adequate resources. Teachers need the opportu-
disabilities are underrepresentedjriundergraduate and nity_toexperiencethe kind of instruction they are
graduate programs, research, industry, and other being asked to provide. While generic workshops on
scientific enterpriSes. Fortunately, there are individu- teaching techniques and classroom management
als and pilot progtams working to help youngsters strategies are of benefit to science teachers, it is
overcome barriers that keep them from succeeding. important that substantial time and resources be
All children in California, including those whose devoted to strategies for incorporating these tech-
primary langnage is other than English, should have niques most effectively in the teaching of science.
access to high-level science instruction. Students who If the goals of the science program are scientific
are limited-English proficient (LEP) can have imme- literacy and the ability to make sense of the world,
diate entry into science via their primary language then tests of vocabulary and knowledge will nct

4 Science Framework
17
measure their attainment. The design of an assess- strategy to transform education for all students so that
ment program requires as much care and considera- it promotes thinking and reasoning. The manifesta-
tion as the design of the instructional program itself. tion of this attempt to cultivate higher-order thinking
There is a temptation to limit assessment of teachers takes different forms in different subject areas. In
to.what can be most easily observed: direct instruc- each case, the details and mechanics of the discipline
tion. This is as much to be avoided as limiting student are teing subordinated to the goal a a meaning-
assessment to _what can be most easily measured: centered curriculum, with the aim of increasing the
factual recall. The assessment of instruction must thinking and reasoning in which students engage.
meet the challenge^of the wide range of instructional
strategies Proposed in this framework in the same Chapter 8
way that teachers meerthese challenges in making Instructional Materials Criteria
decisions about instmction.
The physical resources of the entire school plant The California State Board of Education has begun
and the community should be taken into considera- to use the adoption process as a way of supporting the
tion in planning the science instructional program. curriculum reform reflected in its recent frameworks
Equipment and mato lals must be made available to and standards. More stringent criteria place additional
all teacherselementary and secondary. Traditional demands on publishers and teachers alike. We feel,
equipment, such as test tubes, scales, meter sticks, however, that fine instructional materials can them-
and microscopes, has always had a prominent role in selves instruct teachers while they support student
effective science programs. As newer products of learning.
technology, such as scientific calculators, computers, The instructional materials criteria that follow
videotapes and videodisks, become less expensive differ from past criteria in a number of ways. The
and more significant as mechanisms for teaching and overall weighting is as follows: content, 50 percent;
learning, their role should be constantly evaluated for presentation, 25 percent; and pedagogy 25 percent.
their contribution to an effective science program. (See Table 9 in Chapter 8 for the full list of weighted
Technology can provide conduits to new informa- criteria.)
tion, experiences, and an opportunity to experiment Content refers to the subject matterhow well it
and fail in a safe environment. A likely result of the represents what is currently known of science.
increased use of technology in the classroom is the Content should be treated dynamically, including a
evolution of the role of the teacher from disseminator thematic approach that makes connections among
of information to facilitator of the students' learning. ideas, and it should value depth over breadth of
Mechanisms for changing the way that teachers teach coverage. Standards for evaluation include whether
will have to incorporate this view of technology's (1) the topics discussed in Part II of this framework
role in instruction. are treated in the instructional materials under consid-
Parents and the community offer tremendous eration; (2) content is treated accurately and cor-
potent;a1 for supporting and enhancing the school's rectly; (3) instructional programs are organized
science program. around themes, not around facts; (4) instructional
The California Science Implementation Network materials in science emphasize depth of understand-
has developed a school-based model that many ing, not encyclopedic breadth of coverage; and (5)
teachers and principals have found useful. The explanations embroider the accumulation of knowl-
planning proms, which involves the entire school edge, with a detailed description of how it is that we
staff, hasihree steps: (1) complete a matrix for came to know these facts and why this information is
program elements'and one for content; (2) conduct important.
indicated staff development; and (3) monitor individ- Presentation means how science is described,
ual teacher progress. (Information about this network organized, written, and illustrated. Standards for
can be obtained from the California Department of evaluation include whether (1) the prose style of
Education's Mathematics, Science and Environ- instructional materials is considerate and engaging
mental Education Unit.) and the language and vocabulary of science are re-
The reforms in science education that are reflected spected; (2) language is accessible to students; (3) the
in this framework are part of an overall reform

Executive Summary 5

18
 character of science is represented faithfully: that it is amples of what is andis not desirable in science
shown as open to inquiry, open to controversy, and writing.
nondogmatic by it&nature; and (4) science is pre- The most important points made in this section am
sented as an enterprise that does not operate in (1) the desirability of thematic orientation in science
Isolation from-society and technology or from other curricula; (2) the motivation andlearning that can be
fields of.kpdivledge.
generated by hands-on, experience-oriented activities
Pedagogy refers to the instmctional methods that and curricula; (3) the importance of "considerate
are emploYed. Standards for evaluation include prose" and the elimination of readability formulas as
whether (1) instructional programs are connected
detenniners of grade-level appropriateness of curricu-
witivexperience; (2) instructional materials recognize lar materials; and (4) the fundamental respect for
cultu.al diversity and reflect strategies that research scientific methods of inquiry and for the language and
and practice have shown to be successful in meeting philosophy of science that is absolutely necessary to a
the needs of all students; and (3) assessment is science program.
integrative and oriented toward solving problems, not Improvement in instructional materials must be
simply recall-based.
coupled with support for more in-service training for
The criteria pmviously described will guide the teachers and reevaluation and change in criteria
Instrudtional Materials Evaluation Panel (IMEP), a commonly used in the adoption and selection of
group of approximately 40 teachers, curriculum instructional materials. These improvements are the
specialists, and scientists who review the materials principal means by which the current system of
submitted for adoption and submit its recommenda- developing, adopting, and using instructional materi-
tions to the Curriculum Development and Supple-
als can meet the challenges of educating students
mental Materials Commission (CDSMC), which will about what science really is and how it matters to
in turn make recommendations to the State Board of their lives.
Education. This section concludes with some ex-

19
6 Science Framework
Introduction

IN1983 A Nation at Risk declared that American certain students from access to that knowledge so
education had become victim to "a rising tide of pervasive, it is essential to develop a core curriculum
mediocrity." The National Science Board's Commis- that is appropriate for all students.
sion on Precollege Education in Mathematics, Sci- Although it is founded on the 1978 Science Frame-
enceand Teclriology confirmed that the situation in work for California Public Schools and the 1984
science education was particularly critical. Recent Science Framework Addendum, the 1990 Science
studies have placed America's students last among Framework shifts the emphasis of science education
their international counterparts in understanding by centering on the answers to the questions raised in
science. In 1988 the National Assessment of Educa- the preceding paragraph. In recent years tremendous
tional Progress of the Educational Testing Service progress has been made in response to those previous
(ETS) issued The Science Report Card. ETS noted doduments by making science instruction more
that although the responses in the years since 1983 experiential and engaging for students. Yet the
have resulted in some progress, "average science general trend has been to reduce and compartmental-
proficiency across the grades remains distressingly ize science content and focus on isolated facts and
low." concepts. This fragmentation is especially detrimental
What are the major reasons for this state of affairs, in the elementary grades. Rather than being encour-
and what can be done to improve it? A first wave of aged to attain a global and integrated understanding
educational reform, stimulated by the early reports, of the natural world, which the disciplines and the
prompted legislatures to regulate administrative nature of science describe and define so beautifully,
strategies. Both nationally and in California, the students have been encouraged to memorize isolated
results were raised standards, increased graduation facts and concepts.
requirements, and a longer school day and year. The To.counteract this situation, this framework empha-
second wave of reform addressed the teaching sizes a thematic approach to science. Its approach is
profession and again raised standards while increas- derived from the most current available thinking and
invesponsibilities and roles. criticism of instructional practices. Science for All
BY establiSting R.stronger and more demanding Americans, a report issued by Project 2061 of the
apparatus, these reforms paved the way for a third American Association for the Advancement of
waVe of reform that focuses on what and how stu- Science in February, 1989, envisions an ideal content
dents learn. The 1990 Science Framework addresses for future science courses. That report shows a need
two.aspects of this focus: (1) What is important to for a thematic approach to science instruction to
learn? and (2) How can we ensure that alisaidents demonstrate the connections that exist among the
have the opportunity to learn it? It is natural to various disciplines of science and enable students to
respond to these questions in terms of a common core understand the rapidly changing world.
curriculum for all students. A core curriculum is not The purposes of this framework are consistent with
unique to science. But in a field in which proliferation those of the Instructional Materials and Framework
of knowledge is so extensive and the exclusion of Adoption Policies and Procedures developed by the

Introduction 7
20
 Office of Curriculum Framework and Textbook menting the science curriculum; and Chapter 8 is
Development of the California Depaftment of Educa- intended for publishers and other devulopers and
tion and approved by the State, Board of Education in reviewers of instructional materials who collectively
June, 1988; that is, to (1) eFtahlish guidelines and form the other primary audience for the framework.
provide direction to help districts revise their curric- After the approval of a framework by the State
ula, evaluate their programs, assess their instruction, Board of Education, the Department of Education
and develop instructional strategies; (2) serve as a takes several steps to provide a consistent science
resource for preservice and in-service education of curriculum. The Department will review and, if
teachers and administrators; (3) provide direction to necessary, revise the Quality Criteria (for elementary,
publishers for the development of textbooks and middle grades, and high schools), the Model Curricu-
instructional materials and to reviewers for selecting lum Standards, Grades Nine Through Twelve, and the
instructional materials and testing programs; and Science Model Curriculum Guide, Kindergarten
(4) make information on curricula available to parents Through Grade Eight. The California Assessment
and the general public. Program will use this framework as the basis for
Another primary audience for the framework designing assessment of students in grades three, six,
includes science curriculum specialists, science eight, and twelve. State-supported professional
supervisors, science staff developers, and those in development programs, such as the California Sci-
curriculum development and leadership roles. The ence Implementation Network (for elementary
committee, members of which are listed on page ix, is schools) and the California School Leadership
representative of these roles, including faculty from Academy (for administrators), will review their
public schools, kindergarten through grade twelve, curricula and bring them into alignment. The In-
and universities; science consultants from district and tersegmental Committee of the Academic Senates
county offices; and other persons with responsibility will consider the match with its Statement on Prepa-
for curriculum and staff development. This portion of ration in Natural Science Expected of Entering
the audience that the committee members had in inind Freshmen. Of course, these changes will not take
was very much like themselves but was operationally place immediately, but they should assist educators in
defined as the teacher whom you would expect to preparing for the changes embodied in this frame-
find on a district curriculum development committee. work. And in 1992 the State Board of Education will
Therefote, what follows presumes some background adopt instructional materials that meet the criteria
and interest in science. We do not expect teachers or delineated here.
others who have no background or particular inteiest To achieve scientific literacy for all of our students,
in science to use this framework as their first experi- we hold the following expectationswhich reflect
ence in teaching science. This document is not a the main ideas in the frameworkfor science pro-
textbook or a curriculum guide, nor is it a substitute gmms:
for extensive staff development, in-service training, 1. The major themes underlying science, such as
or professional preparation.
energy, evolution, pattems of change, scale
Different audiences will be interested in different
and structure, stability, and systems and
sections of this framework. Part I answers the ques-
interactions, are developed and deepened
tion, What is science? and should be read by, those
through a thematic approach.
interested in science and the science curriculum. In
2. The three basic scientific fields of study
describing the nature and themes of science, it
physical, earth, and life sciencesarc
promotes the conceptual teaching of science. Part II
addressed, ideally each year, and the connec-
outlines the required content of physical, earth, and
tions among them are developed.
life sciences programs. Part III has three chaptzrs:
3. The character of science is shown to be open
Chapter 6 is intended for teachers and supervisors
to inquiry and controversy and free of dogma-
who are interested in the processes of teaching and
tism; thc. curriculum promotes student under-
the processes of science; Chapter 7 is intended for
standing of how we come to know what we
supervisors, department chairs, principals, and other
know and how we test and revise our thinking.
administrators who have msponsibility for imple-

8 Science Framework
4. Science is presented in connection with its 9. Textbooks are not the sole source of the
applications in technology andits implications cwriculum; everyday materials and laboratory
forsociety. equipment, yideotapes and software, and other
5. Science iS presented in connectiOn with printed materials such as reference books
students' own experiences and interests, provide a substantial part of student experi-
frequently using hands-on experiences that arc ence.
integral to the instructional sequence. 10. Assessment prograim are aligned with the
6. Students am-given opportunities to consuuct instrucLioaal program in both content and
the important ideas of science, which are then format; student performance and investigation
developed in depth, through inquiry and inves- play the same central role in assessment that
tigation. they do in ingniction.
7. Instructionar strategies and materials allow
The 1990 Science Framework builds on previous
severatlevels and pathways of access so that
work and, much like science itself, is subject to
all students can experience both challenge and
revision. We trust that it represents a step forward for
success. science education in California, and we hope that it
8. Printed materials are written in an interesting
helps to bring the joy and power of scientific inquiry
and engaging narrative style; in particular,
and understanding to all of our students.
vocabulary is used to facilitate understanding
rather than as an end in itself.

Introduction 9
22
Part I

What Is Science?

11

23
 Chapter 1

The Nature of Science

THis first chapter is about science itself: what it is, in full in the front of this document. It delineates the
what itis not, what its philosophies and methods are, responsibilities of science educators in explaining
and how these differ from those of other intellectual what science is and how it differs from other intellec-
activities. Structured closely after the State Board of tual endeavors. Instructional materials submitted for
Edutation's 1989 policy statement on the teaching of adoption in the State of California must confonn to
science (reproduced in the beginning of this docu- the letter and spirit of this policy in order to be
ment), it is meant to serve as a guide for teachers, considered.
administrators, and parents on the nature of science This chapteris about science itself. What ate its
and what is and is not appropriateto teach in a basic operating principles and methods? What part of
science classroom. Beyond these functions, this scientific philosophy needs to be communicated to
chapter also guides teachers on how to deal with young students? Why study science at all? How can
socially relevant and sensitive scientific issues and the excitement of science be cOmmunicated? And
how to ensure that the views and beliefs of all stu- what are the educator's responsibilities in discussing
dents are treated with respect. This chapter is instru- moral, ethical, and social issues on which scientific
mental to the understanding of the rest of the frame- understanding has some bearing? Some basic
work. thoughts in response to these questions follow. (For a
similar point of view, see Science for AU Americans
[Project 2061, American Association for the Ad-
Section, A Introduction vanc .nent of Science, Washington, D.C., 19891.)

How the natural world works Is important to

EDUCATING children for the future is one of the everyone's education.
principal aims of any well-balanced curriculum. This
is especiallyimportant in science education, a field The genetic code, the history of the universe and
.that IS cOnSt011y adapting to new advances in basic the earth and its life, the structure of the atom, the
,knoWledge, medicine, and technology. Though it is force that brings apples to the ground and moves the
increasingly difficult to anticipate the world that our tides, and the logic of the periodic table of the ele-
childre141.face and shape, it is clear that a basic ments are more than just the facts and ideas of
understanding Of science and an appreciation of its science: they are an integral part of our cultural
heritage. We need to understand the way of thinking
.Metliodkand.philosophy will continue to be a neces-
sa4,0rt'of edtioationperhaps more than ever. and asking questions that is the essence of science.
mindrthe State Board of Education
adopted,in January, 1989, new statement of policy Science Is important for Its own sake.
on,the. teaching of tho-natural sciences. This policy, The American poet Walt Whitman characterized
Which Supernedes previous statements, is reproduced science as a limitless voyage of joyous exploration. A

12 Part I-What Is Science?

24
person can carry the appreciation of science all regard to their sex, race, culture, or views on matters
through life and use it to learn more about the natural -mtside the realm of science, and its findings tran-
world. There arc marry well-known stories of how scend cultural differences.
famous scientists became captivated by science at an The remainder of this chapter is devoted to an
early age, but there are just as many stories of ordi- exploration of these matters and how they can be
nary people--:the true "amateurs" (lovers) of sci- incorporated in the daily use of any science textbook,
encewho went on to pursue other careers, but classroom, and curriculum. This treatment should not
xemained fascinated by the endless possibilities for be regarded as exhaustive but merely as a basic
discoveries in the natural world. Enjoyment is a introduction.
superb motivator of understanding.

Technology IS based on fundamental

science.
An understanding of the principles and practice of To be effective, science education should be
science is essential for students to cope successfully enjoyable. The enjoyment of science is open to
with the world they will inherita wodd about which everyone of every age: as thrilling as the experience
we can predict but little. Much of modem science is of a five-year-old on seeing Tyrannosaurus rex for
based on technological development, largely in the first time or as cerebral as the aesthetic
instrumentation. Educators have the chance to appreciation of a beautiful new idea set forth by a
prepare students for the technology of the future by masterful physicist such as Stephen Hawking.
helping them to develop a deeper knowledge of basic Science is a source of enjoyment, much as music is. It
science and how science works. We cannot expect is not only virtuosos who enjoy and benefit from
our democratic society to make intelligent decisions playing a musical instrumenteven those who do nm
about science, technology, and public policy unless play an instrument can enjoy listening to music. The
its citizens are scientifically literate. appreciation of science, like the appreciation of
As educators we face a complex and difficult task. music, is likely to increase as the audience becomes
We cannot present the entire body of scientific mole knowledgeable about the workings of the
knowledge because there is too much to teach. We discipline.
can hope for best results if we clearly present how Science educators want their students to take this
science works and the processes and methods which message to heart: If you like some aspcct of science,
expand scientific knowledge. A stimulating class- you should consider pursuing science as a career.
room environment can nurture natural curiosity to Whether your taste nms to physics instead of
convey the excitement of science. But we must also pharmacology does not matter any more than whether
foster an understanding of what science is and what it you prefer piccolos to pianos. The point is to become
is not. Because scientific knowledge figures in so involved and to communicate your enthusiasm to
many other aspects of life and culture, we have to others. Science careers are delightfully varied; you do
help students to deal with this relationship. Nature not have to be a professor, an engineer, or a chemist
itself is morally and ethically neutral, but those who to be a successful scientist. You can be a wildlife
deal with science must make important moral and manager, a forester, a nature guide, a laboratory
ethical choices. We have the responsibility of con- technician, orbest of alla science teacher. But
fronting students with some of the political and social even if you simply increase your appreciation of
issues that require an understanding of science. After science and your regard for the natural world, your
all, science is universal; it engages people without life will be enriched.
41111
"Lffe is not easy for any of us. But what of that? We must have perseverance and, above all, confidence
in ourselves." Marie Curie (1867-1934)

2r- Chapter IThe Nature of Science 13

The most personal message that a science teacher can bring to students is this: Science is concerned
with all of nature, medicine, and technology. These concerns are not simply empirical; they are ethical
and social. The responsibility of science educators and the function of science curricula are to prepare
students for the decisions they must make as adultsdecisions that daily become increasingly dependent
on a clear understanding of science.

- t * a should be made clearly and integrated into science

textbooks, cunicula, and class discussions:

As an intellectual activity science shares many 1. Science has its own character as an
characteristics with other fields of knowledge, but it intellectual activity.
also has its own unique characteristics. All fields of
knowledge benefit from open-minded, open-ended Science differs in several ways from other scholarly
investigation ami an honest exchange of ideas. More inquiries, such as literary criticism, historical writing,
than any other field, however, science is guided by a or the development of a philosophical or religious
particular kind of theory that can be tested in the perspective. Science aims to be testable, objective,
natural world, using particular methods and principles and consistent.
that any practitioner of science can and must follow. Testability. Observations and inferences about
This is why progress in scientific research is so science are based in the natural world. An explana-
consistent and so universaland why it is so rapid. tion should suggest a crucial experiment, fact, or
Any investigator following the universal methods and empirical observation that can settle the controversy
principles of science can test, verify or reject, and use between it and alternative explanations. In the most
previous discoveries to take scientific knowledge a theoretical fields, such experiments may be difficult
step further. or impossible at present, but it must be at least
In general, scientists plan investigations by working possible in practice to test them by recourse to natural
along the lines suggested by theories, which in turn phenomena. If an idea cannot (even potentially) be so
are based on previous knowledge. This knowledge is tested, then it is outside the realm of science.
formed from empirical observations; that is, observa- Objectivity. We make observations through our
tions of the natural world, which are then organized senses, which am necessarily subjective, and ap-
systematically into logical frameworks called hy- proach each problem with certain explicit and im-
potheses. Hypotheses must be testable by recourse to plicit ideas about what we are looking for and the
observations of the natural world if they are to qualify possible outcomes of our investigation. We cannot
as scientific hypotheses. Thus, theory and observation change this; we art human. Nevertheless, explana-
interact: each contributes to the other. tions of nature must be based on natural phenomena
There is an important lesson in this for students. and observations, not on opinions or subjective
Any new scientific knowledge must be communi- experiences. One good control of scientific objectiv-
cated fully and openly to others if it is to be of use. ity is the repeatability of science; that is, any observa-
This basic obligation makes even the full-time tion ought to be repeatable and capable of being
researcher a teacher of his or her colleagues and confirmed or rejected by other scientists. This applies
students, and this obligation binds scientists to as much to the interpretation of the structure of a
teachers at all levels. The process of teaching science fossil plant or animal as it does to the result of an
requires a precise, unambiguous use of language and experiment in a chemistry lzb.
a dear demarcation of the criteria, power, and limits Consistency. A scientific explanation does more
of scientific investigation. The following points than provide a plausible account, it must clearly agree

14 Part IWhat Is Science?

26
with all the observable facts better than alternative Because science is open-ended, those who would
explanations do, and it must show an explicit connec- practice or understand it must be open-minded. To be
tion between cause and effect. Some observations open-minded is to use our experience. For example, it
remain puzzling for years and do not seem to fit well is probable that futum discoveries may give us a more
within established understanding. Many of these turn precise age for the earth than the currently accepted
out to be incorrect, or the inferences based on them rougn value of 4.54 billion years, a value that has
turn out to be erroneous in the light of other data. changed by only 0.01 billion years in over three
Some observations are highlyNalued because they decades of research. But we know that the new value
signal a need to alter theory to accommodate them will not be 10,000 years or 100 billion years. Science
usually with a better, more inclusive theory. builds on what has gone before and refine't its conclu-
When we test forms of inquiry such as parapsychol- sions. The first scientific estimates of the age of the
ogy, the study of unidentified flying objects, or earth were based oh rates of erosion, estimates of
astrology, we find that claims for their validity on deposition of sediments and of mountain building,
scientific grounds fail repeatedly; thus, belief in them and they ranged from several thousands to hundreds
mug be based on other, nonscientific considerations. of millions of years. Ip the 1800s Lord Kelvin derived
Such realms of inquiry cause confusion in students, a famous estimate of 100 million years, on the basis
and scientists raise objections when their pmponents of his assumption that all the energy radiated by the
attempt to L.:A them forth as science. Teachers must be sun was gravitational. When radioactive energy was
careful to separate science from pseudoscience and to discovered, this assumption and the constraint that his
explain the criteria for the distinction. Excessive time calculation had put on the age of the carth proved
should'not be spent in discussing pseudosciences; false. As estimates of sedimentary rates and cycles
they should be treated only in passing, as examples of were refined and as radiometric dating of isotopes in
subjects that do not meet the criteria of science rocks became a repeatedly mbust technique, the age
discussed here. of the earth's various rock layers was confirmed from
As educators we have a responsibility to teach a variety of measures. Indeed, our understanding of
students what science is and how it differs from other the age of the various geological periods has not
kinds of inquiry or knowledge, such as art history, changed markedly in 50 years.
literary criticism, or philosophy. We need to show Two examples may illustrate how experience and
students how to differentiate between scientific open-mindedness are inseparable in science. A
inquiry.and other kinds of inquiry that do not adhere naturalist exploring an uncharted tributary of the
to the methods and principles discussed in this Amazon River would not expect to find polar bears,
section. corals, and platypuses; it would be more logical to
expect lizards, cmcodiles, tapirs, and other members
2. Science Is open-ended, but scientists of the South American jungle fauna. These reason-
operate with expectations based on the able expectations are based on our knowledge of a
predictions of theory. host of biogeographical patterns and precessesthe
distribution and spread of animals and plants and
There are no preordained conclusions in science. their ecological relationships. This does not mean that
However, along with the legendary open-endedness it would be impassible for any of these exotic organ-
and semndipity of science goes another very impor- isms to appear in the Amazon, only unexpected. To
tant factor. Scientists build expectations of what will find them them would, of course, bc of extraordinary
happen on a tremendous preexisting body of observa-
tions, facts, inferences, hypotheses, and theories.
"We are 'Ian age of discovery, we live in the
They use these expectations to guide further inquiry.
If scientists did not base further inquiry on what had world of the unknown. That' s the only place to
gone before, if there were no reasonable base for live."
scientific prediction, scientific research would be Lloyd Quarterman (1918-1982)
reduced to random trial-and-error experimentation.

Chapter IThe Nature of Science 15

interestto see how they differed from their relatives context and in science teaching, we must preserve
elsewhere and what historical and adaptive features their proper meaning. In detective novels, the sleuth
might account for their unexpected presence. discovers the corpse and develops a "theory" as to
Expectations in science, as this second example "whodunit." At the end the murderer confesses, and
shows, also suggest possibilities and drive further the "theory" becomes a "fact." These words have
inquiry. Most life science textbooks give accounts of different meanings to a scientist.
the Miller-Urey experiments of the 1950s, which tried When we say that all science is based on observa-
to synthesize amino acids, someof the simple mole- tions, we mean that we use the evidence of our senses
cules that are the building blocks of life. Other (seeing, feeling, hearing, and so forth)sto.obtain the
scientists had suggested the possibility that on the information on which scientific work is.based. Even
primordial earth, amino acids were first synthesized when we use an instrument to detect and measure
naturally from simpler compounds such as ammonia, things too =alto be seen with an optical micro-
methane, and water. Miller and Urey decided to see scope, the output of the instrument must feed into one
whether thesynthesis was possible. They assembled a of our senses before we Call interpret the data that it
variety of mixtures of the simpler compounds in supplies.
closed vessels. But they had clear expectations that When our observations of a phenomenon have been
nothing would happen if they simply mixed the confirmed or found to be repeatable, such observa-
compounds together. They knew from elementary tions become fact. However, even though there is
chemical theory that they would need additional littledoubt about the observation, it cannot be ac-
energy in the system, so they introduced an electrical cepted as an absolute certainty without experimental
spark through the vessel. Indeed, amino acids were confirmation.
produced. Miller and Urey did not know in advance For example, suppose a child comes into a class-
exactly which compounds would form, nor in what room with wet, shiny rubber boots. Everyone can
proponions. But they knew fiem expectation that observe these features, so they are facts. To explain
energy was needed in order to synthesize more why the boots are wet requires another level of
complex compounds from simpler ones. This is a intellectual activity called inference. An inference is
good example of how the open-endedness of scien- reasoning based on observation and experience. In the
tific inquiry goes hand in hand with structured case of the nibber boots, one could draw a rational
scientific expectations based on previous knowledge. inference that it is raining outside or that the child has
What do these examples mean to science teaching? recently stepped in a puddle. It is easy to think that an
Simply that teachers must strive to show students inference is automatically a fact, but critical thinking
how expectation and openness both have important is required to maintain the distinction between the
roles in science. The interplay between them confirms two. An inference can become a fact when it is
both the body of accumulated scientific knowledge confirmed by other observations.
and the value of its open-ended philosophy. Scientific A hypothesis is an attempt to convert an explana-
knowledge must be presented as authoritative, not tion into a testable prediction. If we make the hy-
authoritarian; we can depend on scientific knowledge pothesis that the child's boots are wet from rain, we
and theory, yet we can always leam more and must can test it by looking to see if it is rainhig. If it is
constantly revise what we know in the light of new clear outside, we reject the hypothesis. But even if it
discovery. is raining, the rain may not have anything to do with
the wet boots. Perhaps the child has not been outside
3. Science Is based on observations set In at all but has been playing with the water fountain in
a testable framework of Ideas. the hall. Further inquiry might be necessary.
There is still the possibility that we did not observe
Scientific terms such as fact and theory, which were with sufficient care. Perhaps the boots were not wet at
originally nonscientific words but which have reen- all but were shiny because they were new. Observa-
tered our everyday vocabulary with the veneer of tions may be mistaken and may legd to mistaken
scientific authority, are easy to misunderstand or use inferences. This is a weakness of human observation
loosely. When these terms are used in a scientific because humans tend to bee what they expect to see.

16 Part IWhat Is Science?

28
When a add wears rain boots, it is usually because it circular. Kepler proposed that the orbits were ellipti-
is raining. cal, and this further simplified calculations of their
We cannot ever expect to be completely free of motion and improved the accuracy of such predic-
preconditioned 'expectations. An important part of the tions. Even this advance did not solve everything;
scientific method is to maintain an awareness of this there are "hitches" in the rates at which planets move
frailty and allow for it. To do this, it is essential to through space, partly because they exert a physical
keep an open mind and to test ideas systematically attraction on each other, as Newton showed. So the
and thomughly. advent of Newtonian mechanics further improved our
explanatory power of these natural phenomena.
4. Scientific inquiry Is guided by theory. Newtonian the6ry has now been superseded and
embedded in a more general theory, the theory of
As already noted, the concept of theory is enor- relativity pioneered by Einstein. But Einstein's theory
mously important in science, but the term is often is not the last word on the subject. It may one day be
misunderstood and misused by nonscientists. A replaced by an even more comprehensive theory
theory is a logical constnict of facts-and hypotheses perhaps developed by a student now sitting in a
that attempts to explain a range of natural phenom- science classroom in.Californial
ena. Fôr example, gravitation is a fact, and it is also a The lesson of the previous example of solar me-
theory. The principles that underlie the phenomenon chanics is simple. Educators must be precise in the
of gravitational attraction are not fully understood. use of scientific language because that language is
But no one doubts the fact of gravity; apples do not crucial to its teaching. A theory is not a half-baked
suspend themselves in midair pending the happy day idea nor an uncertain fact but a large body of continu-
when a physicist observes an apple exchanging ally refined observation, inference, and testable
gravitons with the earth. Moreover, if some hypothe- hypotheses. Terms such as fact and theory are used
sis concerning the gravitational behavior of objects differently in scientific literature than they are in
under certain conditions is tested and shown to be in supermarket tabloids or even in the normal conversa-
error, the theory of gravitation does not become tion of well-educated people. For clear communica-
invalid. Only the part of the theory that failed the test tion scientists, teachers,, and students must communi-
must be modified and reevaluated. cate the definitions of scientific terms and use them
Theories are replaced in their entirety infrequently with consistency.
and then only when a new theory is proposed that Notice that in the preceding discussions we have
subsumes the old theory. The new theory does so by avoided the word prove, the use of which should be
explaining everything.that the old theory explained as limited to abstract mathematics. Most scientific work
well as other evidence that mightnot have fit very does not result in infallible propositions, such as the
well in the old theory, In time the new theory may word proof seems to imply to the nonscientist. We
itself be modified or replaced; this is how science have already explored the ways in which scientific
proceeds. For example, in Columbus's time the earth ideas are tested, observations made, facts gathered,
was generally thought to be the center of the cosmos, and theories built. But science never commits itself
and the sun, moon, and planets were thought to circle irrevocably to any fact or theory, no matter how
the earth. But in this cosmology, it was difficult to firmly it appears to be established in the light of what
account for the irregular motion of many heavenly is known. Science is never dogmatic; it is prag-
bodies:,planets.sloWed, sped up, and sometimes maticalways subject to adjustment in the light of
reversed their motion. With Copernicus's proposal solid new observations like those of Joule, or new,
that the.sun, net the earth, was the center of the strong explanations of nature like those of Einstein
systeth,.the -calculations of the motions of heavenly and Darwin. This is a cardinal property of science. It
bodies were siMplified and made more sense. Helio- is not a weakness of uncertainty but a strength of self-
cefitrid theory, which better explained the known correctability. Students shuuld be carefully taught this
observations, replaced the geocentric theory. ° intrinsic value.
However, that was not the end of the story. The A similar issue is very closely related to the use of
shape of the planetary orbits was assumed to be terms. Language used to describe science must

Chapter IThe Nature of Science 17

29
 represent science accurately as an intellectual and ideas, the better new idea supersedes or absorbs the
social process. Fpr example, in discussing a particular previous ones. This open competition of ideas is a
scientific issue, students should never be told that major part of the excitement of science.
"many scientists" think this or that. Science is de-
cided not by vote but by evidence. Nor should
students be told that "scientists believe." Science is Sect,on Sdientific Practice
not a matter of belief; rather, it is.ra matter of evidence
that can be subjected to the tests of observation and .and_Efffics
objective reasoning. A phrase such as "Many scien-
tists believe . .." misrepresents scientific inquiry. It
SCM1117STS have responsibilities to their colleagues
also obscures for students what scientists really do
and hOw they come to their understandings. Educa- and to the public. Because all observations are based
tors should be encouraged to stretch their pedagogical on human senses and expectations, results must be
vocabularies. Say instead that scientists reach conclu- reported as fully and openly as possible. Scientists
sions based on evidence and that all conclusions are also have a responsibility to limit the scope and the
always subject to modificationbased on new knowl- implicatiOns of their results, not to overgeneralize
edge. Students should be told about evidence and their findings. Negative resultsthose that do not
how scientists reach their conclusions, not whether agree with the hypothesismust be reported along
scientists believesomething or how many do or do with those that do agree. (Trivial results are not
not. Scientists no more believe in their findings than a normally reported, although what seems initially
superior court judge believes in a vetrliet. trivial can turn out to be important. Therefore, records
How certain or uncertain is science? What are its must be kept carefully and made available to other
qualified researchers.)
limits? And how should these issues be presented to
students? Science should be presented in the spirit Students, especially younger ones, often feel under
evoked in the previous discussions. Detractors of pressure to come up with the right answer when
science deride the idea that science can be authorita- doing hands-on science activities. Older students
tive on the grounds that it cannot be omniscient. sometimes falsify results, usually because they just
Since scientists cannot know everything, how can we assume that they have made an error in observing,
depend on what they say they know now? Students measuring, or recording data. This conduct simply
can be misled into seeing a contradiction here: reflects human nature. To relieve this problem,
Science seems to know so much, yet changes its mind teachers and writers of instructional materials should
constantly and has more to know the more it discov- encourage students to report the results they get. They
ers. Educators should show clearly how this unique should also use open-ended experiments, not "cook-
combination of reliability and tentativeness is the book" ones and not even good ones that have as their
central characteristic and fundamental strength of only aim to duplicate a known result. In a well-
science. Show students that nothing in science is designed instmctional activity, there is no single right
decided just because someone important says it is so answer, and students' results may reveal problems
(authority) or because that is the way it has always with the experiment, the apparatus, or the conclusion.
been done (tradition). In the free marketplace of Even if their data are incorrect for some reason,
repeated trials and independent observations made by
others will uncover error. Emphasis should be placed
not on coming up with the right answer but on doing
Science is never dogmatic; it is pragmatic science the right way. Teachers should emphasize
always subject to adjustment in the light of solid discussion that revals how the errors crept in and
new observations like those of Joule, or new, whether and how anomalous observations reveal
strong explanations of nature like those of features of interest in the experimental design, the
Einstein and Darwin. This is a cardinal property equipment, or the results.
of science. For students famous cases of scientific error or
fraud perpetrated on the scientific community can be
confusing. Some such cases, notably the "Piltdown

18 Part IWhat Is Science?

30
man" hoax, have been used to suggest that science is
somehow unreliable or dishonest. Piltdown man,
Sedtion E Social Issues in Solace
discovered in rural England in the early 1900s,
appeared to be a very interesting but anomalous
specimen of early hominid that altered the prevailing OUR present world is so dependent on the discover-
understanding of human ancestry and evolution. ies of science and technology that progress is almost
Eventually revealed as the altered jaw of an orangu- universally identified with progress in science and
tan placed with the skull of a human, it was so technologyoften to the disregard for progress in
cleverly done that it influenced scientific understand- other human areas such as global politics, economics,
ing about the early evolution of humans for some and human justice. Because science is such a large
decades. Because the identity of the hoaxer is still not part of today's world, it is more important than ever
known for certain, the reason for its perpetration is a that each student understand its workings and its
mystery. Several factors conspired to keep the hoax material basis. The presentation of some topics in
from being discovered sooner. One was the absence science, however, sometimes disturbs individuals
for many decades of other fossil human remains. who hold religious or philosophical beliefs that they
Another was the inaccessibility of the fossil. A.S. feel conflict with certain findings of science.
Woodward of the British Museum kept it locked Teachers art given the job of teaching their subjects
away from investigators. Indeed, an eminent paleon- to students, of representing the knowledge in a given
tologist was thrown out of the museum bodily when area at an appropriate pedagogical level, and of
he was discovered attempting to opcn the specimen helping their students make informed decisions about
case in Woodward's absence! As time went on, issues they may encounter in their future years. How
however, and more fossils were found, a pattern of can teachers meet the challenge of explaining socially
hominid evolution in which Piltdown man was sensitive issues in science to their students? Some
increasingly anomalous was elucidated. These guidelines are given as follows:
findings contributed to widespread skepticism, held
since its discovery, that Piltdown man was authentic. Education's goal is understanding, not belief.
Eventually, after Woodward's retirement, and with
the development of new analytic tools and investiga- Education does not compel belief; the goal is to
tion of the specimen, the fraud was uncovered. Again, encourage understanding. Students do not have to
the self-correcting process of science and the impor- accept everything that is taught in school. But they do
tance of consistency of scientific results were para- need to understand the major strands of scientific
mount in solving the problem. thought because this thought is the backbone of our
How can teachers infuse the ethics of scientific intellectual heritage and the basis for the construction
practice into their curricula? They can do so by of future knowledge.
stressing laboratory-oriented, open-ended activities A major task of education is to explain the method-
designed to allow students to explore and discover ology and evidence that bears on accepted conclu-
new ideas for themselves. Such activities are mom sions. To teach about communism in a history class,
effective than self-contained lessons in internalizing for example, is not to advocate communism and
ideas for students. But even if laboratory activities are should not be construed as an attempt to undermine a
not a practicable approach to every scientific concept, student's democratic beliefs. But the students who do
the teacher may well describe the path taken by not learn in a history class the fundamentals of a
Scientists in exploring these problems, including well- philosophical-political-social system that governs
chosen examples of wrong turns and overlooked hundreds of millions of people are missing something
evidence. Students should learn that science corrects important about today's global politics as well as vital
itself in many ways. They should also understand that information that will help them make intelligent deci-
early scientists whose work has now been superseded sions in the voting booth as adults.
were not stupid, quaint, or primitive. Often false In the same way there are scientific issues that
starts are necessary in order to eliminate the incorrect arouse social controversy. Science teachers are
approaches. Simply formulating the problem is often expected to present and interpret these issues for their
an enormous step in the right direction. students, but the issues must bc dealt with as scien-

3
Chapter IThe Nature of Science 19
tific istues and discussed in the light of accepted Sometimes it is difficult to separate the science
scientific evidence.-In carrying out this obligation, the curriculum from social and ethical concerns that
teacher does not exceed.the boundaries of scientific pertain to students or are a matter of vital public
inquiry or the role of a science teacher. The teacher debate. In these cases, teachers are ethically bound to
must also make every effort to delineate and separate teach the scientific facts and the scientific perspec-
nonscientific material in reaching a scientific conclu- tives on the issue. It is perfectly acceptable to ac-
sion. knowledge that nonscientific concerns (such as legal
rights, aesthetics, and economics) bear on an issue
The educator's role Is to promote scientific that is not purely scientific but has scientific content.
understanding. But the educator must distinguish carefully between
the scientific and nonscientific components of the
Educators must present accepted scientific under-
issue and not present the latter as though they were
standing in a conscientious way and should be the former.
supported inthis goal by their communities. Any
educator who communicates science to students is
bound to encounter sensitivities to certain issues.
Socially sensitive Issues have a place In the
Some of these issues are ethical, some involve science classroom.
clarification of scientific methods and philosophy,
The following examples are meant to explore
and some-are not strictly within the realm of science.
several issues that are commonly associated with
While recognizing the right of individuals.to hold and
social sensitivity. We do not provide solutions to the
practice their-own beliefs, teachers muSt not be problems but only suggest perspectives that educators
pressured by anyone to distort or suppress science or
may use to present them to students.
to go beyond what they are,professionally obligated
and charged to teach. Administrators especially Conservation. Controversies over conservation
should be sensitive to the pressure&faced by teachers issues art wt two-sided struggles between lovers of
in communicating the philosophy, substance, techno- nature atl,; the voices of industry and progress, nor do
logical implications, and ethical issues of science. such controversies have simple solutions. But no
Slo one can be an expert on all scientific issues. workable solution of this issue or any other issue with
Every teacher must feel free to say and know when to scientific content can conflict with the relevant
say, "I don't know; that's outside my range of exper- scientific evidence 2-kl principles. Students should be
tise," and to suggest other resources to the student taught that they must evaluate public policy and
who wants to pursue the question further. choose their stances on issues, with an appreciation of
Furthermore, every teacher must feel ;lee to say the empirical constraints on the problem that science
and know when to say, "Sorry, but that's not a can provide. For example, one cannot achieve an
question for science," and explain why. Such ques- intellectually defensible stance on the use of natural
tions should be treated with respect and referred to resources without a knowledge as to which natural
family or clergy for further discussion. resources cannot be replaced and the rates at which
At times some students may insist-that certain renewable ones can be renewed. Beyond these
conclusions of science cannot be true because of considerations are those of present human needs, the
certain religious or philosophical beliefs that they need to preserve natural beauty for posterity, and the
hold. This is a difficult problem for these students and need to adjust how humans now use natural resources
their families, and such difficulties should be ac- to preserve nonrenewable ones for the future. All
knowledged and respected. It is appropriate for a these considerations require scientific understanding.
teacher to express in this regard, "I understand that Students should also understand that technology
you may have personal reservations about accepting has often brought, along with its advances, some
this scientific evidence, but it is scientific knowledge undesirable secondary effects such as pollution, acid
about which there is no reasonable doubt among rain, mutagenic agents, and biotic poisons. Such
scientists in this field, and it is my responsibility to undesirable effects can often be reduced by further
teach it because it is part of our common intellectual technological advances, at a cost that must be evalu-
heritage." ated by the standards of public policy. Scientific and

20 Part IWhat Is Scierice?

32
 Evolution is the central organizing theory of biology and has fundamental importance in othr sciences
as well. It is anf accepted scientific ex, -nation and therefore no more controversial in scientific circles
than the theories of gravitation and electron flow.

technological knowledge is essential for intelligent animals can save lives, and not just human lives. If
judgment on these issues. Cost-benefit considerations animal experimentation were forbidden, we could not
are not merely scientific questions. Whether the issue test certain vaccines and lifesaving medicines. We
is power generation or agricultural crop management, could not develop new surgical techniques, nor fight
the educator should seize the opportunity to explore epidemics of disease. And we would have to use
the relationship between science and other subjects other humans as test subjects at all stages of research.
and to help students develop the habit of rational, (Apart from the obvious ethical considerations, it is
orderly thought in an area of popular misinformation, worth noting that we would have to wait an average
emotion, and instant solutions. of 25 years for the first results of experiments on
Conservation should not be taught simply as a genetic effects, as opposed to a few weeks for mice or
matter of classic Malthusian population growth a few months for rabbits.) We could not as effectively
according to which natural resources are stripped by train new physicians, surgeons, and veterinarians.
. unchecked population control. Rather, there is now a It is sometimes difficult to conceive of how our
neo-Malthusian component: Some populations use lives would be different if animal experimentation
mom of the available resources than others. For were forbidden. One has only to look at the changes
instance, an American may use 50 times more energy in disease and death rates of infectious childhood
than the average resident of India; as 6 percent of the illnesses in our own century to realize how much we
wodd's population, the United States uses 40 percent take for granted the advances that have been built on
of the world's resources. One additional American, responsible experimentation with animal subjects.
therefore, can have a disproportionate effect on the This observation does not mean, of course, that every
world's supply of resources. Students should be animal experiment saves lives nor that laboratory
educated about these perspectives in order to help animals are always kept in the best possible condi-
them make informed judgments about their habits and tions. Public awareness of this issue should contribute
priorities and to help them to set policies for the next both to the maintenance of strict humane standards in
generation. laboratories and to the public appreciation of what
such experimentation means to public health and
Animal experimentation. This is a very difficult,
emotionally charged issue. People are very sensitive medicine. These goals should be important to all
science educators in presenting this complex and
to uses of animals that are abusive or that can be
portrayed in some lights as abusive. There are many emotional issue to students.
legitimate feelings that certain expeziments may be Evolution. Evolution is the central organizing
unnecessary to carry out or to repeat, and that the theory of biology and has fundamental importance in
good that cbmes from such work does not sufficiently other sciences as well. It is an accepted scientific
counterbalance the discomfort to the experimental explanation and therefore no more controversial in
subjects. Distress at such conditions may become scientific circles than the theories of gravitation and
dismay or disgust with the scientific community for electron flow. When scientists say that gravity is a
allowing such practices to continue. fact, this is based on many observations of the
Students need to leam how important it is to attractions that objects have for each other. What
scientists, too, that unnecessary experimentation be causes that attraction and how these forces work
avoided. Cost-benefit analyses must be considered in forms a body of investigation that comprises the
carrying out research. Concerning scientific and theory of gravitation. In the same way anyone can
medical issues, one thing is clear: The use of lab observe the workings of electricity by connecting a

Chapter 1The Nature of Science 21

battery to wires and a light bulb. It is a fact that the
bulb lights because of electrical energy, even though Some students may be concerned about evolution
the electron flow cannot be observed directly. The
and its bearing on their religious be/left. Teach-
theory of electron flow is how we explain that fact
and how electrons behave. Though we cannot see ers--and textbooksshould make it very clear
electtonsand there are probably ideas that we have that from a scientific perspective, evolution, like
about electrons that will be modified with further other scientific topics, does not bear on an
investigationwe are reasonably confident in saying individual's religious beliefs. Science is not
that the motion of the electrons explains the lighting theistic, nor is it atheistic; it does not presuppose
of the bulb. Saying that we understand how gravity
and electricity work does not mean that we under-
religious explanations.
stand everything about gravitation or electron flow.
Recently, for example, physicists were intrigued by
reports that a previously unobserved force may act on consistent and accountable explanation of these
ordinary bodies in addition to the familiar force of observations. The theory of evolution, like other
gravity. Current theory classifies all the forces of theories, is more than the sum of the facts from which
nature into four fundamental types, of which the force it is derived. It is the best explanation for the facts,
of gravity is one. If further investigation and testing and it has predictive value. How evolution has
substantiate the new reports, the theory of fundamen- workedits patterns, processes, mechanisms, and
tal forceswilthave to be modified to include a theory historycomposes the theory of evolution, which is
of the new fifth force. constantly being ziodified as new evidence emerges.
And so it iS with evolution. Just as scientists Like the idea of a fifth force in physics, new mecha-
observe the fact that.apples fall and devised the nisms of evolutionary theory, such as punctuat, d
theory of gravitation to explain the fall, scientists equilibria, species selection, and periodicity of mass
observe the fact that animals and plants change over extinction, are currcnt subjects of debate which, if
time. They constructed the theory of evolution to they turn out to be well supported by all the available
explain how these changes occurred. Scienti6ts base evidence, will modify current evolutionary theory.
the theory of evolution on observances of the se- Regardless of the existence of a fifth force, apples
quences of appearance, change, diversification, and still fall. And, regardless of whether the changes in
disappearance of forms through the fossil record. plants and animals are gradual or sporadic, the
Scientists breed wild and cultured plants and animals evidence remains that plants and animals have
and note how inherited characteristics arc modified evolved over time. Thus, the theory of evolution is
and passed on to offspring. They observe how the accepted seentific explanation of hem these
characteristics arc also modified by genetic muta- changes occurred.
tions, which contribute natural variations on which It is very important for students to understand the
natural selection acts. Scientists also observe the observed facts and evidence that contribute to and
detailed correspondence of genetic and biochemical form the basis for potential modification of the
sequences among closely related organisms that have overarching theories by which science operates and
been inferred from evidence of fossils and anatomy. advances...It is equally important for students to
Asmas predicted, there is a higher degree o' corre- understand theories, because theories give meaning to
spondence in the genetic and biochemical composi- the facts and guide further gathering of facts and
tion.of closer relatives than of more distant relatives. evidence. Without theory, facts have little meaning,
Scientists also.compare the gradual differentiation of and without facts, theories arc empty structures.
embryonic stages from nearly identical beginnings. Occasionally, allegedly scientific evidence that
To establish relationships, they identify unique appears to falsify or contravene the theories of
characteristics of development, such as going through evolution, geologic dating, thc fossil record, or other
the metamorphosis of a butterfly or the veliger stage related knowledge may be brought to the attention of
of a larval mollusk. the teacher. Criticisms of scientific evidence and
These observations constitute some of the evideme theory on scientific grounds are part of science,
that evolution has occurred, evolution is the most teachers should treat the scientific challenges to the

Chapter tThe Nature of Science 23

 understanding of evolution in the same manner that Human reproduction. To make responsible deci-
they treat challenges to other well-established scien- sions about their own lives. ..-,tudents must have
tific theories. If teachers have the background and know:edge of and respect for their own bodies. They
resources to investigate the claims, they should do so must understand not only the heart, liver, and lungs
thoroughly and scientifically. If they do not have the bui also the reproductive organs. Dangers facing our
background and resources to do so, they should citizens and others throughout the world because of
indicate that they are not prepared to deal with the sexually transmitted diseases, birth defects, and the
particular claim and that they have confidence that condition of young women who experience preg-
every effort has been made to make their curriculum nancy and motherhood long before they am ready
as scientifically accurate as possible. persist as everyday images in our technologically
Teachers should be aware that the theory of evolu- advanced world. With scientific and technological
tion has been tested and refined for over a hundred advances comes a responsibility to educate students
years and that the majority of criticisms that find their ablut these dangers.
way into popularly circulated publications have not All students should understand the reproductive
been validated scientifically; usually, the criticisms system, the causes of birth defects and advances in
have been evaluated and rejected by the scientific overcoming them, the ecological problems posed by
community. Teachers should consider the validity of overpopulation, and the means by which humans
such criticisms carefully before accepting them or regulate their reproductive rate. Particularly in the
deciding whether they are worth consideration. The past decade, which has seen the rise and rapid spread
particular case of "creation science" (or "scientific of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
creationism") has been thoroughly studied by the virus and the herpes viruses through a substantial part
leading scientific societies and rejected as not quali- of the American and global population, education on
fying as a scientific explanation. these issues is mom important than ever. We cannot
Some students may be concerned about evolution hope to stem the flood of sexually transmitted dis-
and its bearing on their religious beliefs. Teachers eases through crir society without fundamental
and textbooksshould make it very clear that from a education about their etiologies and prevention,
scientific perspective, evolution, like other scientific Overpopulation is a biological issue with distinct
topics, does not bear on an individual's religious human ramifications. It is weli known that an ecosys-
beliefs. Science is not theistic, nor is it atheistic; it tem can support only a limited number of organisms.
does not presuppose religious explanations. Science As populations gmw, they strain natural ecosystems
is concerned with the mechanics, processes, patterns, by overusing limited resources and by degrading the
and history of nature; it is neutral with respect to environment. This strain bas an ach2rse effect on the
divinity, the supemattral, or ultimate causes. In fact, quality of life and frequently opens the door for other
many of the scientists who have made important maladies such as contaminated resources and disease.
contributions to evolutionary biology, genetics, and Students must appreciate, therefore, that environ-
geology have been deeply religious persons from mental planning and research must include an analy-
many different faiths who did not find a conflict sis of how different population levels will affect the
between their religious beliefs and their scientific environment. Such populations include thc plants and
understandings. Some people however, reject the animals that humans use for food, shelter, clothing,
theory of evolution purely on the basis of religious and other purposes; and they also include humans
faith. Consistent with the State Board of Education's themselves. Technology may not find answers fast
policy, concepts in the science curriculum should not enough to countcr the impact of expanding human
be suppressed or voided on the grounds that they may populations; therefore, people will have to make
be contrary to an individual's beliefs; personal beliefs difficult but well-informed decisions about planning
should be respected and not demeaned. Thc way in families and planning their use of environmental
which scientific understanding is related to religion is resources to the best advantage.
a matter for each individual to resolve; thus, the State On the issue of human reproduction itself, many
Board's policy is that there should be a clear separa- studies have shown that students have received a
tion between science and religion. considerable amount of misinformation about sexual-

24 Part IWhat Is Science?

36
 . . . alwiwirim

Technology may not find answers fast enough to counter the impact of expanding human populations;
therefore, people will have to make difficult but well-informed decisions about planning families and
planningtheir use of environmental resources to the best advantage.

ity from their peers, and as a population they are not with clear and critical understanding of what is
sufficiently educated about this topic in their homes. understood in science, what is uncertain and to what
Public education must include reliable, scientifically degree, what is scientific and what is not, and how the
based, candid information on the anatomy and physi- scientific and technological factors bear on the
ology of the human reproductive system, menstrua- controversy. The teacher is ethically and profession-
tion, pregnancy, birth, and birth control methods, ally bound to confine science instruction to the facts,
including abstinence. Public education should include hypotheses, and theories of science. ,
a discussion of the causes and transmission of sexu- School boards, administrators, and parents must
ally transmitted diseases. These topics should be support the teaching of rigorous science, a rational
treated professionally and openly. Students should be application of science to broader issues in which
encouraged to ask questions. (See the State )oard science plays a part, and a careful study of the ethical
policy statement in the front of this document con- issues raised by scientific and technological activities
cerning excusing students from the discussion of themselves. Teachers can stress that science as a
certain subjects.) If a teacher feels uncomfortable system of knowledge is based on empirical evidence
with the subject, students should be referred to other rather than on belief. While every student ought to
personnel in the school system or to outside agencies. feel comfortable in class, a teacher must not make
These and other scientific or scientifically related accommodation at the expense of sound science or
issues may raise controversy in the science class- sound pedagogy. Science instruction should respect
room. But controversy should not be a stranger in the the private beliefs of students; on the other hand, the
classroom. The task of the science teacher is to guide teaching of scienee cannot be suppressed merely
students in the development of their abilities to because individuals disagree with it on religious or
approach controver§ial subjects coolly and rationally, philosophical grounds.

4
Chapter IThe Nature of Science 25
 Chapter 2

The Major Themes

of Science

THE themes of science are ideas that integrate the major emphasis of science curricula in order to
concepts of different scientific disciplines in ways reinforce the importance of understanding ideas
that are useful to the presentation and teaching of rather than the memorization of seemingly isolated
scientific content. As opposed to theories, which facts. Ideas connect facts, just as the framework of a
unify and make sense of facts and hypotheses related housc connects its building blocks. This vital frame-
to a particular natural phenomenon, themes arc work is missing from much of what is taught as
pedagogical tools that cut across disciplines. The science today, and it must be restored. Along with the
incorporation of themes into science curricula is a emphasis on the concepts and practices presented in
major goal of this framework. They am meant to Chapter 1, incorporation of major themes in the
integrate concepts and facts, to provide a context science curriculum is the principal focus of this
through which to present content matter, and to framework.
encourage better writing in science instructional What are themes? They could also be called big
materials. ideas, overarching concepts, unifying constructs, or
The major themes of science arc explained in this underlying assumptions. They are distinct from facts
chapter. In Part II, the content portion of this frame- and concepts. A fact is a statement based on con-
work, each paragraph ends with a bracketed reference firmed observation and inference, such as the number
to themes that may suggest ways the material can be of electrons in an atom of iron, the date of the discov-
presented. We stress that many thematic organizations ery of helium, or the descent of birds from dinosaurs.
are possible and present here some criteria and possi- A concept often involves several facts; for example,
bilities for developing themes in science curricula. the concept of continental drift, the need for repeat-
able observations in constructing science, or how
magnets work. Themes are larger ideas; they link the
Section A Introduction theoretical structures of the various scientific disci-
plines and show how they arc logically parallel and
cohesive. Scientific literacy lies not only in knowing
THIS Science Framework differs from, previous facts and concepts but also in understanding the
frameworks and addenda in its emphasis on themes of connections that make such information manageable
science. This section discusses (1) why dimes are and useful.
essential; (2) what some of the major themes in What am the major themes of science? Science can
science are; and (3) how instructional materials and be organized in many ways; those presented here
curricula can incorporate themes in their presenta- should be regarded as only one way to integrate the
tions of science. overarching concepts of science into a curriculum
As Project 2061 of the American Association for that spans scientific disciplines. Thc suggested
the Advancement of Science (AAAS) has noted in its arrangement of themes is designed to encompass and
book, Science for All Americans, themes should be a connect a great deal of the basic data and evidence of

26 PartIVhat Is Science? 38
science. No doubt there are alternative arrangements
that would work equally well. The important point is
that at least some thematic structure will improve the Scienee can be organized in.many ways; those
recitation of disunited scientific-facts and examples presented here should be regarded as only one
that has come to pass for science in many current way to integrate the overarching concepts of
curricula and instructional materials. science into a curriculum that spans scientific
Six themes, explained in the following pages, arc disciplines. The suggested arrangement of themes
developed in this framework. They are: is designed to encompass and connect a great
1. Energy deal of the basic data and evidence of science. No
2. Evolution doubt there are alternative arrangements that
3. Patterns of Change
4. Scale and Structure would work equally well.
5. Stability
6. Systems and Interactions "Science is constructed of facts, as a house is of
The presentation of science could be organized stones. But a collection of facts is no more a
along other thematic lines; possibilities include science than a heap of stones is a house."
actions, reactions, interactions, matter, diversity and
Henri Poincari (180-1934), Science and Hypothesis
unity, hierarchy, energy and matter, and many others.
While the particular configuration and nutber of
themes is not crucial, the organization of content
along thematic lines is. music, or drama, there are essential elements of
Educators and developers of instructional materials aesthetics, such as balance and symmetry, direction,
are encouraged te weave these or alternative thematic form and proportion, and tension and release, that
strands into science curricula. The main criterion of a permeate human expression and give meaning and
good theme is its ability to integrate facts and con- purpose to our understanding of how art affects us. A
cepts into overarching constructs; thus, diversity and theme in science might be compared to a theme in a
unity would make a geod theme; conservation, symphony or a novel. In a symphony, a theme is a
applied to biology or physics, might also. Dinosaurs mpeated musical idea that gives structure and unity to
or apples, no matter how diversely or inventively the music. In a novel, a theme such as success, war
used, are not themes in the sense described here. and peace, love, or duty provides a conceptual basis
Themes are also not the same as theories, which for the unfolding of the plot. In science a theme is
were discussed at length in the preceding chapter. mom like the theme of a novel, whereas the content
Theories are organized around content in particular or subject matter of science might be similar to the
disciplines of science, such as the theories of gravita- plot of a novel. A theme represents a recurring idea
tion in physics, evolution in biology, or continental that provides a context for explaining facts and
drift in geology. Themes, such as energy or patterns events.
of change, cut across sp:cific content matter. By
showing the interrelationships of different facts and
ideas, themes serve primarily as pedagogical tools for Section B 'Why Themes Are'EsSential
the presentation of science.
With themes as a major emphasis, science curricula
align with similar advances in other fields of educa- THEMES are necessary in the teaching of science
tion. These major themesevolution, energy, pat- because they are necessary in the doing of science. A
terns of change, and so forthoccur again and again scholar does not merely collect facts and categorize
in the sciences, whether one studies ecology, plate them. Facts are useful only when tied to the larger
tectonics, meteorology, or organic chemistry. This is theoretical questions of the natural worldhow it
not surprising; unifying constructs are a part of any works and how its parts fit together. Charles Darwin
philosophically united discipline. Themes also appear understood this truth perfectly well and expressed it
in the arts, for example. In the study of painting, eloquently in a letter to Fawcett:

Chapter 2The Major Themes of Science 27

t
4"...1
.
 About 20 years ago there was much talk that geolo-
gists ought only to observe and not theorize.... And I
well remember someone saying at the time that at this
rate a man may as well go out to a gravel pit and
count the pebbles and describe the colours.... How
odd that anyone should not see that all observation
must be for or against some view, if it is to be of any
AS noted before, this selection of themes is not the
service. only possible configuration nor even the optimal
number. These themes am emphatically not intended
Darwin's message is that discrete pebbles of to be the titles of textbook chapters, units, or instmc-
psticulate knowledge build nothing. They must build tional programs. Thcy are suggested as means of
an overarching structum. There must be somc the- linking facts and idcas within and among scientific
matic connection and theoretical integration in order disciplines. They are not intended to be buzzwords.
for science to be a philosophical discipline and not Indeed, the purpose of including thematic strands in
merely a collecting and dissecting activity. A the- science curricula would be dcfcated if the focus of
matic basis to a science curriculum reflects what science cducation now shifted to constant iteration of
scicntists really do and what science really is. these isolated terms. Rather, themes should be
Recent critics of science education have been integrated in their appropriate philosophical and
dismayed by the lack of progress in students' under- empirical forms into existing curricula, to makc the
standing of the-major concepts and issues in science. curricula more unified and more logically developed
They cite the historical (and current) fragmentation of for students. In other words, it does not matter
the major disciplines of science and complain that whether or not publishers and teachers usc these cxact
idvia seem to be the stock-in-trade of science lessons. themes in teaching science as long as they communi-
Paul Hurd, Professor Emeritus at Stanford University, cate explicitly the interconnections of facts through
has oliserved that science is often taught "as a foreign major idcas of science.
language" in which isolated terms and apparently
meaningless facts arc arrayed for students' reading
and regurgitation. Instead, themes should connect the
realms of science; they should be stressed as students Energy
learn science; and they should also provide a frame-
work to guidc teachers in developing instructional Encrgy is a central conccpt of the physical sciences
tools. that pervades biological and geological sciences
Science and technology arc expanding so rapidly because it underlies any system of interactions.
that a thematic approach for students to use in learn- Energy can be taught as a bond linking various
ing science is more than just helpful. It is essential. scientific disciplines. Defined in physical terms,
Each branch of science has accumulated an enormous energy is the capacity to do work or the ability to
amount of detailed information. If the basic concepts makc things move; in chemical terms, it provides the
of one field can be transferred by connection or basis for reactions between compounds; and in
analogy to another field, students will understand that biological terms it provides living systems with the
there is a purpose and a logic to the system. If curric- ability to maintain their systems, to grow, and to
ula and instructors are successful in developing reproduce.
themes for students to usc in connecting and integrat- In thc physical sciences, energy can be explored in
ing science facts, then this intellectual habit will carry various manifestations (heat, light, sound, electricity,
over and cnrich other fields and disciplines. In this and so forth), in conversions from one Lan to
way an integrative, thematic approach to learning will another. Energy is perhaps the most important theme
help students not only to develop a meaningful to the physical scicnccs because all physical phenom-
framework for understanding science but also to ena and interactions involve energy. Whether one
approach problems in other disciplines as well as in discusscs the energy of hcat, light, sound, magnetism,
their daily lives as citizens, consumers, and workers. or electricity; the conversions of energy from kinctic

28 Part IWhat Is Science? 40

to potential or from electrical to heat or sound; or and all contribute to the evolution of the universe as
even the products formed by the combination ef an we know it.
acid and base, energy is involved. Evolution is mom than simple change because it is
In the earth sciences the flow of the earth's energy change with a direction: that direction is time.
comes from two sources. First, them are forces within Through time, life has evolved from simple forms
the earth, fueled by nuclear mactions within the into the present array of organisms on earth. Through
mantle and core, that translate through the crust and time, the earth has also evolved from its original
are responsible for the processes that drive mountain formation: oceans have formed; mountains have risen
building, continental drift, volcanic eruptions, and and have been leveled; continents and oceans have
earthquakes. Second, there are the forces on the been formed, sundered, and re-formed; and the
surface of the earth, such as wind, precipitation, histories of past oceans and terranes (sections of land
physical and chemical reactions, and the activities of buffeted by tectonic plate action) have left their
living organisms (mostly driven by the sun's energy), records in the geologic column. Evolution is not
that alter the face of the earth and are responsible for confined to the earth and its systems but extends to
many geological processes. the entire universe. The progression of time has seen
In the biological sciences the flow of energy galaxies flung across space, interactions among
through individuals drives metabolism, growth, and celestial bodies influencru by their relative positions
development. The flow of energy through ecosystems and gravitational attractions, solar systems flourish
determines how organisms interact through the and die, and the universe expand at a changing rate. It
trophic levels of communities. Because all life is literally true that "even the stars have histories,"
requires energy, biochemistry is really the study of and these histories are known in considerable detail.
how energy facilitates biochemical reactions that Evolution embodies history and therefore is a part
allow the body to synthesize biochemical molecules of every discipline in which history has a role.
the basis of growth. Current evidence indicates that the universe is at least
The theme of energy is important to considerations 16 billion years old and that the present solar system
of ethical behavior and the relationships of science condensed in more or less its present form about 5
and technology to society. Sources of energy on earth billion years ago. The earth is about 4.6 billion years
include solar, wind, and water power, geotheimal old, the oldest known rocks are nearly 4 billion years
energy; nuclear energy; and fossil fuels. Some old, the first oceans are known from about 3.8 billion
sources of energy are virtually inexhaustible, such as years ago, and the first forms of life from about 3.5
solar, wind, water, and nuclear. Renewable sources, billion years ago. In order to teach life science, earth
such as water power, can be recycled and replaced, science, or astronomy, evolution should be a funda-
while nonrenewable sources, such as fossil fuels, mental, central concept of the curriculum.
cannot be replaced. Students should appreciate these Evolution, which Darwin described as "descent
distinctions, the limitations of some sources of with modification," is the central organizing principle
energy, and the need to conserve them or avoid their in life science. Theodosius Dobzhansky said that
use. nothing in biology makes sense without it. Evolution
explains both the inherited similarities and the
diversification inherent in all forms of life. While
providing a comparative basis for Lludies of anatomy,
structure, adaptation, biochemistry, and ecology,
Evolution evolution is the basis for classifying living things and
Evolution in a general sense can be described as the operating principle on which biomedical research
change through time, and virtually all natural entities is founded.
and systems change through time. But evolution is History illuminates the study of all events and
not just the history of natural things; it is also the patterns in nature because these events leave their
study of patterns and processes that shape these marks on their products. Light spectra emanating
histories. These patterns and processes may be from distant stars can tell astronomers how old thc
astrophysical, geological, biological, or biochemical, star system is and where it stands in its life cycle. The

Chapter 2The Major Themes of Science 29

 sediments of natural geological features, such as the
A third subtheme is that of chance. The randomness
Grand Canyon, are traces of the past that can be read of Brownian movement, genetic mutations, the
like a history book, telling what kinds of environ-
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, and the toss of
ments existed through time in a particular place, and coins are familiar concepts in science curricula.
how that place has changed. Fossils, of course, are the Chance has played an important role in the develop-
signature of life's history and evolution. Living things
ment of molecules, structures, and societies because it
also show the marks of history, by retaining charac-
presents natural variation in what is possible. Of
teristics, however modified, that have been inherited course, each case is determined by specific factors
from their ancestors. (An example is the bones of the and is anything but random. However, we use the
mammalian middle ear, inherited and modified from
term chance to describe what may happen in any
the ancestors of the first mammals, in which they given case, given the possibilities. For example, the
were bones of the lower jaw.) Using evidence of chance impact of a giant asteroid with the earth
inherited characteristics, scientists classify living billions of years ago appears to have thrown into
things into natural evolutionary groups.
space a chunk of earth that eventually became the
Within evolution there are some recurring
moon.,The chance colonization of a new continent by
subthemes that can be woven into instructional
a small group of mammals triggered the adaptive
curricula. One such subtheme is direction, and, as radiation of horses in the New World; such chance
noted earlier in the treatment of evolution, time
events through the history of the Tertiary period, back
provides the direction to evolution. In most natural and forth between America and Europe, fostered the
systems, what happens next depends to a large extent evolution of horses. Random mutations are typical
on what has happened before. In ecosystems, succes-
chance events; yet such mutations need the right
sion of a biome is more likely to have a predictable
combination of a genetic and physiological environ-
direction based on previous successional stages of the
ment, to say nothing of the adaptive and physical
biome than it is to be random, because one succes-
environment of an organism, to be successful in their
sional community sets the stage for the next. The effects.
evolution of life on earth has been facilitated by the
Chance factors important in the history of life
evaution of the atmosphere, which the organisms on
include the unpredictable effects of genetic recombi-
earth have changed substcruially through time. This
nation, the restructuring of the genome, and the
has been an interactive procesf; (see a related discus-
migration of new individuals in and out of a popula-
sion under the theme of systems and interactions). tion and of populations into new areas. On a larger
A related subtheme is that of constraints because, as scale the introduction of predators or competitors,
just no"):1, what happens next is frequently con-
long-term and short-term changes in climate, and
strained by what has happened before. Other kinds of
environmental catastrophes are all chance factors that
constraints are physicochemical; they place limits on shape the history of the earth and its life.
the future potential of systems. (If bones and shells
were made of silicates instead of calcium phosphate
and cacium carbonate, how would the architecture of
life differ?) Some constraints are historical in the
sense of descent: Organisms, as they evolve, have to Patterns of Change
work with the genetic tools they have inherited to
modify their stmctures into new adaptations. (Verte- Change through time, of course, is one pattern of
brates, for example, are built on a four-limbed change, but there arc other kinds, Rates and patterns
pattem; in the course of vertebrate evolution, wings of change are essential features of the natural world.
for Hying have had to be fashioned from existing Analyses of changes help us to describe and under-
limb systems and have not sprung full-blown as new stand what is happening in a natural system and, to
structures from the vertebral columns.) So there are some extent, control changes (particularly in techno-
strong constraints on evolution. There are constraints logical applications). Understanding different kinds
on physical phenomena, too. The sun affects and of changes helps us to predict what will happen next.
constrains planetary conditions of climate, geophysi- Knowing about different patterns of change helps us
cal processes, and rates of rotation and revolution. to identify patterns of nature as we encounter them

30 Part IWhat Is Science?

42
 and to look for underlyingmechanisms and connec- unpredictable in details but in a larger sense are very
tions..Pattems of change can be usefully divided into predictable, and these include the examples just
three types: (1) trendS;.(2) cycles; and (3) irregular mentioned. The percentage of heads in a long series
changes. Some systems or processes show more than of coin tosses is expected to approximate 50 percent,
one kind of pattern of change. but in a short series the fluctuation from this figure
Changes that occur in steady trends are not neces- may be great. The toss of a single coin is considered
sarily all steady in the same sense, but they do such a randomly govemed event that we use it, for
progress in one direction and have fairly simple instance, as an arbiter of fairness to assign the kickoff
mathematical descriptions. Examples include the at the start of football games.
C velocity of falling objects in acceleration, the decay
of radioactive material, and the colonization of
offshore islands by continental plants and animals.
Cyclical changes can be defined as an interval of
time during which a sequence or recurring sequences Scale and Structure
of events or phenomena are completed; they are
The kinds of structures that can be described in the
characterized by the range in variation from a maxi-
natural world are many. The diversity of life, of
mum to minimum, by qualitative distinctions that
geological forms and microstructures, of chemical
appear and reappear, and so forth. Cyclical changes
and physical structures, configurations, combinations,
are often found in systems containing feedback and interactions appears to be almost endless. And it
mehanisms or where a system depends on the
can be endlessly described in instructional programs,
periodicity of another system (such as the life cycles
often to the exclusion of other important themes in
of annual plants and animals, which are dependent on
science. The point is to show how different kinds of
the earth's annual revolution). Cyclical changes are structures are related, how they explain and illumi-
common to living systems: They include life cycles,
nate each other, and how structure at different hierar-
seasonal cycles, biochemical cycles of nutrients,
chical levels (a phenomenon of scaling) shows unique
water, gases, and so forth; and the flow of energy and
matter through food webs and food chains. In earth properties at each level.
The structure of the natural world requires language
science cyclical changes include the various planetary
to explain it, but there are many ways to describe
cycles and their effects on seasons, tides, and
natural phenomena. Customarily, we recognize a
weather, the rock cycle; the cycles of natural com-
phenomenon and give it a name that describes the
pounds such as water, minerals, and so forth; and the
phenomenon in the terms that make the most sense to
great geophysical tectonic cycles of mountain build-
us. Sometimes in science curricula, remembering the
ing, plate movement, and subduction, coupled with
names and their definitions seems to become an end
cycles of deposition, lithification, and erosion. In the
physical sciences, cyclical phenomena include sound in itself. This is partly because scientific terminology
is complex. A name, however, should not become
waves and ocean waves, feedback in electronic
more important than the phenomenon being described
systems, and the action/reaction systems of chemis-
or than its empirical or logical relationships with
try, particularly cell chemistry.
other phenomena. Pure description, as Darwin's
Irregular changes arc those that manifest the natural
quotation in the preceding section points out, is not of
unpredictability of systems. These were discussed in
much use until it is employed in the service of an
a itlated way under the theme of evolution. Random
changes may occur in reaction to small changes in idea.
stable conditions; some, for example, may appear
The structure of matterwhether molecules,
mountain ranges, or ecosystemscan generally be
cyclical but actually are never repeated in exactly the
approached in several ways. One way is reductionist,
same way. These include the motions and periodici-
a continuing search for the minutest levels of opera-
ties of planetary bodies, the predator-prey cycles of
tion of natural phenomena. Research in the genetic
ecosystems, population cycles and the dynamic
code, the microstructure of cells, the lattice of a
equilibrium of populations, and plant succession
crystal, and the properties of neutrinos are all in-
cycles. Some random pattems of change may be

Chapter 2The Major Themes of Science 31

4
 tended to explore the finest-scale workings of the shows how parts function and how thcir actions work
natural universe. The complementary way to study to support the whole system. The function of the
the same natural phenomena is synthetic, in which all deer's legs in running, for example, is an important
the levels of phenomena in a system are examined to
part of its survival, and its locomotory adaptations
see what roles they play in the overall behavior of the can be contrasted with those of a crobadile or an
system. In a description of the structure ofany elephant. The deer's digestive system, with its
system, both approaches are useful. One can reduce adaptations to digest plant material efficiently, also
the study of an ecosystem to observations on individ- contributes to its overall survival. In a steel building,
ual organisms, their interactions with other organ- the function of cach beam and the walls connecting
isms, and their own internal metabolic workings. them extends the microstructure and strength im-
Conversely, a vast body of knowledge can be synthe- parted by the arrangements of the atoms in the steel.
sized about an ecosystem, including its interactions of
predation, competition, and coevolution and its
diversity and richness of species; these patterns and
processes can be-compared to those of other ecosys-
tems. Stability
There are component levels to the structures of
most natural systemswhether one considers the Stability refers to constancy; that is, the ways in
hierarchy from atoms to molecules to compounds in which systems do not change and why. The ultimate
chemistry, or the hierarchy from organdies to cells to fate of many systems is to settle into a balanced
tissues to organs to individuals to populations, steady state or a state of equilibrium. In such states qll
species, and so on in biological organisms. What is forces are balanced. It is important to distinguish
usually striking about the structure of any natural between the state of equilibrium and the stcady state.
system is that cach level of its hierarchy has what are The former is typified by a person sitting on a step of
called emergent properties; that is, the phenomena at a stopped escalator, the latter by a person walking
one level of the hierarchy cannot always be predicted down a moving escalator just as fast as the escalator
from knowledge of another level. Somc properties, of moves upward. Equilibrium is rare in living systems
course, are readily predictable from other levels because living systems are inherently dynamic. (What
such as the properties of diamond from knowledge of physicists call steady state is what chemists and
the tetrahedral arrangement of carbon atoms. Others biologists call dynamic equilibrium.)
are less readily determined; for example, one could There am several kinds of equilibrium. A system
scarcely predict the behavior of a deer simply by can be in static equilibrium, as when a rock rests at
knowing the structure of its liver. The behavior of the the foot of a cliff, or in dynamic equilibrium, where
deer is an emergent property of the level of its the surface appearance is steady but much action is
structure that interacts with its environment and occurring at underlying levels. An example is a dish
cannot be easily reduced to lower levels of its struc- of water and carbon dioxide in equilibrium. Equal
ture. numbers of water and carbon dioxide molecules am
The theme of scale and structure is intimately tied always escaping into the atmosphere and returning to
with that of systems and interactions because most the solution, yet observable concentrations and
systems are studied at some scale. As noted above, pressures remain in a steady state. Other examples are
one could study a deer in several ways: as a part of an the cellular and metabolic homeostasis of an individ-
ecosystem; as a natural system of its own with ual organism and species and populational densities
circulatory, respiratory, and other functions; or as a in an ecosystem.
host for many living systems of bacteria, parasites, Stability is related to the idea that nature is predict-
and othcr organisms. The importance of any struc- able. Given a set of initial experimental conditions,
tural level in a hierarchy depends on mescale being results arc expected to be replicable. Indeed, failure to
studied. obtain reproducibility begins an immediate search for
The interplay of structure and function is another uncontrolled variables. Science is based on observa-
important component of scale and structure because It tions and set in a testable framework of ideas. Scicn-

32 Part IWhat Is Science?

44
-
tific theories and laws usually remain fairly stable Feedback is an important feature of interactions in
because they are based on consistent evidence. many systems. We are all familiar with the squeal
There is only an apparent contradiction between the from a loudspeaker as a microphone is placed too
theme of stability and those of evolution and patterns close to it, but some forms of feedback arc not so
of change. The different themes may be applied to immediate. If a deer population increases in an area
different situations or to different parts of the same one year it may overgraze its habitat. As a result the
natural situation. For example, the apparent stability starvation rate may increase the next year, and the
in the composition of a lush tropical forest may mask population may be reduced to its original carrying
constant change in its plant and animal populations. capacity. In turn, the abundance or condition 3f other
Students will learn to recognize these concepts, organisms that depend on the deer for part of their
differentiate between them, and appreciate when it is biotic interactions as well as the entire system and its
appropriate to describe natural systems in these terms. interactions are affected. (Obviously, there is a lesson
here for human intervention and interaction with
other living things.)

Systems and Interactions Section D Incorporating Themes

Natural'systems may include solar systems, ecosys-
tems, individual organisms, and chemical and physi-
cal systems. By defining the boundaries of a system, THE role that themes play in science programs will
a study of the system and its parts and interactions is ultimdtely depend on the knowledge base of class-
possible. room teachers and the techniques they employ.
There are many kinds of interactions in systems. Incorporating themes into the science curriculum is
The components of an ecosystem (individual species) most likely to happen when there is close and contin-
may interact through predation, competition, com- ual dialogue between teachers, science specialists,
mensalism, mutualism, parasitism, or any number of university faculty, and curriculum developers.
othcr patterns. At any time, a single component of a Connecting the important science concepts with
system can be interacting in various ways. A deer in science themes will improve students' ability to make
an ecosystem can be a herbivore, an item of prey for a more meaningful the relationships between science
carnivore, and a living system itself with many concepts and other related disciplines.
subsystems of life functions (circulation, respiration, This section develops a number of ways that themes
digestion, and so forth). To study systems, we gener- can be used to enhance the science curriculum.
ally focus on one or a few aspects of interactions at a
time to avoid an overload of information. These inter-
actionsare commonly described in simplified terms
as models. Models almost never simulate all the fac-
tors that are interacting, nor all the ways in which the Themes should be used to ir.tegrate
factors interact, but they do provide a way of describ- concepts and facts at all :evels of the
ing natural phenomena that are organized in systems. curriculum.
Some aspects of systems can be studied in the
language of technology: input and output. Air and Science is too often presented as an endless and
fuel go into an engine, and mechanical energy, detailed description of natural phenomena, a parade
exhaust, and heat come out. Carbon dioxide, solar of seemingly unconnected experiments and activities
energy, and water react in a chloroplast to produce Themes can integrate these separate pieces of infor-
sugars, oxygen, energy, and heat in the photosyn- mation into broad and logically cohesive structures in
thetic system. The fruit, seeds, and oxygen that arc which relationships among pieces of information arc
the products of flowering plants are input for animals shown to illuminate the phenomena that arc being
in the same ecosystem. described.

Chapter 2The Major Themes of Science 33

 For example, when describing natural phenomena, Now consider a more vertical concept: how themes
instructional materials frequently present a series of
can be develoPed through grade levels, continuing
boldfaced tenns that are then defined, often using with the theme of energy. An elementary teacher can
other terms that also require definition. Science
explain to students that energy is needed to make
instruction thus becomes little more than an exercise things move or work. Experimenting with different
in the memorization of terms. Through the use of
kinds of levers, the students can learn that some tasks
themes, such as those of scale and structure and require more energy than others. A simple pinwheel
systeMs and interactions, students can see how the can bc used to illustrate that there am many different
parts fit together logically and how the information forms of energy. You can make the pinwheel move
they arc learning is used to describe other kinds of by blowing on it, or you can hold it in the wind, or
phenomena. A flower's parts can be named, de-
you can place it in front of a jet of steam from a
scribed, and detailed, but this information is more kettle, or you can attach it to a small electric motor.
useful and more vivid to a student if these parts are In the upper elementary grades, such an activity can
described in terms of how they facilitate reproduction also be used to demonstrate the conversion of energy,
or how their great diversity evolved from a basic
floral plan or how they compare with reproductive
a very important concept. In the higher grades the
forms of energy can bc classified as light, heat,
systems in other kinds of plants and animals. electrical, nuclear, and so on. The flow of energy in
The integration of themes into science curricula living organisms and through ecosystems can be
does not mean that the usual curricular divisions of
studied, modeled, and measured. Complex social and
physical, earth, and life sciences need be discarded; in
ethical issues involving scientific information about
fact, they should not be. Within the individual disci-
sources of energy for humans can be discussed and
plines, themes need to be instituted and developed
evaluated in light of this information.
throughout a year's study and from one year to It is possible that educators and providers of
another. In a general science curriculum, there is even
educational materials may wish to use themes crea-
more opportunity to show how individuzl disciplines tively in the organization of one or more disciplines
are connected by thcmatic strands. Rather than being and' ai various grade levels. Energy is frequently
reorganized around themes, science curricula should found in curricula in these contexts, especially in
bc permeated by themes.
physical or general science programs. This device is
Consider an example of the theme of energy. In the encouraged as a way to show the interconnectedness
physical sciences, energy can bc explained in the
of scientific knowledge. But it is not mandatory or
context of basic chemical reactions and physical
even recommended to reorganize the entire curricu-
-phenomena. Energy is required for or is a product of lum to do so, as long as thematic strands permeate
most chemical reactions. The physical forms of
curricula to provide depth of meaning and integration
energykinetic and potentialare basic concepts of of information.
physics. In the earth sciences, energy drives geo-
Of course, not all themes are for all teaeners. The
physical processes of mountain building and conti- theme of stability, for example, may be difficult to
nental drift, erosion and deposition of sediments, bring to kindergartners in any context. The theme of
weather, and the expansion of the universe. In the life evolution may bc equally inappropriate for a chemis-
sciences, energy is the basis of growth and develop- try teacher trying to convey molecular structure and
ment of all living things: Each must gain energy in
chemical reactions. This should not be of concern.
some way. Metabolism is based on deriving energy The same material can be presented in the context of
from biochemical processes. If a general science
energy or scale and structure. In teaching the primary
teacher discusses all of these topics in the course of a grades, teachers can best build the foundations for
year, the theme of energy will surface again and science education by (I) instilling in students the joy
again, and students will see it as a major, overarching of science through enjoyable, expanding activities
idea of science. This is what might be called a
and experiences; and (2) beginning to teach the
horizontal use of the theme of energy to cut across
processes of science, showing how they form the
disciplinary lines. basis of all scientific activity.

34 Pan IWhat Is Science?

46

L
 isolated. Activities should be used to explain terms
and concepts in the service of themes because active
learning better promotes the internalization of ideas
Themes should be used to integrate the and processes.
main subfields of scientific disciplines.
By using themes to integrate the principal subfields
of scientific disciplines, teachers can help students to
see the logical and material interrelationships of all The emphasis on themes in science
sciences. For example, the_subfields of life science requires a recoitsideration of how much
such as genetics, evolution, and paleontology must be detailed material should be Included In
clearly connected. Genetics provides the understand-
ing for the raw material of evolutionary change as
science curricula.
seen in the fossil record. These connections are the Explaining the connections created by the use of
principal ideas by which the facts of the subfields are themes in a curriculum takes time and space. To some
explained. extent omission of various traditional terms and
The theme of evolution, in particular, as well as concepts that are not well integrated in current
those of patterns of change and scale and structure, instructional materials will be required. In evaluating
are unifying strands in the biological science curricu- what should be included, teachers and curriculum
lum. In a similar way the understanding of plate planners should give weight to those terms and con-
tectonics must be shown to proceed from lines of cepts that support and develop the basic ideas of a
evidence coming from many different fields of field and the overarching themes that connect these
science, including reversals of the earth's magnetic ideas.
field, the geophysical data of matching mountain Current science textbooks are plagued by "the
ranges, the technological monitoring of crustal "hot mentioning problem." This is what happens when an
spots," the development of sonar, and the paleonto- instructional program tries to include too many terms
logical evidence of ancient distributiOns of plants and and concepts. They end up bcing mentioned instead
animals. Instructional materials must explain and of being explained. There is no optimal number of
emphasize these thematic connections in order to be terms that should be covered and defined in a curricu-
acceptable. lum at a given grade level. If a term serves no further
use in a chapter or unit than to define itself, its utility
must be questioned. More than likely, this tenn is
covered but not mally explained or integrated in any
useful way.
Some traditions of science education, including
Themes in science should direct the design
time-honored ones, may be found faulty if examined
of classroom activities. with the above considerations. For example, students
Themes can be used to connect classroom activities traditionally learn in earth science classes that there
and to provide them with a logical sequence and are three kinds of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and
scope of instmction. For example, in a study of how sedimentary. This taxonomy is a false one. Igneous
energy flows through biological systems, students can rocks are extruded from within the earth, but they can
initially monitor the flow of nut.rients through a few be laid down just like sedimentary layers, which form
easily kept organisms, such as houseplants, parame- through the action of wind, water, and ice. Both
cia, flour beetles, or hamsters. Later, they can apply igneous and sedimentary rocks are subject to meta-
this knowledge to a consideration of the energy flow morphism by the pressure of overlying rocks through
through ecosystems via food chains and food webs. long spans of time. These kinds of rocks are not
Using the theme of energy to connect these two mutually exclusive. Furthermore, their explication as
activities fosters a spiraling effect of the concept diffemnt kinds obscures the processes of sedimenta-
rather than the treatment of the two activities as tion, metamorphism, and extrusion from within the

Chapter 2The Major Themes of Science 35

 earth's mantle that are only three of many important science in a thematic context. How do these facts and
geological mechanisms. These processes of geology
concepts, for example, form cyclical patterns, show
could better be explained through the themes of
the hierarchical scale in the system, demonstrate the
systems and interactions, patterns of change, evolu- role of eVolution in producing this pattern, underscore
tion, and energy.
the importance of energy flGw? This is more interest-
The emphasis on themes in science curricula ing than the typical chapter review heading "What
provides a focus around which the terms and concepts Have We Learned?"
given in an instructional program may be evaluated.
One danger, however, is to take too literally the
limited number of themes that are suggested in this
framavork. Other formulations are possible: Diver-
sity, matter, hierarchy, motion, and conservation are Themes can be used to lay out basic
exantles of other themes around which curricula
principles of science that will operate in
might be organized, and there are certainly many
more..0ther sets of themes am also possible; Project many subfields and other disciplines of
2061, for example, uses systems, models, constancy, science.
pattems of change, evolution, and scale. The point is For example, the understanding of scale and
for educators to ask of curricula and instructional structure is applicable whether one studies geological
programs, Why is this material being included here? structures, biological structures, chemical structures,
What larger purpose does it serve in explaining this or what physicists call the structure of matter. The
discipline or concept Of science? Themes provide student who expects to find systems in which given
some guidelines for this kind of evaluation. interactions will be encountered and in which emer-
gent properties of each level in the structural hierar-
chy will be explained and related is a student who is
really being trained to understand science. Students
can learn to expect that history leaves its mark on
Using themes In curricula can improve the many details of structure, whether one studies life
science or earth science.
quality of prose.
Learning how to construct and apply conceptual
When logical and structural relationships are empha- models, one of the tools of advanced science, depends
sized in instructional materials, the writing is often on the ability to see patterns, interactions, scale in
improved. To explain relationships and themes ade- structure, and the flow of energy in a variety of ways.
quately, writers will probably have to abandon typical These are all manifestations of the basic themes
readability formulas. (This idea is considered at elucidated here. Furthermore, the understanding of
greater length in Chapter 8, "Instructional Materials themes such as evolution and patterns of change can
Criteria.") help a student to anticipate concepts not only in
science but also in historysocial science,
Englishlanguage arts, and other disciplines.
The use of conceptual themes will not by itself
solve all the problems of science education, and
educators should not be tempted to view themes as a
Assessment should be thematically based. new panacea. However, the incorporation of themes
in thoughtful and judicious ways should improve the
The use of themes not only encourages better
integration of facts and ideas, the interrelationships of
logical connections in science textbooks but also
theories and of disciplines, and the quality of instruc-
encourages such connections in review and assess- tional materials. It is clear that science education will
ment materials and in activities. The strict repetition
not begin to reflect more closely on what science is
of facts learned in chapters and units can be replaced
all about until the overarching themes and ideas of
by activities that encourage students to discover and
science become the most important feature of science
construct connections between the important ideas of education at all instructional levels.

36 Part IWhat Is Science? 48

37
 Overview

THE content of a science program is its heart. To take

major.themes of science, which are identified at the
the thematic appmach described in this framework, conclusion of the paragraph. They could often, just as
educators must make connections among scientific appropriately, be written from other perspectives and
disciplines that have traditionally been taught as addmss different themes. To illustrate this point, con-
sepäratesubjects. This can be accomplished in a great sider the first set of questions in Chapter 3, Section G,
many ways. What follows should be interpreted as an Energy: Light, which are: "How does light enable us
illustration of one way that a conceptual apprbach to see? What are the sources of light? What is light?"
might be organized within the traditional content A narrative written for the kindergarten through grade
areas of science. The themes thaLannotate the content three response to those questions from the perspective
detailed hem are only one set tint encompasses the of the themes of energy, scale and structure, and
important ideas of science; other sets are not only ac-
systems and interactions might be expressed as
ceptable but also encouraged. Because this organiza- follows:
tional scheme is somewhat different from previous
ones, a few words of explanation are necessary. When we see something, our eyes and brains are
Most sections begin with a paragraph about the responding to the light that comes from objects we
unifying theories in the discipline. These paragraphs are looking at. Light itself is not something that we
are meant to guide teachers in making the connec- see or touch. Light comes from objects and enters our
tions among the ideas within the discipline. There is a eyes, the organ of the body that is sensitive to light. A
difference between theories, which are conceptual picture of what we are looking at is formed in our
and empirical entities within the disciplines, and eyes and brain. Light is not like other things; it is not
themes, which are pedagogical tools that cut across ordinary matter. The eye can see both very dim and
disciplines. The theoretical summary is followed by a very bright light, but there are limits. Because the sun
set of questions that are central to the content area. is so bright a source of light, too much light enters
The descriptions of content appropriate to various our eyes if we look at it directly, and serious damage
grade levels are then developed in the form of narra- to our eyes occurs. Mc't objects do not emit their
tive responses to these questions. The purposes of this own light but reflect light from other sources. We can
technique are to eliminate the emphasis on facwids--- see them by means of this reflected light. The sun is
the isolated facts and definitions that have long our primary source of light. Other sources include
dominated science instructionand to provide a electric lights of all sorts and objects that arc burning.
sense of discourse for instructional purposes. The We can classify the light we see according to its
choice and sequence of the questions are not defini- brightness and its color.
tive nor exclusive; another set of questions could In contrast, a narrative focusing on the themes of
portray the content equally well. patterns of change and systems and interactions
The questiors are content-oriented, not theme- might read as follows:
oriented. The narrative msponses, however, are
written from the perspective of one or more of the Light is given off by a variety of familiar sources,
I most importantly the sun. We seldom should look

38 Part llThe Content of Science

1.1 -
 directly at or into a light source because our eyes, the shells of marine animals and are recycled into the
organs that receive light, are very sensitive. We can waters and ocean sediments when these animals die.
observe and discuss patterns in the intensity of light The same concept can be written from the stand-
that allow us to see best because the human eye is point of evolution:
sensitive to only a certain range of lightif the light
is dimmer or brighter than the light in this range, the Originally, salts in the oceans came from dissolved
more difficulty we have with our vision. We alsn can minerals that were extruded from inside the earth.
New material, brought up at spreading zones, has
note patterns in the amount of light that objects
increased the dissolved mineral content in the oceans'
reflect, because different objects reflect different
waters even as these salts have been lost through
amounts of light. It is this reflected lightthat allows
deposition and subduction of oceanic crust. Freshwa-
us to see.
ter runoff from continental surfaces has also contrib-
To take a second example, in Chapter 5, Section C, uted to the oceans' salt content through time. Al-
Ecosystems, the first question is: What arc ecosys- though the oceans have always been salty, it is
tems, and how do organisms interact in ecosystems? diffficult to determine precisely how the dissolved
Part of the response for grades three through six is thc salt content has fluctuated through time.
following paragraph, written from the perspective of
These illustrations arc given to demonstrate that
systems and interactions:
different themes can be used to frame the same
All organisms have roles in their environments. They content. This framework insists that science prose be
eat some species and serve as food for others. Some enjoyable to read, and this is a goal that we have also
organisms, like trees, shelter other species. Others, tricd to achieve in its writing. Whcn the prosc flows
like fungi, decompose them. Some organisms fill more naturally, the connections among themes are
more than one role. clear, a mere checklist of isolated facts is more
An alternative passage, from the view of scale and difficult to create or defend. Finally, it should be
structure: noted that vocabulary, though present in the narra-
tives, is not a dominant force. Indeed, vocabulary
All organisms have roles in their environments. Both
should be used in an appropriate context anti not
the role they play and the ecosystem itself depend on
introduced for its own sake.
the scale at which we investigate them. Under a rock,
The intended audience of these narrative descrip-
for example, we might find organisms and microor-
tions is not students, but educators and tcxtbook
ganisms that cat other species and their own kind,
publishers. Essential vocabulary has been included
serve as food for other species, or decompose dead
for these readers, but it is not necessarily appropriate
organic material. We would not expect to find a large
for the students of the grade spans indicated. For
range of diversity in kind or number of organisms. If
example, in life sciences, emphasis is given to the
we expand our scale of observation to include the comparative structures of plants and animals, and the
entire forest in which the rock is located, we will find
word stomate is used. Kindergartners can and should
a range of organisms much wider in terms of num-
understand that plants have structures that perform
bers, types, and sizes, but they would all fill the same
specific functions, and their teacher may well usc thc
roles of producer, consumer, and decomposer.
word stomate in context, but thc objective of the les-
Here is an example, from Chapter 4, Section C, son should not be thc students' ability to spell or
Oceanography, of how the saltiness of the ocean define the word stomatc. Appropriate vocabulary
might be explained to junior high school students should be used at all levels, vocabulary should not
from the standpoint of scale and structure and dominate the curriculum or bc an end in itself.
patterns of change: At the high school level, the use of mathematics has
Salts in the ocean have come largely from the earth's
sometimes assumed a role similar to vocabulary at the
interior, mainly by volcanic activity. These salts
elementary levelas a barrier and an end in itself. In
(containing mainly chlorine, sodium, magnesium,
the text of Part II, we sometimes have used a formula
sulfur, calcium, and potassium) contribute to the as shorthand for a concept or relationship. Students

Overview 39
5 .1.
 need not memorize the formula for the acceleration
In certain cases, content that has caused confusion
due-to gravity with time, or to know how to calculate
or misconceptions in the past is presented at a greater
pH. It iS important for everyone to understand accel-
level of detail than is warranted for most readers.
eration ns it relates to riding a bicycle or driving a car
These comments, primarily intended for authors and
andAo understand pH as it relates to chemical proper- editors, are often presented as sidebars.
Aids or to acid rain. Proficiency in mathematics should
The presentation by grade spans is intended to be
not be a prerequisite to learning science. Many
cumulative. Each grade span after kindergarten
students will be motivated to learn mom mathematics through grade three presupposes not only the material
when they see it applied in the context of a scientific in the prior levels but also its review and elaboration
problem. The content that is delineated here is for all at higher levels. The effort in this presentation, and in
students, not only those who plan to attend college the curricula that we hope it inspires, is to deepen
but also those who need to acquire scientific literacy
concepts when they arc revisited, rather than to repeat
for their lives as informed citizens. ideas at the same level of understanding.

40 Pad IIThe Content of Science

r0
t ) 4..,
r . '

Chapter 3

Physical Sciences

. . .

What is matter, and what are its properties?

IN the study of matter and its interactions under Kindergarten Through Grade Three
familiar conditions, the central organizing principle is
that the amount of matter stays constant. It is neither Matter is the name we give to all the stuff in our
created nor destroyed; only its form is changed. In physical world. From stars to dust, from elephants to
general, the number of atoms, the basic building fleas, everything is made of the same basic building
blocks of matter, remains constant. Mass is an blocks. Although the scale of our universe ranges
excellent measure of the amount of matter, so we from the very large to the very small, all of it is
express the constancy of matter as the principle of matter. [Scale and Structure, Stability]
conservation of mass. Strictly speaking, mass and All matter has properties that can be observed,
energy are interrelated in such a way that the true defined, and recorded. Matter occupies space, it has
principle is one of mass-energy conservation. The substance, and we can measure its weight. Depending
conversion of mass to energy is observable only when on the particular form of matter of which they arc
very large energy changes occur, as in nuclear trans- made, some solid objects float in water while others
formations. The focus in kindergarten through grade sink. Many forms of matter are identifiable by their
twelve is on the study of matter under familiar color, texture, or shape; by their hardness or flexibil-
conditions, when energy changes arc not large. ity; by their taste and odor; by the sound or light that
they emit and that we can perceive. [Scale and
A-1 What Is matter, and what are its Structure, Systems and Interactions]
properties? All things that we can sense directly are constructed
of progressively smaller things. We use tools like
A-2 What are the basic units of matter, and
micmscopcs, telescopes, or thermometers to perceive
where did matter come from? things for which our senses arc poorly adapted or
A-3 What principles govern the Interactions which exist beyond the range of our scnscs. To
of matter? How does chemical structure measure and talk about our observations of matter
determine the physical properties of with others, we use standardized tools like rulers,
scales, and clocks. The more we know about the
matter? properties of matter, the better able we are to describe

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 41

 they can be seen with recently invented devices called
Careful observation is needed to distinguish atomic force microscopes. There arc about 100
different kinds of atoms. The smallest particle of a
supeificially similar objects, such as an orange
pure substance that rctains the properties of the
from an orange-shaped candle, or a glass of hot substance is usually a molecule. A molecule is a
water from a glass of cold water. group of atoms tightly bound together. Because there
arc so many ways to put atoms together, there are an
Young students need practice in using their almost unlimited number of different kinds of mole-
senses to observe and to gain confidence in their cules and different kinds of pure substances. Sub-
own. observational skills. They need to observe stances that are made of only one kind of atom are
and report and judge for their own benefit, not to called elements. [Scale and Structure]
The properties of matter depend very much on the
meet an adult standard of what is right or wrong. scale at which we look. For example, sand flows
through your hands almost like a liquid. But an ant
carries a single grain of sand very much as you might
carry a rock. Very often, however, the properties of
its stmcture, and the better we can apply our intellects
matter at larger scales depend on its properties at
to constructing an understanding of the world. [Scale
and Structure] smaller scales. Solid objects and liquids arc made of
particles that stick together; gases are made of
Most things we see are mixtures of several pure
particles that do not stick together. This accounts for
substances. We make a mixturc when we dissolve
many of the differences in properties between gases
sugar in water. The taste of sugar is found throughout
on the one hand and liquids and solids on the other.
the mixture, which looks like water. The water and
For example, gases are compressible or springysee
sugar can bc separated again by evaporating the water
to leave the sugar. [Systems and Interactions)
what happcns if you.strike the handle of a plugged
bicycle pumpbecause the particles in gases do not
The matter around us exists in three forms or states:
touch. Liquids and solids are not very compressible,
solid, liquid, and gas. Water, for example, is ice as a
solid, water as a liquid, and steam as a gas. The state because their molecules do touch [Scale and Struc-
ture)
of water can be changed by heating or cooling it.
To get a better understanding of matter at a basic
Each of the states of matter has distinguishing charac-
level, it is useful to study the properties of pure
teristics. [Energy, Patterns of Change, Scale and
Structure] substances. Some properties, such as the amount of
space an object occupies, simply depend on how
A-1
much matter is present and do not help us understand
What is matter, and what are its properties? the substance itself. Other properties, such as color ol
Grades Three Through Six hardness, do not generally depend on how much
substance is present. Studying such properties can
The basic building blocks of ordinary matter are give us clues about how the substance is organized at
very small particles called atoms. Atoms arc much a more basic level. (Patterns of Change, Scale and
too small to be seen with ordinary microscopes, but Structure)

=a, 11.
This very fundamental principlethat the amount of matter (mass) remains
constantcan sometimes be
difficult to demonstrate successfully in practice by deiermining the mass before and after an interaction.
This is particularly true if the interaction causes a gas to be produced, due either to a change of state or
zhemical change. However, it is important to include gases to help students extend their understand-
ing of this principle.

42 Part IIThe Content of Science

54
Because many properties of matter depend on the fact that atom-size building blocks exist, but not on the
distinction of whether these are atoms or molecules, it is convenient to simply use the generic term par
tide whenever the distinction is not important.

The properties of most things around us, because denser than others; the densest solids arc about a
they are mixtures, are very different from the proper- hundred times denser than the least &Ilse ones under
ties of the substances that constitute the mixture. The normal conditions. A substance sinks in a liquid if it
strength of a fiberglass fishing rod, for example, is is denser than the liquid; it floats in the liquid if it is
many times greater than the strength of either the less dense than the liquid. Oil floats on water because
plastic or the glass that, together, make up the solid it is less dense than water. [Scale and Structure,
mixture that we call fiberglass. Mixtures and their Patterns of Change]
properties are very important to people who design The density of a substance depends on both the
and build things. mass of the atoms of which it is made and the way in
The amount of matter in an object is referred to as which they are arranged or packed together. The
its mass. Mass is measured indirectly with a balance, density of nearly all solids and liquids lies in the
which compares one mass with another according to range between 0.2 glare and 20 glen?. The density of
the effect of gravity. If the effect is equal, then the gases, however, depends greatly on their temperature
masses are the same. [Scale and Structure, Systems and pmssure. At atmospheric pressure, the density of
and Interactions] most gases is roughly 1/1000 that of the correspond-
When matter interacts with other matter under ing liquids and solids. That is why it is not so easy to
ordinary circumstances, it changes in various ways, recognize the fact that gases do possess mass and cmn
but it does not disappear nor is it created. The amount be weighed. Scicntists did not understand this point
of matter (mass) remains constant. [Stability] clearly until the eighteenth century. [Scale and
Structure, Systems and Interactions]
The individual particles that make up matter are in
A-1 What is matter, and what are its properties"
constant, random motion. In a solid, neighboring
Grades Six Through Nine atoms are bound together strongly and vibrate back
and forth. In a liquid, the particles are not so strongly
It is useful to make a distinction between those held together. In addition to vibrating, they can slide
properties of matter that can be measured without past one another. However, they are still bound
changing the substance into another substance together and cannot easily move apart from one an-
physical propertiesand those properties that are other. In a gas, the particles are independent of each
observed when the substance changes to another other. They can move as far from one another as the
substance, !mown as chemical properties. Examples container space allows. These differences are re-
of physical properties include the boiling and freezing flected in the density of matter. The fact that a gas
temperature of a substance and its color [Stabilk, consists of particles in rapid motion can easily be
Scale and Structure] observed by studying the way in which a perfume can
Mixtures of elements or compounds can be sepa- be detected rapidly at a distance. [Energy, Patterns of
rated using physical processes such as flotation, Change]
filtration, distillation, chromatography, and magnetic
separation. All of these processes depend on differ-
ences in the physical properties of the substances. A-1 What is matter, and what are its properties"
[Systems and Interactions] Grades Nine Through Twelve
Density is a property of substances thct describes
the amount of the substance that is packed into thc How the things of the universe look depends very
volume which it occupies. Some substances are much on the scale at which one is looking. When we

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 43

 use the tools of science to help us perceive the Chemistry is concerned primarily with the arrange-
properties of matter at the atomic or subatomic levels, ments of the electrons in the atom, since the spatial
we learn new things because we see things in a new arrangement and energy of the outermost electrons
way. Chemistry is the branch of science concerned determines the chemical properties of the atom.
with the behavior of matter at the molecular and While it is difficult to observe the shapes of atoms
atomic levels. Over the past two centuries, chemists directly, we can readily measure the energies of the
have developed an elaborate theory that explains and electrons within them.
predicts the chemical behavior of matter very suc- Models of atomic structure help us think about how
cessfully and in great detail. Atomic physics is chemical reactions take place. The simplest model,
concerned with the behavior of individual atoms. the Bohr atom, depicts the atom as a miniature solar
Nuclear physics studies the structure of the nucleus, system with the electrons orbiting the central nucleus.
and elementary-particle physics (sometimes called The Bohr model can explain some (though not all)
high-energy physics) is concerned with the very features of the behavior of atoms. For instance, atoms
smallest building blocks of which nuclear particles in which the outermost one or two electrons are
and all other matter are made. [Scale and Structure, weakly bound to the atom easily lose these electrons.
Patterns of Change]
Consequently, such atoms exhibit metallic behavior.
Atoms consist of electrons, which occupy most of In solution the atoms can release electrons to form
the space in the atom, and very tiny nuclei consisting positive ions; in solid metals the atoms release some
of protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons have of their electrons to the solid as a whole, and the solid
approximately the same mass, which is about 2,000 can conduct electricity because the electrons move
times greater than the mass of an electmn. (Though freely through the solid. [Scale and Structure, Pat-
the nucleus contains almost all the mass of an atom, it terns of Change]
occupies a smaller proportion of the volume of the The way in which the properties of elements
atom than the sun occupies of the solar system.) depend on the number of electrons contained in their
POIMI atoms is exhibited clearly in the periodic table of the
elements. [Scale and Structure]
The periodic table was originally developed in Mass is a property of matter that directly affccts the
the latter half of the nineteenth century as a way size of the gravitational attraction to other matter and
to rationalize a seemingly limitless body of the response of mattei to unbalanced forces. Under
information about the chemical properties of the ordinary circumstances, mass is an expression of the
elements. Precise description of the properties amount of matter, determined, for example, by
counting all of the atoms in the sample of matter. In
and behavior of atoms requires a model more
these circumstances, conservation of mass implies
elaborate than the simple planetary picture conservation of matter, and vice versa. [Stability,
furnished by the Bohr model. The precise de- Scale and Structure]
scription is not pictorial, but mathematical. This
description, pioneered during the period
1925-1935, was the first major triumph of the
then new field of quantum mechanics on w..ich What are the basic units of matter, and where did
modern chemistry and physics are firmly based. matter come from?
Students should be helped to understand how Kindergarten Through Grade Three
periodic relationships can be used systematically
to predict chemical-behavior at least roughly, What we consider to be the building blocks of
and so be led away from dependence on memori- matter depends on how closely we look at matter. The
building blocks of a house might be considered to be
zation. [Systems and Interactions, Stability, wood, brick, stone, and so forth. The building blocks
Patterns of Change] of wood art different kinds of cells that are observ-
able with a microscope. There are some things,

44 Part IIThe Content of Science

r) 6
however, that continue to appear the same as we look A-2 What are the basic units of matter, and where did
closer and closer, even with a microscope. Examples matter come from?
of these kinds of things are water, iron, plastic, and Geades'Six Through Nine
glass. The basic unit of a pure substance is smaller
than a piece or amount that we can see or touch. [Pat- Substances containing only one kind of atom arc
terns of Change, Stability, Scale and Structure] pure elements. Ninety-one different elements occur
naturally, and about 14 more can be made artificially
in the laboratory. A universally accepted chemical
A2 What are the basic units of matter, and where did
matter come from? symbol is used for each element. Atoms of some
elements'can link-together very weakly (as in solid
Grades Three Through Six neon at very low temperatures); others link strongly
(as in the diamond form of carbon). In som ele-
A pure substance, such as salt, is composed of very
ments, strongly bound molecular units arc formed.
small particles which are all the same and which all
For example, two nitrogen atoms form.a tightly
have the properties of that substance, salt. These
bound molecule which is given the symbol N2, and
particles can get so small that we can no longer touch
oxygen atoms form 02 molecules. [Systems and
or see them, even with a microscope; they are still
Interactions, Stability, Patterns of Change]
salt. However, if we dissolve the salt in water, we
Atoms of different elements can react to form
bmak the particles into even smallza- units that ito
stable, homogeneous compounds. Energy is often
longer have the properties of salt. These basic units,
released in such reactions, but in others, energy must
of which salt as well as all ordinary matter is com-
be added. Compounds have properties quite different
posed, are called atoms. When the salt dissolves, the
from those of the elements of which they are com-
atoms are separated and rearranged. All ordinary
posed. [Systems and Interactions, Patterns of Change]
matter is made up of different combinations of atoms.
Atoms are made up of three kinds of particles,
[Patterns of Change, Scale and Structure]
called electrons, protons, and neutrons. While an
Atoms arc much too small to be seen, even with an
atom is itself thy, the protons and neutrons arc
ordinary microscope. (A penny contains more than
confined in a much tinier nucleus, and the electrons
ten thousand million billion billion atoms.) Atoms
surround the nucleus in a "cloud." The electron cloud
can be detected, both directly 4nd indirectly, in many
is 100,000 times bigger acnoss than the nucleus. Each
different ways. The properties of the things we see
electron has a fixed amount of negative electric
depend both on the particular atoms of which they arc
charge. Each proton has an equal amount of positive
made and on the way in which the atoms arc ar-
charge. Neutrons have no electric charge. The num-
ranged. When ice melts into water, the arrangement
ber of electrons and protons in an atom arc equal, so
of the atoms is changed. A very important special
the atom itself is electrically neutral. The properties
case of such change is chemical change. In many
of an atom arc determined by the number:: of elec-
substances, atoms are strongly held together in tight
trons, protons, and neutrons it contains. LScale and
clusters called molecules. In chemical reactions, there
Structure, Stability]
is rearrangement of the atoms within molecules. The
The properties of a molecule arc determined by the
burning of a match involves chemical reactions. In
number and types of atoms it contains and how they
the burning process, the atoms of the match and the
arc arranged. The oxygen molecules we breathe
atoms of the surrounding air change their arrange-
consist of two oxygen atoms each; each of the carbon
ment, regrouping into molecules different from those
dioxide molecules we exhale has one carbon atom
originally present. But the atoms themselves are
situated between a pair of oxygen atoms. In the quartz
unchanged. Atoms last much longer than the things
crystals that arc the major component of ordinary
made of them. All of the atoms of which you are
sand, there are two oxygen atoms for every silicon
made were once part of something else. Most atoms
atom. The silicon and oxygen atoms form a regular
hemselves were constructed from simpler atoms
array, with each silicon atom surrounded by four
billions of years ago inside a star. [Scale and Struc-
oxygen atoms; each oxygen atom is connected to two
ture, Stability, Patterns of Change ]
silicon atoms. [Scale and Structure]

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 45

 Sticking, linking, and bonding are all words used to electmns, six protons, and eight neutrons. The nuclei
indicate the existence of attractive forces between of carbon 12 are stable; undcr ordinary conditions
atoms or molecules. Thcse forces are deduced from they remain unchanged indefinitely. Like many
the observed properties of substances. Strong forces isotopes, carbon 14 has an unstable nucleus that
between atoms result in the formation of strongly dccays radioactively. Measurement of thc ratio of
bound groups called molecules. The origin of these carbon 14 atoms to carbon 12 atoms present in a
attractive forces is the attraction between the posi- sample of once-living matter is the basis of a power-
tively charged nuclei and the negatively charged ful tool for measuring the ages of such samples. For
electmn clouds. [Energy, Systems and Interactions, determining the ages of rocks, mcteoritcs, and many
Stability] other types of samples, other radioactive isotopes are
used. Radioactive isotopes are valuable tools for
A-2 What are the basic units of matter, and where did studying chemical and biological processes. [Evolu-
matter come from? tion, Patterns of Changc, Stability]
Grades Nine Through Twelve
Thc known properties of matter at the atomic and
subatomic levels make it possible to rcconstruct the
history of the universe. The encrgy of stars is derived
What principles govern the interactions of matter?
from a process called nuclear fusion in which light
How does chemical structure determine the physical
nuclei (nuclei comprising small numbers of protons properties of matter?
and neutrons) combinc to form heavy nuclei (nuclei
comprising larger numbers of protons and neutrons). Kindergarten Through Grade Three
In this way, chemical elements mom complex than
Substanccs behave differently whcn thcy interact.
hydrogen and helium (the two simplest) are formcd.
For example, solutions are formed when some
In all stars, fusion produces some of thc elements.
substances are added to water, but others do not
But processes called supernova events, which take
dissolve. This principle can be used to separate a
place only in the violent explosion of large stars
mixture of sugar and sand. The amount of substancc
(much biggcr than our sun), are required for the
dissolved affects the properties of the solution, such
formation of others of the elements. The explosion
as color or taste. [Systems and Interactions, Stability]
spews these newly formed elements into spacc, whcre
they later help to form other new stars. Two succes-
sive supernova processes are required to form all of A3 What principles govern the interactions of matter?
the naturally occurring elements. We thus know that How does chemical structure determine the
our solar system centers on a sun that is at least a physical properties of matter?
third-gcncration star, formcd about 4.6 billion ycars Grades Three Through Six
ago. Thc material constituting our earth, as well as
the rest of the solar systcm, has comc in part from We observe objccts behaving in many different
supernovae which exploded and dicd at an earlier ways, depending on their structure and their sur-
timc in thc approximately 20-billion-year history of roundings. Lying organisms, for example, grow and
the universe. [Evolution, Patterns of Change, Energy] change their shapes. Crystals also grow, but in a
Thc chemical properties of an element are deter- much simpler way. Some things float in water while
mined almost entirely by the number of electrons its othcrs do not, somc things dissolve in water while
atoms contain, which is equal to the number of othcrs do not. Many substances can undergo changcs
protons in the nucleus. Most chemical elements have that do not involve alteration of thcir material compo-
two or more isotopes. The isotopes of an clement sition. Watcr, for example, can freeze, melt, or
differ only in the number of neutrons in thc nucleus. evaporate, but it remains water in all thrce states. The
For example, an.atom of the most common isotope of componc.ts af mixtures of solid substances, such as
carbon, carbon 12, contains six ele..;trons, six protons, salt and sand, can be separated from one anothcr. So
and six neutrons. Thc isotope cai.bon 14 contains six can mixtures of liquid substances, such as alcohol and

46 Part ll--The Content of Science

A) C.)
Many students at the grade three-through-six level wiltprepare their own foods and use household
equipment and chemicals.They should learn to examine and respect these. All substances should be
treated as potentially hazardous, especially when inappropriately used or handled. Substances can be
categorized as hazardous in relation to their properties, such as flammability, corrosive nature (acid,
base), or toxicity.

Students should understand the importance of radioisotopes in biochemistry, medicine, and industo.
They should be aware that there are man., ..atural sources of radioactivity to which the biosphere has
been exposed since earliest times and that nuclear reactors are known to have existed in nature.

water. Substances can be distinguished by the ways in forms such as light energy or electrical energy.
which they interact with one another. Oily sub- [Systems and Interactions, Scale and Structure]
stances, for example, tend to mix with other oily Chemists continually create new atomic arrange-
substances but not with water. Other familiar sub- ments to fill human needs. For example, compounds
stances, such as vinegar, antifreeze, and household arc being synthesized to replace the commercially
ammonia, mix readily with water. Some substances important Freons that do damage to the ozone layer
have special properties that allow them to interact of the upper atmosphere. It is important to know as
with both groups. Soap is such a substance. When much as possible about substances because, dmong
added to oil and water, soap allows the two to mix. other reasons, many forms arc dangerous if not used
knowledgeably. They may be dangerous in them-
A-3 What pnrriples govern the interactions of matter?
selves, they may combine to form dangerous sub-
How does chemical structure determine the stances, or their Wneficial applications may have
physical properties of matter? undesirable long-term effects. It requires good
judgment, based on an understanding of chemical and
Grades Six Through Nine biochemical principles, to make wise decisions about
The basic building blocks of large-scale matter, substances that, though useful, may be hazardous if
atoms and molecules, can combine in many ways. not properly controlled. [Systems and Interactions]
The field of science that deals with these combina =1

tions is called chemistry. Chemistry is devoted to

understanding the properties and interactions of The interactions of matter can be detected in
groups of atoms and how these affect the properties many substances, including most hou.sehold
of substances. We use chemical theory to understand chemicals, by using colored indkaturs. The idea
how compounds can be formed, naturally or artifi- that a given quantity of a substance will react
cially. Many interactions and changes are possible,
from simple phase changes induced by heating or with a fixed quantity of a second substance
cooling to synthetic fabrication of new materials (e.g., should be introduced early in the study of sci
polymers). Many common substances mix with ence. Students can titrate clear ammonia 11 ith
water; some also react with it and ueate what arc white vinegar using red cabbage indicator, or
called acids or bases. An acid substance can be they can compare antacid tablets quantitatively.
neutralized by adding a proper amount of a basic Such experiments should be used to reinforce the
substance. [Systems and Interactions, Scale and
Structure]
distinction between absolute quantities and
Chemical reactions either absorb or give off energy, concentrations.
often in the form of heat energy but also in other

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 47

-1
A-3 What principles govern the interactions of matter? trons can move relatively freely throughout the solid.
How does chemical structure determine the This property underlies the familiar properties of
physical prOperties of matter?
metals: electrical conduction, malleability, luster, and
Grades Nine Through Twelve the ability to take a high polish.
Intermediate between metals, which conduct elec-
The number and arrangement of electrically tricity well, and nonmetals, which conduct electricity
charged particles within atoms or molecules govern very poorly because all the electrons are tightly
the predictable arrangements and rearrangements of bound to the atoms, is the class of materials called
the atoms in new substances. In these chemical semiconductors. In semiconductors, the numbcr of
reactions, matter is neither created nor destroyed but electrons that are free to move can be controlled
memly rearranged; mass is conserved and the atoms pmcisely over a wide range by means of tiny amounts
themselves remain unchanged. The electrical forces of deliberately added impurities. By exploiting this
of attraction and repulsion between the particles de- property, it becomes possible to fabricate many
termine how the atoms am bonded, or connected, to di ffemnt kinds of electrical switches and amplifiers
one another and how the connections will change. and to build a wide range of devices that include
[Systems and Interactions, Patterns of Change] miniatum radios, computers, and information trans-
The study of chemical reactions has lcd, over a long mission systems. [Systems and Interactions]
history starting with iron, bronze, and glass manufac- Modern chemical and physical techniques have
ture, to the crcation of a vast complex of industries advanced to the point that materials with certain
that produce materials essential to modem life. properties can be "custom built" in very small
Among these materials are plastics, fuels, metals, and amounts. Such materials include liquid crystals used
medicines. An understanding of chemistry is essential in watches and other custom-built materials uscd in
to understanding agricultum, health, geology, ;:nd the superconducting magnets, radiation detection devices,
use of natural resources. Chemical mactions of dimct and chips for advanced miniature computer networks.
significance to society are also involved in the As more is understood about the relationships be-
manufacture of fertilizers, in the burning of fuels, in tween structum and properties and about ways to
cooking, photography, medicine, and pollution control chemical reactions (see Section B), it will be
control, among many other fields. [Systems and possible to manufacture larger quantities of such
Interactions, Energy] materials and create new applications and ncw
In many circumstances, atoms and molecules are industries. [Scale and Structure]
present in the form of ionsatoms or molecules that Many substances, both natural and artificial, arc
have lost one or more of their outermost electrons or toxic to human life, as arc radioactive products. For
gained one or mom extra electrons. Because they can each such substance, it is important to establish safe
carry electrical charge from one place to another as tolerance levels and to devise procedures to ensure
they move, ions arc of central importance in many that these levels are not exceeded. Waste disposal and
solutions (such as thc liquid in automobile batteries), food pmservation and production problems have
in living systems (ionic balance is essential to proper important social, political, economic, and scientific
function and metabolism), and in many crystals (such aspects. Satisfactory solutions of these problems
as table salt). [Systems and Interactions, Scale and mquirc a substantial public understanding of all of
Structure, Energy] these aspects. [Systems and Interactions)
The complex interactions among the atomic or
molecu:ar units of a substance determine the large-
scale behavior of the substance. If the forces between Se6tion B Reaptions and Interact!6nS
atoms or molecules are very weak, the substance is
likely to be a gas at normal temperatures. If stronger
attractions exist, the substance may be a liquid. Still IN the study of the changes in the properties of
stronger forces lead to the formation of solids of substances as they interact, chemists observe the
various typcs. In metals, the atoms am organized with changes in internal organization and in energy
a minimum of space between them, and some diet:- content as a function of timc, temperature, concentra-

48 Part llThe Content of Science

60
tion of substances, type of solvent, and so forth. The B-1 What happens when substances change?
science of chemistry aims to understand the detailed
principles governing how such changes take place so Grades Three Through Six
that new substances arc governed by a principle of The amount of matter present before and after
minimization of the energy, provided that a suitable reactions remains the same when measured as mass
pathway for change is available. A molecular colli- with a balance.
sion model is successful in explaining most features Compounds result when true chemical reaction has
of substances undergoing change. Molecules react to occurred. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish
form different molecules when they collide with between the formation of a new compound from the
sufficient kinetic energy and in the appropriate interaction of substances and the formation of a mix-
orientation. In kindergarten through grade twelve, the ture. The latter can generally bc separated by physical
focus is on establishing an understanding of the main methods such as filtration, chromatography, or
features of chemical change and the roles of energy distillation; the former defy reseparation by simple
and time. Students should gain considerable experi- means into the original components. Even in the
ence in observation of substances and change and in formation of mixtures, energy changes, observed as
making inferences about what is happening on the temperature changes, may occur. [Scale and Struc-
microscopic level after constructing physical and ture, Energy]
mental models of the structure of matter at the Compounds have well-defined compositions
molecular level. involving new molecular combinations of whole
B-1 What happens when substances numbers of atoms with new linkages. In mixtures, no
linkages are broken or formed, but existing units are
change?
intermingled. Thus, in the formation of water mole-
B-2 What controls how substances change? cules, linkages in hydrogen and oxygen molecules
must be broken so that new arrangements in H20 can
bc made, whereas to mix NH3molecules with 1120
molecules, no linkages need bc broken. Compounds
also have well-defined geometric arrangements of
What happens when substances change? atoms. Some arc in a straight line, others arc triangu-
lar, or pyramidal. Simple rules govern the great
Kindergarten Through Grade Three majority of possible atomic arrangements. It is
Two substances can interact to form new sub- important to establish that drawings of molecules on
stances with different observable properties. Such
changes can occur instantly, such as when vinegar or
lemon juice is added to milk, or take much time, as The reaction of vinegar with baking soda can be
when an iron nail rusts in water. In some reactions, a petformed in a two-liter plastic bottle to demon
solid plus a liquid will produce a gas, as when strate that the amount of matter remains the same
vinegar is added to baking soda. In other cases, a after reaction. Other methods may be subject to
solid may be formed from a gas, such as when carbon
dioxide is blown through a limewater solution. In
buoyancy corrections.
every case, careful observatkn is needed to see that
Students at the grade three-through-six level
new substances arc formed. [Systems and Interac-
tions, Patterns of Change] benefit from continual practice in careful obser-
Chfunical change can be helped by adding heat and vation and in making inferences from such
can be useful, as when a cookie is baked from raw experiments as the lighting and subsequent
ingredients. Chemical reactions arc useful in other burning of a candle. Hot packs and cold paGks,
ways, as when soap is made to foam better in water familiar t& sports enthusiasts, are ideal subjects
which has been treated with washing soda to precipi-
for observation and inference.
tate salts as carbonates. [Energy)

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 49

 In some reactions, the changes in linkages result in
Students should be introduced to the concepz of a reorganization of electrons within substances, so
that electrons can be transferred between substances.
the use of models in science by such exercises as Such reactions can be used to form useful devices
constructing molecules from toothpicks and called batteries and to create coatings of metals
candies or bolts with nuts and washers following through electroplating.
certain valency rules for allowed combinations. Certain reactions can be classified as displace-
The HONC rule (H=1, 0=2, N=3, C=4) can be ments, in which one atom or group in a substance is
used to construct correct models of large nunz- exchanged with that from another substance. This
concept explains why precipitates form whcn two
bers of real molecules. Change of one molecule solutions arc mixed.
to another can be accomplished only by pulling Even in the complex chemical systems found in
apart the appropriate stick or cornection. Class living organisms, chemical reactions follow the same
constructed molecules can be intermingled basic principles, conservation, accountability, reac-
without breakage to sinzulate a mimure. tion type. For example, the process of photosynthesis
in plants requires the presence of all the ingredients
(light, carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll) in the
proper amounts in ordcr that a certain amount of
paper or the chalkboard are a poor representation of product starch and oxygen can be produced. The
the real shapcs of three-dimensional atoms and human body needs a balanced diet to carry out the
molecules. [Scale and Structure, Patterns of Changcj proper chemical reactions needed for healthful living.
Many substances that seem quite different react in [Scale and Structure, Patterns of Change, Systems
similar ways. For example, acids present in many and Interactions]
household chemicals or foodstuffs will change the
color of plant extracts in a similar way. Those which B-1 What happens when substances change?
are bases will have an opposite effect. [Patterns of
Change] Grades Nine Through Twelve
Heat energy assists many chemical rcactions; on the
other hand, reactions can also result in continuous Whcn atoms arc rearranged in a chemical reaction,
production of heat. [Energy] there is a very small change in mass, but it is far too
small to be significant. The total electric charge of the
system of atoms also rcmains constant as they recom-
B-1 What happens when substances change? bine under the influence of the electric forces that
Grades Six Through Nine underlie all chemical interactions. The total energy of
the system also remains constant in a reaction, but
In chemical reactions, atoms arc neither created nor energy is converted from the electrical form involved
destroyed. By using familiar symbols for atoms, the
science student can convert this conservation prin-
ciple to a useful bookkeeping method for atoms. Such In explaining nuclear processes, nuclear theory
chemical equations arc useful in keeping track of the plays a role at the subatomic level that is analo-
quantities of substances involved by using mass as a gous to the role played by atomic theory on the
measure of quantity. Just as in a bank, where weigh-
ing is used to count large numbers of coins of defined atomic level. Neutrons and protons in nuclei
mass, atoms have defined masses, and so total masses occupy energy states analogous to the energy
must balance, even though the organization of units states of electrons in atoms. Comervation of
may change. Amounts of chemicals needed for mass-energy is important as meAsurable mass-
complete reaction, product yields, and leftover energy interconversion occurs. Other more
unmacted quantities can thus be predicted and/or
measured.
complex conservation rules also exist.

50 Part IIThe Content of Sdence

62
Many textbooks also have photographs of the burning of the Hindenberg airship to demonstrate the
danger of large amounts of energy released unintentionally.

in atomic bonding to other forms, or vice versa. important simple chemicalsfrequently elements
[Energy] from naturally occurring ores. Obvious examples are
Conservation (constancy) of mass, electric charge, the production of iron and aluminum carried out on a
and energy are extremely important theoretical very large scale. The energy per mole needed to melt
considerations in the study of chemical reactions and and reuse materials such as aluminum cans is much
make it possible to account for everything occurring less than that needed to free aluminum from its ores.
in reactions. Balanced quantitative equations such as: Thus, recycling must gain in importance as energy
2H2 + 02 r_t 2F120 + 3.92 x 10-19joules of energy costs increase.
per molecule of H20 produced The nuclei of atoms are unaffected by chemical
processes; however, they can be altered by nuclear
describe the arrangements and numbers of atoms in processes. Since the amount of energy involved in
both the reactants and the products in the reaction of forces within the nucleus is much larger than that
hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water. The plus involved in chemical reactions, much more energy
sign before the quantity of joules of energy indicates may be released per nuclear event. Such processes
that this is released to the surroundings when this involve about a million times more energy than the
reaction takes place. This energy must have come typical chemical reaction and can result in the trans-
from reorganization of the electrical forces as the mutation of an atom of one element to an atom of
hydrogen and oxygen atoms arc bonded in the water another.
molecule. Understanding nuclear reactions enables us to con-
In practical situations, scientists usually work with struct electrical power plants that do not produce
much larger numbers than one molecule. A common carbon dioxide or smog-producing substances. It also
unit is the mole, which refers to 6.02 x HP mole- enables the construction of extremely destructive
cules. The energy released when hydrogen and weapons and the production of radioisotopes of great
oxygen react to produce 1 mole of water is
3.92 x 10 -19 joules/molecule x 6.02 x 1023
molecules = 2.36 x 103joules. This is a large
amount of energy and indicates that if hydrogen is
readily available, reacting it (burning) with oxygen The mole unit is historically based on the number
from the air can be a useful source of heat. [Scale and of hydrogen atoms in I gram of hydrogen atoms.
Stlucture, Energy] Today it is more precisely the number of atoms in
Charge balance can also be accounted for by use of exactly 12 grams of atoms of an isotope of car-
quantitative equations, such as: boncarbon 12. Students need help in realizing
HCO; + Ca2+> CaCO3+ H+, that this awkward-sounding number is a useful
which represents what happens when baking soda is concept in helping do bookkeeping of atoms and
added to hard water containing calcium ions. The enables us to use convenient mass quantities as a
equation predicts that the solution will become morc substituk: for actual counting. It is no more com-
acid because more hydrogen atoms are added.
In many chemical reactions, energy must be added plicated than handling eggs in dozens and keep-
from external sources to accomplish a desired reor- ing track of the differing masses of small, large,
ganization of electrical forces. Such energy is com- or extra-large eggs by using a balance.
monly added as heat or as electrical energy. This is
especially important in the manufacture of very

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 51

63
importance to medicine, industry, and research in ions in water solution is related to the basic electrical
biology and chemistry. Radioisotopes also occur in structure of the substance. For the chemical elements,
nature, and the study of these natural radioisotopes this property is related to their position in the periodic
has enabled scientists to determine the age of samples table. Many other properties of elements and families
of inorganic and organic matter. Such knowledge is of elements can be related to their location in this
important to history and archeology as well as to table.
geochemistry. For example, with the use of samples In forming linkages with each other, atoms are in
from the earth, the moon, and meteorites, scientists contest for attraction of the electronc farthest away
have been able to develop dating techniques that arc from the nuclei. This contest is often unequal and
used to build up a consistent set of ages for the earth results in linkages in which the electrical charge is
and the various portions of the solar system. not symmetrically distributed. Such linkages are
called polar bonds. Molecules containing polar bonds
are frequently unsymmetrical and are called polar
molecules. These molecules with unsymmetrical
charge shapes attract each other. Thus, substances
What controls how substances change? with polar molecules tend to mix well with other sub-
stances with polar molecules but not with substances
Kindergarten Through Grade Three consisting of nonpolar molecules, and vice versa.
Change is affected by surroundings. On a hot day, This prindple explains why wax dissolves in oil but
an ice cube melts more rapidly, while it will survive not in water, why gasoline and watcr do not mix, and
for a long time in a freezer. If a cup of water is sealed why many other observed phenomena occur. [Scale
in a plastic bag, condensation on the plastic demon- and Structure, Patterns of Change]
strates that the liquid has changed to a gas and then A certain energy is released or used by each mole-
back to a liquid. If the cup is left in the open, change cule changed in a chemical reaction. Since a mole is a
to a gas occurs, but the evidence is different. fixed number of molecules and has a determined
Change often must be initiated by providing mass for each substance, the reaction energy is
energy; for example, a match is needed to light a fire. proponional to the mass of the reacting substance.
[Pattems of Change, Energy] ApproA;mate reaction energy can be determined by
measuring the temperature change and mass of the
B-2 What controls how substances change?
reacting substances in water solutions. However, heat
energy is easily lost, so insulated equipment and
Grades Three Through Six careful control are needed. (See Section E, Energy:
Measurements can be used to explore the effects of Heat.) [Energy, Stale and Structure]
changing conditions on the way change occurs. For Certain reactions arc aided by the presence of
example, the time a seltzer tablet takes to dissolve can substances called catalysts or enzymes. The amount
be measured as a function of the temperature of the of these substances present is not important, and they
water. Food preparation involves relationships
between temperature and time.
The kinetic-molecular theory of matter explains
how chemical interactions can take time and depend Here is one way to demonstrate equilibriwn in a
on temperature. Molecules must meet and collide chemical reaction system. Prepare a tube con-
with enough impact for successful change. [Energy, taining pure alcohol (ethanol), a few cobalt chlo-
Patterns of Change]
ride crystals to color it, and a few drops of water.
B-2
This system is very sensitive to temperature,
What controls how substances change?
changing color from pink to blue and back again
Grades Six Through Nine
as the temperature is raised and lowered.
The ease with which chemical substances gain or
lose electrons in forming compounds or in forming

52 Part IIThe Content of Science 64

 Chemical reaction% appear to be difficult to understand, but various demonstrations can be used to
initiate discussion. For instance, two oil drops on a thin film of water will not coalesce unless they actu
ally touch and are pushed together, but if a small amount of detergent is added, they coalesce readily.
This set of observations is analogous to what happens when two atoms combine chemically in the
absence or presence of a catalyst.

arc not changcd in the reaction. Thcy arc especially

important to thc function of living systcms, which
must carry out complicatcd chemical rcactions within
a vcry small rangc of tcmperaturc. [Systcms and
Interactions, Energy] THE ccntral organizing principlc of classical mc-
Closcd systcms oftcn reach an equilibrium situ- chanics is thc set of three laws callcd Newton's lawt.
ation. For example, watcr in a clear, scalcd container of motion. Thcsc laws can bc applicd to specific
can bc sccn not to evaporate completely. However, situations; most notablc arc thosc in which thc force
thc amount of liquid varies with the temperature. is cithcr gravitational or cicctromagnctic. In light of
[Stability] thc more general laws of relativistic mechanics
pioneered by Einstcin and of thc laws of quantum
B2 What controls how substances change? mcchanics, Ncwton's laws bccomc a special casc.
However, for most cascs involving familiar scalcs of
Grades Nine Through Twelve size and speed, classical mcchanics is complctcly
satisfactory.
Thc collision modcl for chcmical rcactions explains
thc obscrvablc features. Thc more molcculcs that arc
present, the grcatcr thc chance of intcraction. The C-1 What Is motion? What are some basic
more rapidly molecules arc moving, thc greater is thc kinds of motion? How Is motion
chance that thcy will collide with sufficient cncrgy to described?
undergo the desired changes in structural organiza-
C-2 What Is force? What are the
tion. A catalyst assists this organizational stcp by
helping to hold thc molecules togcthcr in a more
characteristics of forces? What Is the
suitable oricntation for successful rcaction. Thus, less relationship of force to motion?
cncrgy is nccdcd, and thc rcaction can proceed at a C-3 What are machines, and what do they
1 lower temperaturc. [Pattcrns of Changc, Energy,
do? What principles govern their ac-
Systcms and Interactions]
Elements that are metals can bc compared in tcrms tion?
of ability to transfer electrons by mcans of cell
voltage measurements or comparative displak.err 'qi
reaction observations. Metals that arc widcly dissimi- Le-4= 1

lar in this scrics can bc uscd in a battcry or electrical

energy source. Many similar reactions arc involvcd in What is motion? What are some basic. kinds of
corrosion of commonly uscd mctals. Protection motion? How is motion described?
methods can bc dcviscd once thc chemical reactions Kindergarten Through Grade Three
occurring are understood. Electron transfer reactions
are important in living systems in vital cell proLesses. Thc location of stationary objects can be specified
[Systems and Interactions, Stability] with reference to othcr stationary objects. Distances

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 53

65
 between objects can be measured. The motion of of an object, it is necessary to give the speed and the
moving objects can be described and categorized direction in which the object is moving. Measure-
(straight, circular, crooked, and so forth), and speed ments of both position and speed depend on which
can be described as fast, slow, thc same, and so forth. reference system is chosen. [Patterns of Change]
[Patterns of Change] Various kinds of motion are characterized by the
behavior of an object's velocity. Three common and
C-1 What is motion? What are some basic kinds of important kinds of motion are constant velocity
motion? How is motion described? (constant speed in a straight line), uniform circular
motion (speed is constant, direction continuously
Grades Three Through Six changes), and oscillatory motion (speed continuously
A moving object is one that changes position as changes and direction reverses periodically). [Patterns
of Change]
timc passes. Speed is a measure of the distance
traveled (change in position) by the object during a
certain time interval; it is, for example, the distancc C-1 What is motion? What are some basic kinds of
moved in one second or in one hour. The units of motion? How is motion described?
speed will be determined by the units used to measure Grades Nine Through Twelve
distancc and time. For example, a speedometer
provides a quick reading of the speed of a car in miles When the velocity of an object is changing, wc say
per hour. The motion of an object at a certain speed the object is accelerating. The concept of acceleration
also has a direction. Direction can be specified in is difficult for students and therefore should be
various ways: up/down, left/right, compass directions, presented with many real examples. Acceleration (a)
and so forth. [Patterns of Change, Systems and is defined as the change in velocity (tv) divided by
Interactions] the change in :ime (At); i.c., a E. tv/At. Acceleration
is thc quantity that tells us the ratc at which thc
C-1 velocity is changing.
What is motion? What are some basic kinds of
motion? How is motion described? Likc velocity, acceleration has a direction. Many
important physical situations occur in which accelera-
Grades Six Through Nine tion is constant or nearly so. The ability to represent
and analyze motion in one dimcnsion both quantita-
Speed (v) is expressed quantitatively by the relation tively and graphically when cithcr thc velocity or the
v = d/t, in which d is thc distance moved during a acceleration is constant is important. A much deeper
time interval t. Thc units of speed depend on the units understanding of the concepts of displacement,
chosen for distance and time. If the speed is not velocity, and acceleration is obtained by the usc of
constan over the distancc d, v should be interpreted multiple representations and repeated practice relat-
as the average speed. Speed in a particular direction is ing them to thc motion of real objects. [Patterns of
given the name velocity. Thus, to specify the velocity Change]

Science concepts should be related to the everyday experience of students and introduced in language
with which the students are familiar. Therefore, customary (common or everyday) units such as feet and
inches would be used initially when discussing concepts such as position and speed. Metric units should
be introduced early and continually reinforced, but when new concepts are being learned, the units with
which students are most familiar should be used. However, teachers should be aware that some students
will be more familiar with metric units than others. This applies from kindergarten through grade
twelve.

54 Part 11The Content of Sdence

GE;
4= iiM 1 II 10 1. imin m a.

The extension of the concept of speed to include direction is important, because the relation of force to
motion involves both speed and its direction. Velocity should be introduced when the relation of force to
motion is discussed.

Another important motion is uniform circular

motion, such as that of a ball on the end of a string,
the rotation of a centrifuge, or the nearly circular What is force? What are the characteristics of forces?
motion of the earth around the sun. For this type of What is the relationship of force to motion?
motion, the speed is constant, but the direction of the
velocity is changing, so the object is accelerating. The Kindergarten Through Grade Three
acceleration is toward the center of the circle. [Pat- Force is the name given to pushes and pulls.
terns of Change] Objects (both inanimate and animate) exert forces on
Wave motion is another common and important other objects. [Systems and Interactions]
type of motion. A mechanical wave is a repetitive Gravity is the name given to the pull of the earth on
disturbance that propagates (moves) through a other objccts. The weight of an object can be meas-
continuous medium. Ripples on the surface of water ured with a scale. [Systems and Interactions]
and sound waves am typical mechanical waves. A particular object can be acted on by multiple
When a wave propagates through a medium, the forces. The effect of the forces on the object depends
individual particles move back and forth. The distur- on whether the forces balance (cancel each other out).
bance itself propagates through the medium by [Systems and Interactions]
setting new parts of the medium into oscillation. If the several forces acting on an object (including
Although no particle actually moves very far, the gravity) do not cancel out, they cause a change in the
wave moves and carries energy through the medium motion of the object. The change can be speeding up,
from one location to another. (Sce. Section H, En- slowing down, starting, stopping, or turning. [Sys-
ergy: Sound.) [Systems and Interactions, Energy] tems and Imeractions]
Waves fall into two general categories. The first is If an object is at rest, then the several forces acting
transverse waves, in which the particles of the me- on an object totally balance each other (cancel each
dium uscillate perpendicular to the direction of other out). [Systems and Interactions]
propagation of the wave. The second is longitudinal
waves, in which the particles oscillate parallel to the C-2 What is force? What are the characteristics of
direction of propagation. Sound waves in air and forces? What is the relationship of force to motion?
liquids are longitudinal. Sound waves in solids can be
both longitudinal and transverse. Some more compli- Grades Three Through Six
cated waves, like surface water waves, are combina- Forces are often measured with a spring scale. The
tions of the two. [Systems and Interactions] customary units of force arc pounds (lb.) and ounces
A wave is characterized by its wavelength (X), its
frequency (f), and its propagation speed (v). The rela-
tionship of these quantities is given by the expression Light waves are not mechanical waves and do not
v = f X. Waves conform to the principle of superposi- require a medium for propagation. However, tlze)
tion: Any number of waves can pass through the have many properties in common with mechani
same part of the medium simultaneously, and their cal waves and are described by the same mathe-
effects arc cumulative. The phenomena of standing matical language used to describe mechanical
waves and interference are results of the principle of
superposition. [Systems and Interactions] waves. (See Section G, Energy: Light.)

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 55

es 7
 (oz.). The SI metric unit of force is the newton (N). A forces. If two forces have opposite directions, the
force of orir; pound is equal to a force of 4.5 newtons. effect is the same as a single force ir the direction of
[Systems and Interactions] the larger and equal to the difference of the two
The direction in which a force is exerted is impor- forces. If the two equal forces have opposite direc-
tant in determining its effect. The effect of two forces tions, they balance each otha out and there is no net
acting in the same direction is the same as if there force. If two forces act at an angle with respect to
were one force equal to the sum of the separate each other, then the effect is the same as that of a
single force acting at an intermediate angle. Unless
two fore= point in exactly opposite directions, they
can never cancel each other out, regardless of their
A person riding in a jet airliner cruising at 450 magnitude. [Systems and Interactions]
miles per hour 3,500 feet above the surface of the In ordinary situations, moving objects slow down
earth might describe the posi:ion and speed of a and come to rest. Under these circumstances, most
person walking down the aisle this way, "She is objects collide with or rub against other objects or
25 feet from the rear exit movbig towards it at 2 surfaces and experience "backward" forcesforces
that act in the direction opposite to the direction of
miles per hour." A person on the ground looking motion. These forces, which exist in several varieties,
up at the plane might say, "She is 2 miles south are broadly labeled frictional forces. Frictional forces
and 3,500 feet above me moving north at 448 always act to oppose motion. They can be used to
miles per hour." From this example, we see the controi motion, as is done with automobile brakes.
importance of specifying the reference system. Friction with air slows the space shuttle so that it can
land at a conveniently low speed.
Students need practice using both informal and
Objects do not have to touch in order to exert forces
formal reference and coordinate systems. The on each other. Gravity is an attractive force between
property of velocity, that there is no inherent any two masses and acts even when the objects att
difference between being at rest and moving at far apart. Objects fall to earth and the moon orbits the
constant velocity, is difficult for students to earth because of this force. Forces between magnets
understand. Because of its importance in devel- and forces between electrically charged objccts also
act over a distance without the objects being in
oping an understanding of the relation of force to contact. [Systems and Interactions]
motion, it should receive considerable attention If one object exerts a force on another object, the
throughout grades six through twelve. second object exerts an equal force in the opposite
direction on the first. For example, in order to start to
Even students intending to major in science in walk or run, a girl must push with her foot against the
floor in the direction opposite to that in which she
college have considerable difficulty in fully
intends to move. The floor pushes back against her
understanding the difference between velocity foot. This unbalanced force (floor pushing on girl) is
and acceleradon, even in the simplest case of the direct cause of the change in her forward motion.
one-dimensional motion. However, it is necessary [Systems and Interactions]
to introduce acceleration if Newton' s second law The intuitive notion that there exists something
is to be introduced. When acceleration is intro- inside or associated with an object that keeps it in
motion corresponds to the scientific concept called
duced, it should first be approached conceptually
momentum. Consider expressions such as "If an
and related to students' intuitive notions of object has a lot of momentum, it is hard to stop it or
speeding up and slowing down before defining it to change its direction", or "A large truck has a lot
mathematically. Students familiar with drag more momentum than a small car going the same
acing will have no problems here. speed"; or "The faster you go the more momentum
you have." These statements make sense to many
students before they have formally studied momen-

56 Part 11The Content of Scianco

Newton' s.third law focuses on an important property of forces. As with Newton's first and second laws,
the concept behind Newton' s third law should be taught first, and then it can be given a name. It is not
important chat students remember a memorize_ definition of Newton' s third law using words that do not
make any sense to them. What is important is that they have a conceptual undeistanding uf its content.

The fundamental pi operties of force are not intuitive for most students. Consequently, they need to be
reintroduced and reinforced at all levelskindergarten through grade twelve. P ?cause it is difficult to
change misconceptions that have been held for several years, appropriate and useful conceptions of
forces should be established as early as possible. At the kindergarten through grade three level, students
should be given many opportunities to ident1:15' forces and explore the difference between instances when
they balance and when they do not. These should be experiences in which they directly feel and sense
the forces. [Systems and Interactions]

tum. Momentum depends botn vu how much matter Particular attention needs to bc devoted to the
there is (its mass) and on the velocity of the mass. common experience of objects on earth always
Momentum has the same direction as the velocity of coming to a stop once the cause of the motion has
the object. Like velocity, the actual value of momen- been removed (a box sliding on the floor, a car
tum depends on the reference frame in which the coasting to a stop, and so forth). In all these cases, the
velocity is measured. [Patterns of Change] object's forward momentum is changed (reduced) by
Net forces cause the momentum of an object to the unbalanced force of friction, the greater toe
change. Conversely, if the net force actil1 6 ctl an frictional force, the less time it takes for the object to
object is zero, its momentum will remain constant. stop. Conversely, if an object's forydard momentum
For example, air friction exerts a force opposite to the remains constant in the presence of friction, there
direction of motion on an object thrown horizontally. must bc another force acting on the object to balarke
This force ca...ses the forward momentum to decrease the frictional force. [Systems and Interactions]
(the object slows down). At the same time, gravity Near the surface of the earth, the force of graNity
exerts a force in the downwi.-d direction, which exerted by the earth on an object does not change
causcs the object to start moving downward (if it was appreciably with changes in elevation of the objea.
initially moving horizontally). [Systems atitt Intcrak.. When an object falls toward the earth, the speed it ha:,
tions] when it hits the ground increases as the height from
which it is dropped increases. This is not due to the
C-2 What is force? What are the characteristics of fact that the force is greater when it is higher (a
forces? What is the relationship of force to motion? commonly held misconception), but is readily ex
plained by the concepts of forces and acceleration.
Grades Six Through Nine The constant force of gravity produces a constant
If a net force acts on an object, its momentum will acceleration. The higher the point from which the
change, and the longer the net force acts, the more the object falls, the longer it accelerates, producing
momentum will change. When the net force acting on higher velocity and momentum. [Systems and Inter
an object is zero, the object's momentum will not actions]
change. It means that an ooject in motion will Mass and force of gravity have exact meanings in
continue to move in a straight linc at constant speed, science, but the term weight, as used popularly, can
or if it is not moving, it will not start to move if there have several meanings. Usually, the term is related to
is no net force acting on it. [Patterns of Change, gravity and refers to a force whose magnitude is
Systems and Interactions] proportional to mass. When the term is used in

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 57

Only very simple and straigWorward examples similar to those mentioned should be studied at this
level.Their purpose is to provide a lot of evcryday applications in which the concepts of force and mo-
mentwn can be distinguished and clarified. [Systems and Interactions]

science, it must be distinguished from mass and C-2 What is force? What are the characteristics of
should be defined carefully. forces? What is the relationship of force to motion?
The magnitude of weight can be thought of as that
quantity measured by a bathroom scale. Normally, Grades Nine Through Twelve
you are not moving when you weigh yourself, so the The force of gravity acting on an object near the
upward force of the scale on you exactly balances the surface of the earth in newtons is numerically equal
force of gravity. In this case your weight equals the to the product of the object's mass in kilograms and
force of gravity. However, if you weigh yourself in the "acceleration of gravity" (g = 9.8 mIs2, Fs= mg.)
an elevator, you will find that your weight changes as [Systems and Interactions]
the elevator starts up or comes to a stop. The force of The force of gravity acts between all pairs of
gravity does not change, but additional forces which o ,jects, not just between the earth and other objects.
cause the change in speed also cause the change in The size of the force increases with the mass of each
weight. An astronaut in free-fall, floating around the object. However, unless at least one of the objects is
cabin of a spacecraft in low earth orbit, would register very massive (like the earth), the force of attraction
zero weight on the scale and so could be said to be between the objects is usually negligible compared to
"weightless," even though the forcc of gravity is only other forces. The force of gravity decreases as the
slightly reduced. The focus in science should be on distance between the objects increases. It is neces-
the relationship between force and mass, not on the sary, however, to go very far from a planet or the sun
meaning of the term weight. [Systems and Interac- before its gravity is reduced substantially. The force
tions] of the earth's gravity at an elevation typical of most
earth satellites is reduced by only 5 to 10 percent
from that at the surface of the earth. [Systems and
The implications of Newton's second law are far- Interactions]
ranging and affect practically everything we do At a fundamental level there are four basic forces:
the attractive force of gravitation that acts between all
in our daily lives. In those instances for which the matter, the electric force that acts between charged
forces are easily identified (exerted by animate matter and can be either attractive or repulsive, and
objects, for example), it is easier for students to two kinds of nuclear forces that act to hold atomic
determine whether an unbalanced force exists. nuclei together. The first two act over large distances,
For example, in a tug-of-war the players exert while the two nuclear forces decrease to zero just
forces on the rope. If they balance, the rope does outside the nucleus. The forces we experience in our
everyday lives are the result of either gravitation or
not move. Another class of examples that is fairly electric force. Forces of friction and other contact
straigWorward involves objects subjected only to forces are due to the electric force acting at the atomic
the force of gravity (for example, a ball in flight and molecular level. [Systems and Interactions]
after it has left the thrower's hand). If air friction The particles of fluids (gases or liquids) exert
is negligible, there is only one force acting on the forces on cach other and on surfaces with which they
object; it can not be balanced, and the object' s are in contact. Pressure is the amount of force acting
on one unit of arca. Particles are free to move in a
momentum will change in response lo the unbal fluid. In equilibrium the particles will be distributed
anced force. so that pressure at any point is the same in all direc-
tions. [Systems and Interactions]

58 Part llThe Content of Science 7 i)

mol'w

There is some ambiguity attached to the concepts of weight al weightlessness because they can be
defined in slightly different ways. Any of these definitions is acceptable, provided it is used consistently.
Textbook authors should take care to do so. For a clear, complete discussion of this point, together with
a set of recommendations, see Robert A. Nelson, SI: The International System of Units, (Second edition).
Stony Brook, N.Y .: American Association of Physics Teachers, 1982, pp. 47-57.

Pressure in a fluid increases with the depth of the opposite to the displacement from the equilibrium
fluid. This can be understood in terms of the pressure point. [Systems and Interactions]
required to support the fluid above that location. A net force (F) acting for a time (At) causes a
[Systems and Interactions] change in the momentum of an object: (A(tnv) F At =
Fluids exert forces on objects immersed in them, A (Inv). The direction of the change is in the direction
just as they exert forces on other parts of the fluid. of the net force. If the force is not constant during the
Whether an object sinks or floats depends on whether time interval, then average force can be uscd in the
its weight is greater than or less than the weight of a formula. If there is no net force, there will be no
volume of fluid equal to the volume of the object. change in momentum. This fact is stated as the
This can be understood by considering the forces principle of conservation of momentum and applies
acting on an equal volume of fluid. Since this volume to group:, of objects as well as to single objects. A
of fluid does not move, the net forcc must be zero. single object without external forces or a group of
Further, since the force of gravity acts down, there objects that interact with each other but have no
must be an equal force acting in the up direction. effect on other objects constitutes a system. The
When the volume of fluid is replaced with the actual principle can be stated. If there is no external net
object, the same force acts on the actual object. That force acting on a system, then the momentum of the
is, the upward force exerted by a fluid on a sub- system remains constant, regardless of the interac-
merged object (buoyant force) is equal to the weight tions among the parts of the system. [Systems and
of an equal volume of fluid (volume of fluid dis- Interactions]
placed). This is Archimedes's principle. [Systems and
Interactions]
Newton's second law relates acceleration to forcc "Isaac Newton formulated his First Law of
and mass and can bc stated: Acceleration is directly Motion in the eighteenth century. It stated that
proportional to the net force, is inversely proportional 'every body continues in its state of rest, or of
to the mass of the object, and is in the direction of the
net force. In symbols, a = FN. [Systems and Interac- uniform motion in a right line, unless it is com-
tions] pelled to change that state by forces impressed
When a drag racer accelerates along a straight upon it.'
track, the acceleration is parallel to the direction of
motion and to the velocity. When the racer brakes to "(Joseph) Needham' s researches have now es-
a stop, the acceleration is opposite to the direction of tablished that this law was stated in China in the
motion and the velocity. In this case, acceleration fourth or third century BC. We read in the Mo
affects the speed but not the direction of motion. Ching: 'The cessation of motion is due to the
When a train goes around a circular curve at constant opposing force . .. If there is no opposing
speed, the acceleration is directed inward along the force . . . the motion will never stop. This is as
radius of the circle, perpendicular to the direction of
motion and the velocity. Now, the acceleration affects true as that an ox is not a horse."
the direction of motion, but not the speed. In oscilla- Robert Temple, The Genius of China
tory motion, the acceleration is always directed

II Chapter 3Physical Sciences 59

 Students in kindergarten through grade three can explore how various simple machines change the
effect of the applied force. [Systems and Interactions]

machine can either increase thc magnitude of an

applied force or it can increase the distance through
which the force acts. It cannot do both at the same
What are machines, and what do they do? What time. All machines can be analyzed and understood
principles govern their action? on this basis. [Systems and Interactions, Energy]
Kindergarten Through Grade Three
C-3 What are machines, and what do they do? What
Machines are made of parts that move, such as a principles govern their action?
lever. Simple machines, such as soft drink bottle
openers, contain only one part. More complicated Grades Six Through Nine
machines, such as a can opener, contain several parts The product of the force and the distance through
connected togcthcr in various ways. The purpos:: of which it acts (force x distance) is given the name
all machines is the same: to change the effect of an work. [Energy, Systems and Interactions]
applied force. The change might be the direction of The basic principle governing all machines is
the force, the magnitude of the force, or both. For simply stated in terms of the concept of work: The
example, a crowbar can be used to increase the work output of a machine can be no greater than the
magnitude of force applied by the user. [Systems and work put into it. In any real machine, the work output
Interactions] is less than the work input because there is friction
between the moving parts. iEnergy, Systems and
C-3 What are machines, and what do they do? What Interactions]
principles govern their action?
C-3 What are machines, and what do they do? What
Grades Three Through Six
principles govern their action?
There are several kinds of simple machines. Among Grades Nine Through Twelve
them are levers, inclined planes, wedges, and screws.
If a certain force is applied to a machine through a Work (W) is equal to the product of force (F) and
certain distance, a machine's output can be either a distance (x) moved in the direction of the force. If the
larger force acting over a smaller distance or a direction of the applied force is the same as the
smaller force acting over a greater distance. A direction of motion, W = Fx. If F is not constant, thcn
the average value of F must be used. The unit of work
is thc newton-meter (Nm), called the joule (J).
Students should reexamine the operation of [Energy, Systems and Interactions]
various machines using the concepts of "work" The rate at which work is done is called power: P =
Wit. The unit of power is the joule per second (Rs),
and energy.They. should identify the system that and is given the name watt (W). An obsolete (but still
loses energy and the system that gains energy frequently used) unit of power is the horsepower (lip),
and verify that the work output of a machine is no equal to 745.7 W. (Energy, Systems and Interactions)
greater than the work put in. (Energy, Systems The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the
and Interactions] output of the machine to the input. Careful design can
improve the efficiency of a machine (for example, by
minimizing friction).

60 Part 11The Content of Science

'72
The definition of work in the preceding section can be confusing to students because in everyday lan-
guage we use the word "work" to mean more than is implied by this restrictive definition. For example,
if you hold a heavy book in your outstretched stationary hand, you do not do any work on the book in the
scientific sense. It is certainly true, however, that your arm gets tired. You are likely to say, "This sure is
hard work!" Students can appreciate the usefulness of the restrictive scientific definition, however, when
it is used in the context of energy transfers by mechanical means. In this example, no energy was trans-
ferred mechanically from the person to the book, so no work was done on the book. [Energy, Systems
and Interactions]

"
reflect othcrs. A sheet of thick paper transmits sound
but not light. A stretched sheet of plastic wrap tram.-
mits iight but not watcr waves. Heat is a form of
energy oftcn produced by conversion from othcr
forms, as can easily be dcmonstratcd by the warming
THE idca that separate systems can separately gain or of a dark object exposcd to sunlight. The capacity of
lose energy, but that thc total energy of all interacting waves to carry energy can be dcmonstratcd by
systems remains constant, is known as conservation observing how water waves (for example, in wave
of energy. It is onc of the great conservation prin- tanks) sct floating objccts into motion. Energy is
ciples around which science is organized. Mass is one required whcn work is donc on a system or when
form of energy that must be taken into account in matter changes its form. [Energy, Systcms and Inter-
cases involving atoms and thcir components. In such actions, Patterns of Change]
cases, a unified principle of conservation of mass-
energy replaces the separate principles of conserva- D-1 What is energy? What are its characteristics?
tion of mass and conservation of energy. Grades Three Through Six
D-1 What is energy? What are its Energy passes through ecosystcms in food chains
characteristics? mainly in the form of the chemical energy supplied to
each organism by the nourishmcnt it consumcs. All
D-2 What do we do with energy? What organisms convert some of this energy into hcat.
changes occur as we use it? Animals also convert somc of it into mechanical
energy. Green rlants convert light energy into cherni
al energy by means of the phuLuLhemkal
called photosynthcsis. (See Chapter 5, Section A.
Living Things.) [Systems and Interactions, Energy]
What is energy? What are its characteristics?
Kindergarten Through Grade Three What is energy? What are its characteristics?
D-1
Forms of energy can be classified in several ways, Grades Six Through Nine
depending on our purposes. Energy is manifcstcd
when we drop a ball, strike a match, make waves in a When systems interact, energy is oftcn transferred
bathtub, clap our hands or rub them briskly together, from onc system to another. When energy conversion
or turn on a flashlight. Each form of energy has its takes place, thc total energy is conserved Sometimes
own characteristics. For example, a given material conversion processes invoNe conversion of part of
will transmit some forms of enc:gy and absorb or thc energy to undesired forms, typically to heat

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 61

a
 energy. In teims of systems, we say that part of the energy is the total kinetic and potential energy of the
energy is transferred to a third system, the environ- random motions of the particles of a substance.
ment, in the form of heat energy. [Systems and Inter- [Energy]
actions, Energy] The use of electrical energy is pervasive in our
Under nuclear conditions, when the energy of a technological society. Electrical energy caa be
substance is changed, its mass does not change. obtained by the conversion of gravitational potential
Under certain conditions, such as when nuclear fusion energy (hydroelectric plants do this), chemical energy
or fission occurs, mass and energy are interconverted, (fossil fuel plants do this), or potential energy of
and measurable mass changes occur. atomic nuclei (nuclear plants do this). Other con-
The unit of energy is the joule, named after the version processes furnish small amounts of electrical
English physicist James Prescott Joule in recognition energy as well. [Energy, Systems and Interactions]
of his key contributions to our understanding of the Electromagnetic waves transfer energy from their
principle of energy conservation. When energy is source to where they are absorbed at the speed of
transported from one place to another (e.g., by an light. Electromagnetic energy has many forms, some
electric transmission line), we measure the rate at of which are familiar. Among these familiar forms
which it is transported. When a device transforms are light, infrared radiation, radio waves, and X rays.
energy from one form to another (as an electric motor The forms differ because their wavelengths vary
does), we measure the rate at which it does so. The widely. For example, X rays will penetrate objects
rate at which energy is transmitted or transformed is that are opaque to light; we can feel infrared radiation
called power. The basic unit of power is the watt (W), as heat energy is absorbed by our skin. Nevertheless,
named after the Scottish engineer James Watt, who all of these forms of energy transfer share many
made crucial improvements to the steam engine and properties in common. [Energy, Systems and Interac-
thereby contributed to the industrial revolution. tions]
[Energy, Patterns of Change]
Conversion of energy from one form to another
usually has some effect on the surroundings. This is D-1 What is energy? What are its characteristics?
especially true of conversion of heat energy into Grades Nine Through Twelve
mechanical energy, which is accomplished by heat
engines. Heat engines (such as gasoline engines and Chemical energy is the electrical potential energy
steam turbines) inevitably produce a certain amount associated with the configuration of electrons in
of waste heat. Sometimes the waste heat is useful, as molecules. Each molecule has a specific spaual
when steam from power plants is used for heating configuration and therefore a specific electronic
buildings. Sometimes it is an environmental pollutant, potential energy. In chemical reactions, the configura-
as when river water used for cooling is warmed so tions change and, therefore, the electrical potential
much that it affects the ecological balance of the energy changes as well. In exothermic reactions,
river. [Energy, Systems and Interactions] energy is released to the environment as the electric
Because there ere two fundamental ways in which a potential energy of the molecules decreases. An
system can change, there are two basic types of example of such a reaction is the main reaction in the
energy. A system can change when the distance be- burning of coal:
tween the parts of a system change or the parts arc
rearranged. Energy associated with these kinds of C 02> CO2+ 6.54 x 1049 joules per molecule
changes is traditionally called potential energy. The of CO2 produced.
second way the parts of a system can change is by (See Section B, Reactions and Interactions.) The
going faster or slower. The energy that things have release is usually in the form of heat energy, but
because they arc in motion is called kinetic energy. sometimes in the form of electrical or electromag-
Other forms of energy are really manifestations of netic energy. In endothermic reactions, energy must
these two basic types. For example, chemical energy be supplied from outside to make the reaction pro-
is the electrical potential energy of a system of atoms
ceed. In such reactions, the electric potential energy
and molecules capable of being rearranged. Heat of the molecules increases. An example of an endo-

62 Part ft---The Content of Science

thermic reaction is the production of mercury from Humans use energy in many ways, including forms
the ore cinnabar: not available to other living things. Electric energy is
used for heating, lighting, mechanical motion, and
2Hg0 + 1.51 x 1019jou1es per molecule of information transpott and processing. Nuclear energy
Hg0> 2Hg + 02. and the energy of fuels are used for a vast variety of
Photosynthetic reactions are endothermic; the purposes. [Energy]
energy input comes from light. The reactions are well
understood but complex. Roughly speaking, however,
the overall reaction is: D-2 What do we do with energy? What changes occur
as we use it?
water + carbon dioxide + light energy> sugar.
(See Chapter 5, Section A, Living Things.) [Energy, Grades Six Through Nine
Systems and Interactions] All energy conversion processes have undesirable
side effects. We try to minimize these effects both
directly, by careful design, and indirectly, by balanc-
ing various resources in building an energy network.
For example, hydroelectricity is a renewable resource
What do we do with energy? What changes occur because rain and snow fall in the mountains every
as we use it? year. However, reservoirs flood valuable property
Kindergarten Through Grade Three that has other possible uses, and dams occasionally
break disastrously. Coal is nonrenewable, dangerous
Energy is used to do mechanical work. Most of this to mine, and contains potential pollutants which are
energy is provided by using fuel to produce heat difficult to remove; in addition, burning coal pro-
energy and then using the heat energy to run a heat duces carbon dioxide, which may have undesirable
engine. The heat engine does either the desired
mechanical work directly (as when a gasoline engine
drives an automobile) or indirectly through conver-
sion to electrical energy, which then drives an electric In dealing with energy and power quantitatively
motor that does the work (as in a trolley car or a or semiquantitatively, give preference to SI
vacuum cleaner). (See Section C, Force and Motion.) metric units: the joule, the watt, and their mul-
Heat engines ineviiably produce waste heat. (See tiples. Students who have familiarity with U.S.
Section E, Energy: Heat.) [Energy, Systems and customary units (e.g., the foot-pound, Btu, and
Interactions] horsepower) should be encouraged to learn how
The ultimate source of most of the energy we use is
the sun. We call the sun a renewable resource because to convert to SI metric. Other units of energy
its energy is available forever for practical purposes. sometimes used are the kilowatt-hour and the
Coal and petroleum have, ultimately, solar origins: ktlocalorie.The use of these units is discouraged
They are the remains of green plants that lived and by international convention and is slowly dying
died millions of years ago. But we use coal and oil far out,
faster than they are produced. We therefore call them
nonrenewable resources. (See Chapter 4, Section B,
Geology and Natural Resources.) [Energy, Systems It is unfortunate that the tcrm "potential energy"
and Interactions, Patterns of Change] is used to descibe a type of energy because of po-
sition. Kinetic energy has just as much ability to
D-2 What do we do with energy? What changes occur be converted into another form as does potential
as wo use it?
energy. Many persons have developed miscon-
Grades Three Through Six ceptions regarding energy because of the use of
The transfer of energy is necessary for change to this term. This needs to be clarified with students.
essential to all
occur in matter. Energy transfers are
living organisms. [Energy, Systems and Interactions]

t"nr. Chapter 3Physical Sciences 63

t.)
 climatic effects. Nuclear power does not exhaust
SectiopE Enerby: Heat
desirable resources and does not produce carbon
dioxide, but the waste products are difficult and
expensive to store reliably. Energy conservation is HEAT and temperature are words commonly used in
very useful, but there are limits beyond which energy
our everyday language. The concepts of heat, tem-
use cannot be reduced. The search for the optimum
perature, and other thermal properties of matter are
balance is one having many scientific, technical,
intimately related to the concepts of force and mo-
political, economic, and social aspects. [Energy,
Patterns of Change] tion. The concepts of force and motion are useful to
describe the interaction of a few objects. The con-
Technological applications of energy conversion cepts of heat and temperature are useful for describ-
are numerous. Heating, cooling, and cooking devices ing the large-scale effects of the interactions of the
use energy, either in the form of the chemical energy
of fuel or in the form of electrical energy. Undesir- vast numbers of atoms or molecules of which a
able heat transfer is minimized by means of insulating substance is composed. Because there are such large
numbers of particles interacting, new principles arise
materials. Electricity is useful for energy transmission
that are based simply on statistical concepts that sup-
and communication because of the convenience and
plement the principle of energy conservation.
speed of transmission. Information can be processed
in very elaborate ways by means of tiny, often E-1 What Is heat energy? Where does it
inexpensive, devices using electronic techniques. come from, and what are Its properties?
[Energy, Systems and Interactions]
E-2 How do we use heat energy?
D-2 What do we do with energy? What changes occur
as we use it?
Grades Nine Through Twelve
What is heat energy? Where does it come from, and
Electromagnetic energy is used in many ways.
what are its properties?
Infrared photography and detection, microwave
ovens, and X-ray technologies are but a few ex- Kindergarten Through Grade Three
amples. Information is processed rapidly in the form
of electric pulses, as is done in computers. Most The form of energy called heat energy can be
information is transmitted electromagnetically, either produced in many ways. Heat energy is produced in
by cable, by light pipe, or by radio transmission. an object when it is exposed to the sun, to other light
Much of the electric energy consumed by people is sources, or to fire. It can also be produced by rubbing
generated using heat engines of various types. The i.wo objects together. Heat flows from a hotter region
most common of these is the steam plant, which or object to a cooler one. We say that the region from
transforms the energy stored in fossil fuels or in which the heat flows has a higher temperature than
uranium into the disordered energy of heat and, the region to which it flows. If an object is not too hot
thence, by means of a steam turbine, into ordered or too cold, we can tell its approximate temperature
mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is then by feeling it. (See Section D. Energy: Sources and
used to drive an electric generator. Electric energy is Transformations.) [Energy, Systems and Interaction]
difficult to store at present and must usually be
transformed into some other form of energy for E-1 What is heat energy? Where does it come from,
storage. However, the advent of a new generation of and what are its properties?
superconductors may make it possible to store the Grades Three Through Six
energy directly and efficiently in the form of the
magnetic field of a surrconducting coil. [Energy, Heat and temperature are not he same thing but are
Systems and Interactions] related to one anoth. Temperature can be measured
with a thermometer. Most materials expand with

64 Part IIThe Content of Science

Organelles in the cells of green plants have the ability to convert light energy into chemical energy,
which can be stored, transported, and used by the plant in a variety of ways. The ability of animals to
see is based on the conversion of light energy into electrical energy in sensitive cells in their eyes. The
ability of animals to hear is based on the conversion of sound energy into electrical energy by sensitive
cells in their ears. Electric eels, sharks, manyfishes, and duck-billed platypuses are among the animals
that have organs sensitive to electrical energy, which they use to detect their prey. (See Chapter 5,
Section A, Living Things.) (Energy, Evolution, Systems and interactions)

increasing temperature and contract with decreasing Phase changes always involve the flow of heat into
temperature. That is how familiar thermometers or out of an object. But*this heat flow does not result
work. Heat cannot be measumd directly. However, an in a temperatum change. (For example, the tempera-
increase of the temperature of an object can mean ture of a kettle of pum water always remains at the
that heat is flowing into it; a decrease of the tempera- boiling temperature of water, 100°C, no matter how
ture can mean that heat is flowing out of it. Heat hard it boils.) For this reason, the amount of heat
affects matter in many ways. Chemical reactions energy required to produce a phase change in a
require an input or output of heat energy in predict- certain mass of substance is called its latent (hidden)
able amounts, as do phase changesmelting or hcat. [Energy, Patterns of Change]
freezing, boiling or conden.sation. [Energy, Patterns In order to change the phase of a substancefor
of Change] example, to boil a liquidits molecules must be
rearranged. This requires a change in the potential
energy of the bonds holding the particles together,
E-1 What is heat energy? Where does it come from, rather than a change in the random disordered mo-
and what are its properties? tional energy of the molecules. For this reason, the
Grades Six Through Nine heat added does not result in a temperature change.
[Patterns of Change, Energy]
Heat and temperature arc not the same thing but are Heat energy can be transferred from one place to
related to one another. Heat affects matter in many another by processes called conduction, convection,
ways. A thermometer is a device for predicting which and radiation. Heat energy flows quickly by conduc-
way heat energy will flow from any object to any tion through substances called heat conductors and
other one; that is, which of the two objects has the slowly through substances called heat insulators.
higher temperature. [Energy] Insulators are important in reducing the cost of home
The molecules of any substance are in constant heating and cooling, as wel as making homes more
disordered, random motion. Heat energy is the total comfortable. In convection, heat is transferred by
kinetic and potential energy of the disordered motion warm matter (for example, air) moving into a cooler
of the molecules of the substance. The temperature of region. Good insulation prevents large-scale motion
a substance is a measure of the average random of air. Wool is a good insulator because it traps air in
motional energy of the molecules (or other particles) tiny cells so that convection cannot take place. In
composing the substance. Temperature is usually not radiation, a body at high temperature emits electro-
measured directly, by measuring this average kinetic magnetic radiation which is absorbed by a cooler
energy, but indirectly, by using a device whose body. Highly reflecting surfaces are effective at
macroscopic properties are affected by temperature reducing heat transfer by radiation. That is why a
A mercury-in-glass thermometer is such a device in Thermos bottle is silvered and thermal or solar
which the volume of a fixed quantity of mercury curtains arc aluminized. [Energy, Systems and
varies with temperature. [Systems and Interactions, Interactions]
Energy]

f'7 1.1 Chapter 3Physical Sciences 65

i I
 E-1 What is heat energy? Where does it come from, so-called waste heat can be used (e.g., for steam
and what are its properties?
heating), but usually it is not desired and is called
Grades Nine Through Twelve thermal pollution. (For example, the summer tem-
perature of the Connecticut River, whose waters are
As heat energy is removed from a sample, its used to cool many electric generating plants, often
temperature decreases. In principle, a point is reached exceeds 100°F, to the detriment of the fish and other
at which no further energy can be removed because aquatic life.) Measures must be taken to minimize
all of the molecules have the minimum possible these undesirable effects; sometimes this involves
energy. This is the lowest temperature possible and is considerable cost. [Energy, Systems and Interactions]
called absolute zero. On the absolute or Kelvin Entropy is a measure of the disorder of the energy
temperature scale, absolute zero is assigned the contained in a system. If a system is isolated, its
temperature value T = 0 K. The size of the kelvin (the entropy can only remain the same or increase. (This is
degree of the absolute scale) is defined by fixing the an alternative statement of the second law of thermo-
temperature of the so-called triple point of water at dynamics.) But if two systems interact, the entropy of
273.16 K, exactly. Absolute temperatures, expressed one system can be reduced at the expense of the
in kelvin, must be used in the ideal gas law, and use other, provided the total entropy of both systems
of the absolute temperature scale makes many other increases or remains the same. Living organisms
physical and chemical calculations simple. The constantly decrease their own entropy at the expense
Celsius scale is often convenient for everyday use. of the entropy of their surroundings. So do heat
The zero of the Celsius scale (0°C) is set by the engines, crystals (as they grow out of solution), and
definition 0°C = 273.15 K. The Celsius degree is of other systems as well. [Energy, Systems and Interac-
the same "size" as the kelvin. [Energy] tions, Patterns of Change]
Because heat is a form of energy, it can be pro-
duced only by conversion from other forms of energy
and can never be created from nothing. This state-
ment is one form of the first law of thermodynamics.
[Energy]
How do we use heat energy?
Disordered heat energy can be converted to ordered
macroscopic motion (mechanical energy) by a heat Kindergarten Through Grade Three
engine. The statement that the mechanical energy is
converted from heat energy and not created from Heat is essential to pll living organisms. We
nothing is one form of the first law of thermodynam- produce heat energy ourselves by metabolizing food.
ics. However, the conversion can never be complete. We also produce heat energy by burning fuel to warm
A heat engine always takes heat energy in from a our houses. By adding heat to our environment, we
source at a relatively high temperature and ejects a
smaller amount of heat energy to something at a
lower temperature. The amount of ejected heat can Many effects operate to convert ordered, large-
never be zero. Thus, some of the heat energy taken in scale motion to disordered, small-scale motion.
by the engine at high temperature must always be
ejected to the environment at a lower temperature and Friction is one of these effects. When an object
is lost to the engine. This is the meaning of the rubs against another, the molecules on the
second law of thermodynamics. The second law surface are disturbed and set in motion. They
limits the maximum possible efficiency (work output then set their neighbors in motion. The ordered
divided by heat energy input) of any heat engine to a motion of the entire object is converted into
value less than 100 percent. [Energy, Systems and
Interactions]
disordered motion of its molecules. The spread-
Because some heat energy is always rejected to the
ing of the motion through the body is the flow of
environment when a heat engine operates, the tem- heat energy. [Energy]
perature of the environment is raised. Sometimes this

66 Part liThe Content of Science

P7()
10
can raise its temperature to a comfortable level. We
use cooling devices to remove heat from our environ- As an example of entropy, consider ten pennies
ment and thus to lower the temperature to a comfort- on a tray, all heads up. The tray is shaken; the
able level. We use heat energy also to drive heat
engines (such as automobile engines) and thus to do
pennies will probably settle with some heads up
mechanical work. [Energy, Systems and Interactions] and some tads up. The ordered, low-entropy state
(ten heads) has been transformed into a disor-
E-2 How do we use heat energy? dered, high-entropy state (some heads, some
Grades Three Through Six tails). Further shaking is very unlikely to produce
the reverse process. But you can always produce
Heat flows by itself only from an object at a higher the ten-heads state by turning over all the pennies
temperature to another object at a lower temperature.
with tails up. Doing this requires energy. (En-
Thermometers can be used to predict which way heat
will flow when two substances are placed in contact. ergy, Patterns of Change)
As heat flows, the warmer body cools and thc cooler
one warms until the two achieve the same tempera-
ture. This final temperature lies somewhere between efficiency, e = (Tin-- TJTin. It follows from this
the initial temperatures of the two bodies. [Energy, relationship that an efficient heat engine should take
Systems and Interactions] heat in at the highest practicable temperature and
exhaust heat at the lowest practicable temperature in
E-2 How do we use heat energy? order to have the highest efficiency. [Energy, Sys-
Grades Six Through Nine tems and Interactions]

It is possible to make heat energy flow from a

cooler object to a warmer one, but only at the cost of Energy: Electricity and
.Section F
other energy. Any device that does this is called a
refrigerator. Household refrigerators, air conditioners, Magnetism
ice-making machines, and the space-heating devices
called heat pumps are examples of refrigerators.
[Energy, Systems and Interactions] AT a fundamental level, electricity and magnetism
arc manifestations of the same basic phenomenon
called electromagnetism. In our everyday lives we
E-2 How do we use heat energy?
sometimes experience them separately and at other
Grades Nine Through Twelve timcs as the combined phenomenon. For example,
static electricity can be understood simply as an
Heat engines include steam engines, steam turbines, electrical phenomenon. Similarly, at a certain level of
gas turbines (such as jet engines), and internal understanding, it is useful to consider the attraction
combustion engines. A heat engine designed to and repulsion of permanent magnets as simply a
operate in reverse uses mechanical energy to take in magnetic phenomenon. However, radio and TV
heat energy at a low temperature and reject it at a signals and electric motors can be understood only as
higher temperature. Such a device is called a refrig- electromagnetic phenomena. The complete theory of
erator or a heat pump. [Energy, Systems and Interac- electnomagnetism, called quantum electrodynamics
tions] (which includes the effects of quantum mechanics), is
The efficiency of a heat engine depends on many at present our most precise and best tested physical
factors, some of which can be optimized by careful
theory.
engineering. But there is an upper limit set on the
efficiency of a heat engine by the second law of F-1 What are electricity and magnetism?
thermodynamics. If the engine takes in heat at What are they like, and what are their
temperature Tin and rejects waste heat at temperature basic properties? How do they interact?
T., its efficiency can never exceed the Camot

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 67

7 r.
 F-2 How do we use electncity and F-1 What are electricity and magnetism? What are
magnetism? they Ike, and what are their basic properties?
How do they interact?

Grades Three Through Six

Electric charge comes in two kinds, arbitrarily
What are electricity and magnetism? What are they named positive (+) and negative (-). Particles having
like, and what are their basic properties? How do like charges exert repulsive forces on onc another.
they interact? Panictz.i; having opposite charges exert attractive
forces on one another. (See Section A, Matter.) This
Kindergarten Through Grade Three effect can be seen using charged plastic balls sus-
When you walk across a rug on a dry day, you may pendtd from threads. [Systems and Interactions,
get a shock whcn you touch a doorknob. Clothes Scale and Structure, Patterns of Change]
coming out of a dryer stick together. When it is Electricity is most familiarly encountered in the
stormy, you sometimes see lightning. These phenom- form of electric current. When electric charge flows,
ena are seen because matter can be electrically it is called a current. Some materials carry electric
charged by friction. The large sparks that am light- charge from place to place better than others; these
ning bolts and me tiny sparks you feel when you arc called conductors. Metals and salt solutions are
touch the doorknob result from the flow of electri- conductors. The flow of charge requires a complete
cally charged matter from one place to another. circuit of conducting material through which charge
Electric forces can act over a distance without the can pass easily. A battery, a generator, or other device
objects having to touch. This is seen whcn a balloon is needed to pump the charge through the circuit.
which has been electrically charged by friction Materials that do not carry electric charge well arc
ato.,Icts hair on a person's arm or head without called insulators. Clean glass and most plastics arc
actually touching it. [Systems and Interactions] insulators. [Systems and Interactions, Patterns of
Electric charge can be made to flow through wires Change, Energy]
connected to batteries or electric generators. The The magnetic force is readily observed in perma-
moving electric charge can be used to light lamps, run nent magnets. Magnets affect only certain matenils,
motors, and power radios and cassette players. We notably steel and other materials made from iron,
usc this kind of electricity continually in our everyday cobalt, and nickel. Magnets can be used to separate
lives. [Systems and Interactions, Energy] objects made of such magnetic materials from other,
Electricity used to power battery-driven toys, nonmagnetic materials. Objects made of magnetic
radios, and flashlights is safe and will not produce materials can be magnetizedmade into magnets
dangerous elecuic shocks. The electricity from wall by placing them near strong permanent magnets.
sockets used to run household appliances is very [Systems and Interactions]
dangerous if it is used improperly. Students should be Magnetism and electricity are related, but they are
warned never to experiment with household electric not the same thing. Electrical attraction and repulsion
circuits and should be taught about the dangers of arise from electric charges, but there are no such
frayed wiring, of touching the metal prongs of things as magnetic charges. Magnetism arises from
electric plugs, and of inserting any kind of object into electric currentthat is, moving electric charge.
electric outlets. [Systems and Interactions) Whenever there is an electric current, any magnetic
Magnets attract and repel onc another and attract material in the neighborhood will experience a force.
common materials made from iron or steel. Magnets The material becomes magnetized and remains so as
can attract steel paper clips at a distance, and this long as the electric current persists. Electromagnets
effect can be transmitted through a series of several are a direct application of this principle. The earth is 41
clips in contact with one another. Magnets do not huge magnet, and this property of the earth arises
attract common materials other than iron and steel. from the large electric currents that exist in the
[Systems and Interactions] earth's metallic core. [Systems and Interactions, Scale
and Structure, Energy]

68
80
Part IIThe Content of Science
 helpful to distinguish
Most students have difficulty understanding the concept of complete circuit. It is
bulb by the circu-
carefully between charge and energy. Energy is transferred from a battery to a light
lating charge. The complete circuit is necessary to provide a path for the charge to get back to the
battery.When the battery has run down, it has not run out of charge; rather, it has run out of the ability
longer transfer energy by
to change chemically anyfurther. Since it cannot change further, it can no
pushing the charge around the circuit. (Patterns of Change, Systems and Interactions, Energy)

What are electricity and magnetism? What are offer some resistance to the flow of electric charge
F-1
they like, and what are their basic properties? As a result, some electrical energy is converted to
How do they interact? heat energy. Current will not continue to exist in a
circuit with resistance without something to drive it,
Grades Six Through Nine such as a generator or a battcry. Thc driving influence
Just as an electric current can produce magnetic is expressed quantitatively as a voltage, and the unit
forces, magnets can in turn cause electric currents. An is called the volt (V). Most common battery-powered
electric current can be produced in a conducting loop devices are low voltage, 1-1/2 to 12 volts. This is
(a circuit) by moving it in thc vicinity of a magnet. normally not a high enough voltage to cause percep-
The mechanical energy of motion is thus converted tible electric shocks. Common household lights and
into electrical energy. This is how most electric appliances, however, normally operate at 110 to 120
generators work; by turning a coiled conductor in the V. This is sufficient voltage to causc dangerous or
space between the poles of a magnet, a generator fatal shocks. [Energy, Systems and Interactions]
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Superconducting materials are an important excep-
[Energy, Systems and Interactions] tion to the rule that even good conductors offer some
In addition to the attractive and repulsive forces resistance to the flow of charge. At sufficiently low
exerted by charged objects on one another, an electri- temperature, a superconductor loses all of its resis-
cally charged object can attract an uncharged object. tance to current. [Systems and Interactions, Scale and
This attraction is due to the induced polarization of Structure, Energy]
the charges. In the uncharged object, the + and - All matter is made up of elementary particles.
charges are present in equal numbcrs, and the system Among these elementary particles, electrons and
has zero net charge. Suppose the charged object protons contain an equal amount of negative and
possesses more positive than negative charges, so it positive electric charge, respectively (See Section A
has a net positive charge. Due to the forces exerted by Matter.) In most metals, electric currents arc the
this net positive charge, the charges on the uncharged result of the flow of electrons, while the positive
object separate, the negative charges moving as close charges remain in place. (This is not true in all
as possible to thc charged object and the positive conductors.) In insulators, few electric charges are
charges moving as far away as possible. The net free to move. [Scale and Structure]
result is an attractive force, because the unlike Commercial electric energy is almost always
charges are closer together than the like charges. A transmitted in the form of alternating current (AC) In
plastic comb run through your hair will attract little AC systems, the current switches direction (oscil-
bits of uncharged paper, which will then stick to the lates) many times a second. In the U.S , the frequency
comb. After a while, they are sometimes repelled. is 60 Hz; in many other countries it is SO Hz. Al-
This happens when enough of the charge on the comb though the electrons flow back and forth rather than
has leaked onto a bit of paper to result in a net moving in one direction like the water in a river, the
repulsive force. [Systems and Interactions] electrons nevertheless transfer energy to the various
Electrical resistance is dr opposition offered by devices plugged into the circuit. [Systems and Inter-
matter to the flow of electric charge. Most conductors actions]

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 69

Ei
 magnetic details of the material of which the magnet
The operation of the magnetic compass depends is made. (Systems and Interactions]
on the fact that the earth is a huge electromagnet. Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation,
The compass, consisting of a small magnet visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X rays, and gamma
suspended on a low-friction axis, is free to swing rays all transmit energy from one location to another.
In order to understand how this energy is transmitted,
in a horizontal plane. The end of the compass it is useful to develop a model that considers all of
needle that points north is called the north pole these as waves. They arc given the name electromag-
(short for north-seeking pole) of the magnet. The netic waves. These waves are fundamentally different
end that points south is called the south pole from sound waves or other waves that occur in
(short for south-seeking pole). As unlike magnetic matter, aside from having a much higher spea (The
poles attract one another, the north magnetic speed of light in vacuum (c) is 300 million meters per
pole of the earthlocated near the geographic second (mls), compared with about 300 rills for sound
in air. There is nothing material that vibrates as the
North Poleis actually a magnetic south pole. wave passes, as the air particles do with sound wav;s,
(Systems and Interactions] for example. Instead, a mathematical description can
be given that involves the periodic variation of
electric and magnetic fields. The electromagnetic
The voltage (the driving pressure) of commercial waves mentioned in this paragraph all have the same
electric systems is also carefully controlled. In the speed but diffcr in frequency and wavelength. Radio
United States, the standard voltage is 110 V to 120 V; waves have the longest wavelength and lowest
in many other countries 220 V is standard. [Energy, frequency, while gamma rays have the shortest
Systems and Interactions] wavelength and highest fmquency. The frequencies
of standard AM and FM radio signals range from
F-1 What are electricity and magnetism? What are about one million to 100 million Hz (cycles per
they like, and what are their basic properties? second). [Energy, Systems and Interactions]
How do they interact? The work required to drive electric charge through
a conductor against electrical resistance can be
Grades Nine Through Twelve
measured in terms of electric potential difference (V),
Electric charge never disappears or suddenly often called voltage. The current driven through a
appears in ordinary chemical or physical processes, given conductor that is part of a circuit depends on
because the electrons and protons that carry the the potential difference between the ends of the
charge cannot disappear or suddenly appear. This is conductor. For metals and some other kinds of
expressed by saying electric charge is conserved. conductors, the relation between potential difference
(Stability] and current (0, is given by Ohm's law,
Electric and magnetic fields are theoretical con- V = iR
cepts that emphasize the effect of electric and mag- In this relation, the proportionality constant R is
netic forces on charged particles. They do not de- called the electrical resistance. V is measured in volts,
scribe the original charges and currents that produce i in amperes, and R in ohms.
the forces. These am very useful conccpts, because it Some electrical energy is converted to heat when
is much easier in most cases to understand the effects charges flow through a part of a circuit with resis-
by knowing the fields rather than by knowing the tance. The rate at which electrical energy in a circuit
configuration of charges and currents that produce the is transferred from the source to other parts of the
fields. For example, specifying that the magnetic field circuit is power P. Power is measured in watts (W).
in the gap of a permanent magnet is a particular Electrical appliances arc often marked with a voltage
strength cmibles an electrical engineer to readily rating, a current rating, and a power rating. For
calculate the effect the magnet will have on an example, light bulbs arc specified by their voltage
electron that passes through its gap. Specifying the rating and power rating. (Energy, Systems and
field, however, tells thc engineer little about the Interactions)

70 Part llThe Content of Science

2
The concept of field is difficult to understand and requires significant mathematical sophistication -o
appreciate fully. It is introduced because the terms "electric field" and "magnetic field" are part of our
everyday language. It is possible for stu&nts at this level to understand that they describe the effect of
charges and currents and that larger fields produce larger effects. [Systems and Interactions]

When a potential difference V exists between two sages to vertical metal surfaces (refrigerator doors,
points in a circuit, the electrical power P that is for example). [Systems and Interactions]
converted into other kinds of energy when a current i
passes through the circuit is given ty Joule's (pro- F-2 How do we use electricity and magnetism?
nounced Jowell's) law, Grades Three-Through Six
P = Vi Current electricity is used to transport energy.
If the conductor between the two points in the circuit Electrical energy, carried from one place to another
conforms to Ohm's law, Joule's law can be written in by conductors, is the most versatile form of energy
either of the following two forms: available. Most conductors offer some resistance to
P = i2R or P = V 2/R electric current, causing some of the electric energy
[Ene:gy, Systems and Interactions] to be converted to heat in the conductor. This conver-
Power companies scl: energy to thcir customers. At sion is often undesirable, as in electric transmission
the customer's location, this electrical energy is lines. But it can be desirable as well, as in the opera-
converted to other kinds of energy. The usual unit of tion of electric heaters and incandescent light bulbs
electric energy is the kilowatt-hour (kW h). One 1000 (See Section D, Energy: Sources and Transforma-
W light bulb buming for one hour will transform 1 tions.) [Energy, Scale and Structure, Systems and
kW h of electrical energy to heat and light. In many Interactions]
places in the United States, the charge for a kilowatt-
hour is ten cents at the present time. [Energy, Sys- F-2 How do we use electricity and magnetism?
tems and Interactions] Grades Six Through Nine
Electrons can be extracted from conductors and
Electromagnets arc important components in
made to move at high speeds through vacuum
electric motors and generators. But they arc also used
through the use of sufficiently high voltages. Using
this basic technique, X rays, television images, and by themaelves to attract, separate, and carry magnetic
fluorescent lighting can be produced. rystems and materials, such as iron. In ore processing, electromag-
nets are scmetimes used to separate magnetic par-
Interactions, Energy]
ticles from nonmagnetic particles in crushed or,
[Systems and Interactions]
Cassette tape recorders and VCRs store magnetic
patterns on a plastic tape coated with a material that
can be magnetized. These patterns are electronically
How do we use electricity and magnetism? converted to electric currents that pmduce the picture
Kindergarten Through Grade Three on the video tube and drive the speakers. The speak-
ers convert the electric energy to sound energy.
Electricity is used to make motors run, light lamps, [Energy, Systems and Interactions]
operate telephones and television sets, heat homes,
and do many other things. [Patterns of Change, F-2 How do we use electricity and magnetism?
Systems and Interactions] Grades Nine Through Twelve
Magnetism can be used to separate materials
containing iron from those that do not. Permanent Superconductors are beginning to make important
magnets arc frequently used to hold notes and mcs- contributions to technology. The absence of resis-

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 71

 Section G Ener6y: Iight
"My chief trouble was that the idea was so
elementary, so simple in logic that it seemed
difficult to believe no one else had thought of Lot-cr enables us to scc; sight is considered by many
putting it into practice." to be the most important of our senses. Younger
Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) students in particular have difficulty understanding
the properties of light simply because it is so closely
connected with vision. Even after the distinction
between light and vision has been made, it is not casy
tance makes possible more efficient electric genera-
to understand what light really is. We can certainly
tors. Very powerful electromagnets are made out of understand and describe many properties of light at a
superconductors and are used in many branches of
fairly elementary level. But to get at what light really
science, technology, and medicine. Superconducting is requires the usc of a highly mathematical theory.
magnets may make possible high-speed, almost
For physicists and othcr scientists who study and use
frictionless, magnetically levitated trains that ride light, this theory, called quantum electrodynamics,
above their tracks. The recently developed high- provides onc of thc most precise and cxact under-
temperature superconductors will likely expand the standings of all physical phenomena.
use of superconductors into new areas over thc next
several years. [Systems and Interactions] G-1 How does light enable us to see? What
The very strong magnetic fields produced by are the sources of liaht? What is light?
superconducting magnets offcr possiblities of im-
proved transportation systems and better medical G-2 What are the properties of light?
diagnostic methods, but they also pose unknown iisks
to the human body. Scientists and medical profession- G-3 How do we use light?
als must be continually alert to the possibility of dam-
age to thc human body. [Systems and Interactions]
Electrostatic copying machines make use of the
attractive electric force. A large drum is coated with a
thin film of a photoconductor, a material which is an How does light enable us to see? What are the
insulator in thc dark but a conductor in the light. Thc sources of light? What is light?
drum is electrically charged. Then a camera lens
Kindergarten Through Grade Three
projects an image of a document onto thc drum.
Where the image is dark, thc charge is not disturbed. When we see something, our eyes and brains arc
Where the image is 3ht. the charge flows 'hrough responding to the light that comes from the objects
thc photoconducting film and leaks away. Thus the we arc looking at. Light itself is not something that
druir holds an electrostatic image of thc original wc see o touch. Light comcs from objects and enters
document. A fine, black, waxy powder sticks to the our eyes; thc eye is thc organ of thc body that is
charged (dark) regions only, thus forming an image in sensitive to light. A picture of what we are looking at
powder. The powder is subsequently "ironed" onto a is formed in our eyes and brain. Light is not like other
sheet of paper. [Systems and Interactions] things; it is not ordinary matter. The eye can see in
The use of miniaturized electronics is pervasive in both very dim and .ry bright light, but there are
our modem technological world. Tcns of millions of limits. Because th ,.. sun is so bright a source of light,
electronic parts can be put on on microchip smaller too much light enters our cycs if we look at it di-
than the nail of your little finger at a cost of only a rectly, and s4sious damage to our eyes occurs. Most
few dollars. This has made possible very sophisti- objects do not L.mit their own light, but reflect light
cated desktop computers for both home and industry. from othcr sources. We can see them by means of this
These am more powerful than even the largest reflected light. The sun is our primary sourcc of light.
computcrs of only a few decades ago. [Patterns of Other sources include electric light:, of all sons and
Change, Evolution, Scale and Structure] objects that arc buming. Wc can classify thc light wc

72 Part llThe Content of Science

F,4
see according to its brightness and its color. [Energy, and absorbed, we use the model that considers light
Scale and Structure, Systems and Interactions] as particles, called photons. The energy of individual
photons increases as the wavelength of light de-
creases. Light's behavior is best understood in tr-ms
G-1 How does light enable us to see? What are the
sources of light? What is light? of waves when we study the propagation of light.
[Scale and Structure, Systems and Interactions]
Grades Three Through Six
Light radiates outward in all directions from the sun
and from other hot objects. Some things can emit
light without being hot (glow-in-the-dark paint and
fireflies, for example). Light travels at great speed. If What are the properties of light?
not interrupted, light travels in straight lines. [Sys- Kindergarten Through Grade Three
tems and Interactions]
Light is a way that energy is transferred from the We observe and classify light in terms of its
source that emits the light to the object or substance intensity (brightness) and color. Wc cannot scc when
that absorbs it. [Systems and Interactions] the light is too faint; when light is too bright, it can be
All surfaces reflect some of the light that strikes harmful to our eyes. We give names to different
them. We are able to see objects that reflect light as colors. Light passes more readily through some
welt as objects that emit their own light. When light materials than through others. [Systems and Inter.u.
reaches the eye, the cornea and lens of the eye focus tions]
the light on the retina where it is absorbed. The retina Shadows result when an object blocks the light
contains nerve cells that respond to light and transmitcommg from a bright source. The object that casts the
electrical impulses to the brain via the optic nervc. shadow is located lrtween the light source and the
The brain further interprets these signals to produe surface that is lit by the light on which the shadow is
the visual images of objects we see. [Systems and seen. If the object moves Closer to the light source,
Interactions] the shadow gets bigger because the object blocks
more of the light. [Systems and Interactions]
G-1 How does light enable us to see? What are the
The direction of light going out from an object is
sources of light? What is light? changed when it hits a mirror. Our eyes cannot tell if
the direction of the light has been changed. That is
Grades Six Through Nine why our eyes and brain form a picture which seems to
Light, infrareu radiation, and ultraviolet radiation tell us that the object is on thc other sidc of the
are forms of electromagtetic radiation. (See Section mirror. [Systems and Interactions]
F, Energy: Elecnicity and Magnetism.) Visible light
is distinguished from other forms by its particular 6-2 What are the properties of light?
range of wavelengths, to which our eyes arc sensitive.
Many insects and some birds (such as hummingbirds) Grades Three Through Six
can see using a wider range of wavelengths, including Lenses bend light that passes through them. When
a part of thc ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic e look at an object through a lens, our eyes do not
spectrum. [Energy, Scale and Structure, Systems and know that the lens has bent the light. Depending on
Interactions] exactly how far the lens is from the object and our
eyes, the object seems larger or smaller than it really
G-1 How does light enable us to see? What are the is. [Systems and Interactions]
sources of light? What is light? Most substances (even mirrors) absorb some of the
light that strikes them. The absorbed light is con-
Grades Nine Through Twelve vened into heat energy. Substances like clear glass
Different models for light arc useful in helping us that absorb very little light arc said to be 'imnsparent
understand it. To best understand how light is emitted [Energy, Systems and Interactions]

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 73

85
 crests correspond and their troughs correspond, the
The cornea (front part of the eye) is mainly re- result is a larger wave; this is called constructive
sponsible for focusing the light that enters the eye. interference. When the waves superpose so that the
The lens (located behind the cornea) provides the crest on one corresponds to the trough of the other,
and vice versa, the result is a smaller wave or no wave
fine adjustment that lets us focus on objects close
at all. This is called destructive interference. Interfer-
up as well as far away. A prevalent misconception ence can be demonstrated by letting light from the
is that tht lens is primarily responsible for focus- same source pass through two narrow, parallel slits
ing the light that enters our eyes. and then fall on a screen. [Systems and Interactions]

Most surfaces reflect some of the light that strikes

them, some more than others. Objects like clear
How do we use light?
plastic and glass (contact lenses, for example) are
sometimes hard to see because they reflect so little Kindergarten Through Grade Three
light. [Systems and Interactions]
We can see only if there is light present. Devices to
reflect light can be used to see ourselves or around
G-2 What are the properties of light? corners. If the light is coming from all directions, as
Grades Six Through Nine in fog, it is difficult to see objects. [Systems and
Interactions]
The speed of light is very much greater than the
speeds of other familiar things. It takes light only about
G-3 How do we use light?
eight minutes to reach the earth from the sun, which
is approximately 150 million kilometers away. A Grades Three Through Six
light-year is the distance that light travels in one year,
almost 10 trillion kilometers. [Scale and Structure] What we see as white light consists of light of
many colors mixed together. Sometimes white light is
G-2 What are the properties of light? seen to separate into colors, as in the rainbow, or in
light patterns reflected by a soap bubble, or in light
Grades Nine Through Twelve passing through a prism. The light is separated into
The speed of light can be measured in several separate colors because light of different colors is
different ways. Formerly, it was determined experi- bent differently when it passes from air into water or
mentally in terms of a standard meter and standard glass, or vice versa. [Systems and Interactions, Scale
and Structure]
second. Today, the speed of light (c) can be measurt d
so precisely that the unit of length, the meter, is When a surface appears colored, it is because it
dermedln terms of c, as is the unit of time, the reflects more light of some colors than of other
second. [Scale and Stmcture] colors. The light that is not reflected is absotbed.
The speed of light in vacuum is exactly the same Thus a red flower is red becauge it is a good absorber
for all observers. This statement is one of the funda- of blue and green light, reflecting only red light to our
mental principles of the theory of relativity. [Scale eyes. If we try to observe a red flower in pure blue
and Structure] The speed of light is related to its fre- light, it appears black because the blue light is
quency (I) and its wavelength (A); the relation is absorbed. If we go into a store to buy a red shirt, we
f= O.. (See Section C, Force and Motion.) For must be careful not to look at it in colored light.
visible light, the range of wavelengths runs from 400 Outside the store, in the sunlight, the shirt may appear
urn (nanometers) to 700 nm. [Scale and Structure] to be a very different color. When red, yellow, and
Like all waves, light waves conform to the principle blue paint are mixed together, the mixture appears
of superposition. When waves superposepass dark brown or black. This is because each of the
through the same spacein such a way that their colored paints absorbs-some of the white light falling
on it. With the proper mixture, all colors are absorbed

74 Part 11--The Content of Science. 6

equally, and little or no reflected light is seen. [En- tion between light and matter. (Energy, Scale and
ergy, Scale and Structure, Systems and Interactions] Structure, Systems and Interaction]
Many technologies and devices use or manipulate Lascrs arc devices that produce light of precisely
light. Among them are cameras, camcorders, com- one wavelength. The beam of light that emerges from
puter monitors, VCRs and videodisk players, tele- the laser does not diverge, as do light bcams from
scopes, micmscopes, and the light-pipe endoscopes other sources. When the laser beam strikes a surface,
used by surgeons for such procedures as arthroscopic this concentrated energy is absorbed into a very small
surgery. [Systems and Interactions] area.The amount of heat energy transferred in this
way, even from low-power lasers, can easily damage
G-3 How do we use light? unprotected eyes. From high-power lasers, the heat
Grades Six Through Nine can be sufficient to cut through thick layers of steel.
In medicine, lasers have become invaluable for de-
Energy is transferred from the source of light to the positing precise amounts of heat energy to cut away
substance that absorbs the light. This energy can then unwanted substances. A serious social issue that must
be converted to other forms. It can provide the energy be debated and discussed is the use of very high
for certain chemical reactions; it can be converted power.lasers in satellite-based military weapon
into heat energy; or, by means of photovoltaic de- systems. [Energy, Systems and Interactions]
vices, it can be converted directly into electric energy.
[Energy. Systems and Interactions]
Some light is absorbed by fluorescent substances, Section H Enerty: Sound
the energy stored temporarily and ther, emitted,
usually as a different color. If blue light shines on a
glow-in-the-dark toy, it glows brightly yellow or THE science of sound, called acoustics, is interdisci-
green for a few minutes after the light is turned off. If plinary. It involves the physical aspects of the crea-
tion and transmission of energy in the form of sound
red light is used, there is no afterglow because red
waves to the eardrum as well as the interpretation by
light does not have enough energy to activate the
fluorescent substance. Manufacturers of washing the auditory nerve and brain of the electrical nerve
impulses generated in the middle ear by the vibrating
machine detergents add fluorescent materials to make
eardrum. Physical acoustics, the process up to the
clothing look "whiter than white." When the washed
eardrum, is considered in this section. The remainder
clothing is put in sunlight, some of the ultraviolet
of the process is in the domain of physiological and
light in the sunlight is absorbed by the substance in
the clothir:g and then reemitted as blue or violet light, psychological acoustics.
making the clothing look whiter. A similar effect is H-1 Where does sound come from? What
often used in amusement park fun houses to produce are its sources? How can sound be
startling images. [Energy, Scale and Structure,
described?
Systems and Interactions]
H-2 How does sound enable us to hear?
6-3 How do we use light? How do we produce sounds?
Grades Nine Through Twelve
H-3 How do we use sound?
A beam of light can carry a great amount of infor-
mation. For this reason, many telephone transmission
cables are being replaced by fiber-optic lines. [Sys-
tems and Interactions, Scale.and Structure]
When light of a sufficiently short wavelength (high Where does sound come from? What are its
enough energy) falls on a metal surface, the surface sources? How can sound be described?
can emit electrons. This emission is called the pho- Kindergarten Through Grade Three
toelectric effect. The photoelectric effect has many
useful applications. Equally important, a study of the Sound comes from many sources. Sound can be
effect leads to a better understanding of the interac- produced by making an object vibrate (movr back

r-1 Chapter 3Physical Sciences 75

 and forth). All sounds can ultimately be traced to a has a particular wavelength. (See Section C, Force
vibration of some matetial object, whether it be the and Motion.) The pitch can be changed by changing
strings of a guitar or violin, the membrane of a drum, the frequency of the vibrating source. The pitch of a
the reed in a clarinet, the speaker cone of a loud- stringed instrument, for example, can be changed by
speaker, the vocal cords in our throats, or two spoons increasing or reducing the length of the string or by
being hit together. The vibration is transmitted to changing its tension. The pitch of a wind instrument
anything the vibrating object touches, including the can be changed by changing the effective length of
air that surrounds it. [Systems and Interactions] the vibrating column of air inside the instrument. A
The range of loudness of sound is very wide; it runs musical sound of a given frequency, traveling through
from the threshold of hearing to very loud sounds that air, has a particular wavelength. The intensity of
can cause pain and ear damage. It is important to sound vibrations is perceived as loudness and can be
avoid excessively loud sounds. [Scale and Structure] varied by changing the amplitude of the vibrating
source. [Energy, systems and Interactions, Scale and
H-1 Where does sound come from? What are its Structure]
sources? How can sound be described? Earthquake waves are sound waves that travel
Grades Three Through Six through the earth. (See Chapter 4, Section B, Geology
and Natural Resources.) Their frequency is too low to
We are most familiar with sound that travels from hear. However, they transfer great amounts of vibra-
its source to our ears through air, but sound can travel tional energy and can shake objects, such as build-
through other substances as well. Whales communi- ings, hard enough to do a great deal of damage. So-
cate over great distances by means of sound that called sonic booms, produced by airplanes moving
travels through seawater. [Systems and Interactions] faster than the speed of sound, sometimes also carry
Sound can be reflected or absorbed by walls and enough sound energy to do damage. [Energy, Scale
other surfaces. Echoes are the reflection of sound we and Structure, Systems and Interactions]
hear from large surfaces. Because some surfaces
absorb sound well, they are used to soften or reduce
H-1 Where does sound come from? What are its
the loudness of sounds generated in a room. Carpets
sources? How can sound be described?
and acoustical tile are used to reduce the noise level
in a classroom, for example. [Energy, Systems and Grades Nine Through Twelve
Interactions]
Higher or lower tones of sound are produced, Sound waves consist of rapid vibrations of mole-
depending on how fast the sound source vibrates; the cules in solids, liquids, and gases. For example, the
difference between high and low is known as pitch. vibrating surface of a bell starts a sound wave in the
The faster the vibration, the higher the pitch. [Energy, surrounding air by pushing against the adjacent air
Scale and-Structure, Systems and Interactions] molecules back and forth. One back-and-forth
vibration composes one cycle of the sound. The
H-1
disturbed molecules in turn push against neighboring
Where does sound come from? What are its molecules and disturb them, and so forth. The dis-
sources? How can sound be described?
turbed molecules do not move very far. What travels
Grades Six Through Nine away from the bell at the speed of sound is the
collision process itself. [Energy, Systems and Interac-
Sound is a mechanical wave in matter. Like all
tions]
waves, sound transfers energy when it travels through
a mediut . from one place to another. The energy The speed of sound through air is about 340 metres
per second, the exact value depending on the tem-
exists in the form. of rapid back-and-forth motion of
perature and humidity. (This is roughly one and a half
the particles composing the medium. [Energy,
times as fast as the speed of a commercial jet plane.)
Systems and Interactions]
Sound travels faster through liquids and solids than
The sensation of musical pitch is determined by the
through gases. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum
frequency of the sound that produces the sensation. A
sound of a particular frequency traveling through air because there is nothing in a vacuum that can vibrate.
[Scale and Structure]

76 Part IIThe Content of Science 68

The frequency of a sound is perceived by an observer to be the same as the frequency of the suurce cm!)
if the observer and the source are at rest with respect to the intervening medium. If either the source or
the observer is moving with respect to the medium, the source frequency and the observed frequent) Lan
be different.This is called the Doppler effect. Relative motion that brings the source and the obsener
closer together increases the perceived frequency, relative motion that separates the source and the ob
server decreases the perceived frequency. (See Chapter 4, Section A, Astronomy.) [ Energy, Scale and
Structure, Patterns of Change]

The propagation of a sound ware depends on the nerve to thc brain, producing thc scnsation of sound.
springiness of the medium through which it propa- Thc energy carried by normal sound waves is small,
gates. If you hit a steel bar with a hammer, you distort and the car can hear such sounds because it is very
the bar, and it springs back to its undisturbed shape. sensitive. Likc most othcr mammals, humans can
But in doing so, the disturbed material distorts produce sound by passing air across thc vocal cords,
neighboring material. Solids are springy, both in causing thcm to vibrate. Thc sound thus produced can
compression (back-and-forth squeezing) and in shear be modified by shaping thc mouth, lips, and tongue to
(side-to-side twisting). [Systems and Interactions] produce speech. Speech is thc primary mode of com-
Waves, including sound waves, intcract strongly munication among humans. Many other animals corn
with structures whose size is roughly comparable to municate with thc sounds thcy make, though the
their wavelength. Some objccts have resonant fre- information they communicatc is much morc re-
quencies at which they tcnd to vibrate. These frequen- stricted than that of human speech. [Scale and StruL
cies can be measured. [Energy, Scale and Structure] ture, Systems and Interactions]

. .
H2 How does sound enato:e us to hear' How do we
produce sounds?
Grades Six Through Nine
How does sound enabie us to hear? How do we
produce sounds? It. is important to distinguish clearly between the

Kindergarten Through Grade Three physical vibration that is onc of the factors compos-
ing sound waves and the physiological sensation of
The car is the organ of the body that receives sound. Sound waves stimulate thc sensory process,
sound. In humans, the car is sensitive to a wide range but that proccss is electromechanical and inr oh es
of sounds, both soft and loud in intensity and high complex interpretation on the part of the brain. EN Ln
and low in pitch. Loud sounds can cause damage to though both processes arc called sound, confusing
the ear and should be avoided. Some sounds are too thcm can result in unanswerable questions, for
high-pitched for humans to hear, but some animals, example, "If a tree falls in the forest ant: there is no
including dogs and dcer, demonstrate ability to hear onc thcrc to hcar it, is thcrc any sound?" [Scale and
them. [Systems and Interactions] Structure, Systcms and Interactions]

H-2 How does sound enable us to hear? How do we

produce sounds?
Grades Three Through Six How do we use sound?
Whcn sound reaches our cars, the vibrating air ncxt Kindergarten Through Grade Three
to the cardrum sets the eardrum to vibration. The
vibrating eanirum stimulates nerve cells, which Sound arises from a great variety of sources.
transmit electrical impulses through the auditory Recbgnizing thc sourcc and understanding thc

Chapter 3Physical Sciences 77

meaning of sounds from our environment is very some degree of hearing loss. In persons whose ears
important in our interaction with the environment. have been damaged by exposure to loud sounds, like
We use sounds to communicate with one another by rock musicians and persons who work in loud envi-
speaking, singing, and listening. [Evolution, Systems ronments without proper car protection, the loss is
and Interaction] typically in the midrange of frequency. Hearing aids
are camfully tailored so that they selectively amplify
H3 How do we use sound? sound at the frequencies where the hearing loss has
occurred. Present-day hearing aids are an imperfect
Grades Three Through Six substitute for normal hearing, but they arc extremely
Two .;ars are better than one for locating a sound helpful to many persons. Hearing-aid technology is
some. Stereo sound systems represent a technologi- currently improving rapidly. [Patterns of Change,
cal application of this fact. Some animals are much Systems and Interactions]
better adapted than humans for sound source location.
In the predator-prey relationship, for example, many H-3 How do we use sound?
predators can orient their external cars to focus on the Grades Nine Through Twelve
sounds they hear to locate their prey. In a similar
fashion, many prey animals can focus their hearing to In sonar, a pulse of sound is used to determine the
locate and thus avoid predators. [ Evolution, Systems distance to the object that reflected it. This requires a
and Interactions] knowledge of the speed of sound and the elapsed time
Sound frequencies beyond the range of human from transmission of the pulse to detection of the
perception are used by some animals adapted to do echo. Sonars are used to find fish and measure water
so. Bats and dolpnins, for example, make sounds with depth. Sophisticated sonars can apply the Doppler
frequencies higher than those that humans can hear effect, using the frequency of the reflected sound to
and use the echoes for navigation and hunting. determine the speed of the object producing the echo.
[Evolution, Systems and Interactions] Bats use sonar (also called echolocation) to avoid
obstacles and to catch their prey as they fly in the
dark. The frequency used by bats is well beyond the
H3 How do we use sound? upper limit of human cars. Other animals use similar
Grades Six Through Nine but less well-developed sonar techniques. [Evolution,
Systems and Interactions]
Musical tones are sounds having a fundamental Very high frequency sound (ultrasound) has a
frequency component, together with a set of higher variety of applications in medicine and industry.
frequency components called harmonics. Tuning Medical ultrasonic imaging is used for a variety of
forks are designed to produce predominantly the noninvasive examination and diagnostic techniques,
fundamental frequency, but musical instruments are notably in obstetrics and cancer diagnosis. The
carefully designed to produce a typical harmonic technique depends on differential reflection or
spectrum. The production of music represents a absorption of sound by various body structures. The
highly developed technological application having a short wavelength of high-frequency sound makcs
long histery. [Scale and Structure] possible high resolution of detail in the image ob-
In persons who have impaired hearing, the car loses tained. High-energy, focused sound pulses are used in
sensitivity to a range of sound. In older persons, the lithotripsy to break up kidney stones, making surgery
loss is usually at the high-frequency end of the range unnecessary in many cases. [Systems and Interac-
of human hearing. Nearly all elderly persons have tions, Energy]

78 Part liThe Content of Science 0

Chapter 4

Earth Sciences

Every day, the sun rises in the east, moves higher

until about noon, and then moves lower until it sets in
the west. In autumn the daylight period grows gradu-
ally shorter, becoming shortest about the time of
BEFORE Galileo's invention of the telescope in winter vacation. Then it grows longer, becoming
1609, stargazers relied on their unaided sight. The longest about the time that summer vacation starts.
lenses used by Galileo enabled him to see roughly ten The sun does not always rise and set in exactly the
times more stars than could be seen earlier with the same places. In summer the sun rises to the north of
unaided eye. Today, scientists use such modem-day east and sets to the north of west. At noon it is high in
instruments as reflector telescopes, radio telescopes, the sky. In winter the sun rises to the south of east and
and spectroscopes to expand their "vision" of the sets to the south of west, and does not rise very high in
universe far beyond the imaginationg of early as- the sky at noon. Days are longer in summer than in
tronomers. These and other tools of astronomy have winter because the sun travels a longer path above the
led scientists closer to understanding the evolution of horizon. This variation is the main cause of the
our universe. climatic changes of the seasons. [Patterns of Change]
A-1 What kinds of objects does the universe The moon also rises and sets. The moon appears to
contain, and how do these objects change shape over the course of a month. First, it
waxes (increases) from a crescent to a full disk, then
relate to one another? wanes back to a crescent before waxing again. If we
A-2 How has the universe evolved? observe and record the shape of the moon every two
or three days for about a month, we can see the entire
A-3 How do we learn about the contents and cycle of the moon. [Patterns of Change]
structure of the universe? The carth we live on is a gigantic sphere, or globe,
made mostly of rock. It only appears to be flat because
we sec just a tiny part of it. People live all around the
globe. There is no top and no bottom; people do not
fall off the earth because they are held to it by a force
What kinds of objects does the universe contain, and called gravity. Wherever we are on the surface of the
how do these objects relate to one another? earth, down is toward the center of the earth.
Kindergarten Through Grade Three The apparent daily motions of the sun, the moon,
the planets, and the stars are due to the rotation of the
When the sun is up, it is daytime; daylight comes earth about its axis. If we observe the sun and th.
from the sun. When the sun is down, it is nighttime, moon every two or three days, we can see that the
and the stars can be seen. The sun provides heat as moon grows fuller (waxes) as it moves farther away
well as light; it is usually warmer during the day than from the sun in the sky and becomes thinner (wanes)
at night. The moon may be visible in the daytime or as it returns toward the sun. The phases of the moon
the nighttime. [Patterns of Change] depend on the angle between the sun and the moon, as

Chapter 4Earth Sciences 79

91.
Although children are often taught that the earth is a sphere, many students have not mastered this
concept by the time they reach the grades three-through-six level. Activities and discussions that allow
students to compare their concepts of the world are very important in helping them to grasp the concept
of the spherical earth.

we see them from the earth. When the moon is full, it the earth (solar eclipse). Eclipses do not occur every
always rises about the same time the sun sets. The month because usually the sun, earth, and moon are
reason is that W C on earth must be between the sun not exactly in line.
and the moon in order to see the entire illuminated The universe is rich and varied. Among other things
face of the moon. When the moon is new, it rises and it contains rocky spheres like earth; globes largely
sets at about the same time as the sun. This is because made of liquid and gas like Jupiter; bigger and hotter
we see the sun and the moon in approximately the globes of gas like the sun; huge numbers of other
same direction, and most of the lighted side of the stars much like the sunsome smaller and longer-
moon is facing away from us. [Patterns of Change] lived, some bigger and shorter-lived; and groups of
Eclipses occur when the earth, sun, and moon come stars. The universe also contains clouds of gas and
into alignment so that the earth's shadow falls on the dust. There is much other material in the universe as
moon (lunar eclipse) or the moon's shadow falls on well; but we have not yet observed it, and we know
very little about it. Most objects we see are separated
from one another by vast, seemingly empty space.
[Scale and Structure, Systems and Interactions]
Because a year is a very long time in the life of a
child, many students find it difficult to grasp A-1 What kinds of objects does the universe contain,
some of the motions, such as the motion of the and how do these objects relate to one another?
planets relative to the stellar background. A visit Grades Three Through Six
to a planetariwn will give vivid pictures of both
When we look at the stars at night, see we them
the gross structure of the universe and of the moving westward in the sky. Some stars rise in the
directly observable cOnsequences of rotation in cast and set in the west. But some stars never set at
the solar system. all; they revolve in counterclockwise circles around
the pole star, never passing below the horizon. We
The sun, moon, and stars are fascinating to learn to identify stars by their positions with respect
to their neighbors; these patterns are called constella-
children in the primary grades. They are natu- tions. [Patterns of Change]
rally curious about the moon' s changing appear- Some of the brightest objects in the nighttime sky
ance and the sun' s progress across the sky. (aside from the moon) do not stay in the same place
Although most young children cannot grasp these relative to the neighboring stars. Instead, they move
phenomena, they can observe the sky in a system- slowly against the stellar background. These objects
are called planets. [Patterns of Change]
atic way and observe patterns. Helping students
Although some planets are considerably brighter
discover these patterns of change through their than most stars, planets are easily mistaken for stars
own observations encourages their curiosity when they are observed only once. By observing the
about the world as they acquire basic knowledge same planet every few nights for several weeks, we
about astronomy. can see that it wanders among the constellations. Like
the moon, the planets shine by reflected sunlight. All
planets, including earth, orbit about the sun. It is very

80 Part IfThe Content of Science

The relative sizes of objects are not easy for students to grasp. It is important to make clear which
objects (or systems of objects) are parts of which others. A visit to a planetarium or use of the small
planetariums that many school districts own can be of great help in clarification as well as in conveying
a sense of excitement. (Scale and Structure]
Traditionally, the teaching of astronomy in the primary grades has been largely restricted to studies of
the solar system. This a good start; but with the rapid increase in knowledge about the rest of the uni-
verse, it is important to introduce broader concepts, even at the grades three-through-six level. Our
solar system is an example of systems all through the universe, but there are many other astronomical
objects and phenomena in the universe. Students in the later primary grades can come to appreciate that
the universe is a dynamic place at all scales of size and acquire some basic ideas about such central
matters as stellar evolution, the history of the universe, and the place of the earth and of humankind in a
much larger environment. This approach avoids the artificial division of the study of astroaomy into
"the solar system" and "everything else."

likely that other stars also have systems of planets, planets, and the stars through the sky. The most
but these have not yet been ouserved directly. [Pat- marked apparent motthnthe diumai (daily) mo-
terns of Change] tionis a direct consequence of the rotation of the
Our solar system is only a tiny part of the universe, earth about its own axis. [Stability, Patterns of
but it is the part we know the best because it is the Change]
part closest to us. Besides the planets, other objects The seasonal variations in the path of the sun
orbit the sun. These include asteroids, which are th.ough the sky are a consequence of the revolution
small rocky or metallic objects ranging in size from a of the earth around the sun. The axis of the earth is
kilometer or less to almost a thousand kilometers, inclined at an angle of 23-112 degrees with respect tu
meteoroids, which are chunks of matter ranging in the poles of the solar system, and the orientation of
size from tiny specks to many tons; and comets, the axis remains constant as the earth revolves around
which contain large amounts of ice and other materi- the sun. Consequently, if we start at a given place on
als that vaporize 1. .o long tails when the comets earth, we see the daily path of the sun vary through
come near the sun. [Systems and Interactions] the seasons. The variation is greater at high latitudes
Meteoroids that enter the earth's atmosphere get and smaller at low latitudes. [Patterns of Change]
very hot and glow as they fall; that is why they are Astronomers have already discovered many kinds
called shooting stars. Only a very few of the largest of fascinating objects. Astronomical objects come in
meteoroids actually reach the earth's surfacc, these many different sizes, and some are parts of others.
rocky or metallic objects from spacc are called Globes of rock and of gas orbit around the sun (and
meteorites. [Scale and Structure, Patterns of Change] very likely around other stars) and around one
another under the action of gravity. We call some
A-1 What kinds of objects does tilt, .niverse contain, orbiting objects planets and others moons or satel-
and how do these objects relate to one another? lites; these terms tell how objects move, rather than
what they are made of. Our sun is a medium-sized
Grades Six Through Nine star among many, many stars. Stars are often found in
As far as we can tell, every object in the universe groups called clusters (containing a dozen to a million
rotates. These rotations are most directly visible in stars). Galaxies contain a billion to a trillion stars, 4S
the apparcnt motions of the sun, the moon, the well as huge gas-and-dust clouds. Our own galaxy,

Chapter 4Earth Sciences 81

Understanding the seasons requires students to shift their point of view back and forth from that ofan
observer standing on the earth and moving with it to that of an observer in space watching the earth
move about the sun. Many students have difficulty with this viewpoint. A model that students can ma-
nipulate is extremely helpfulIt is important to correct the common misconception that the summer is
warmer than the winter because the earth is closer to the sun in summer. This happens to be correct for
the southern-hemisphere summer, but the northern-hemisphere summer occurs when the earth is rela-
tively far from the sun. Variations in the sunearth distance have only a minor effect on climate.

theyilky Way, is a member of a cluster of a few Objects in the solar system may also be classified
dozen galaxies called the Local Group. Among other and studied in tenns of what they are made of and
components of the universe are gas-and-dust clouds how they were fonned. This tells more about their
and unseen matter. At every step in scaleclusters, roles in the solar system than their motion alone does.
groups of clusters, galaxies, and groups of galaxies [Scale and Structure, Evolution]
there exists a variety of structures. A collection of It takes a substantial amount of scientific thinking
objects at a given scale of size is called a system (e.g., and observation, which often takes time, before
solar system). Study of the structure of a system can scientists understand new discoveries thoroughly. In
yield information about the history of the system. all probability most of the types of objects that the
[Systems and Interactions, Scale and Structure] universe contains have not yet been discovered. New
Among the objects composing the universe, as- objects and new categories of objects are constantly
tronomers know the most about our own solar system being discovered. The past few decades have been
because all its parts are relatively close to us and particularly fruitful for such discoveries, and they
therefore relatively easy to observe in detail. Planets continue at a pace that appears to be increasing.
and other components of the solar system are so close [Patterns of Change]
to us that we have already sent space probes to many
of them. Objects in the solar system are often classi-
A-1 What kinds of objects does the universe contain,
fied according to the way they move; planets orbit and how do these objects relate to one another?
directly around the sun, whereas satellites orbit
around planets. The earth is a planet; the moon is a Grades Nine Through Twelve
satellite of the earth. Asteroids, comets, and meteor-
oids all orbit around the sun, much as planets do. But At every step in the scale of size, astronomical
they are much smaller than planets and may have objects rotate about their own axes and revolve in
orbits that cross planetary orbits. orbits. Everything in the universe is made of the same
The solar system is bound together by gravitation,
the force of attraction that every body in the universe
exerts on every other body. (See Chapter 3, Section
Astronomy is progressing at an extraordinary
C, Force and Motion.) Larger astronomical systems
stars, clusters of stars, galaxies, and clusters of rate. Consequently, sources more than five or ten
galaxiesare also bound by gravitation. Many stars years old are likely to lack important information.
are members of pairs called binary systems and orbit
around a common center under the influence of The stellar groupings we call constellations are
gravity. Because the strength of the gravitational not necessarily groups of stars that are relatively
force can be calculated, it is possible to predict the close to each other. They only appear that way
orbits of planets and of their satellites with exquisite from an earthly viewpoint.
accuracy. [Stability]

82 Part IIThe Content of Science 94

kinds of matterfundamental particles, chemical
elements, and compoundsknown on earth, and all High school astronomy has traditionally been
obey the same laws of nature that apply on earth. (See
taught as an elective or as part of other science
Chapter 3.) [Stability, Energy, Systems and Interac-
tions] courses, but this practice is changing. New
From our vantage point on earth, we try to learn astronomy curricula for secondary students are
more and more about how the universe works, yet becoming available. Many of these curricula
there am still many important processes about which present astronomy in the context of the history of
we know little or nothing. But we have built a theo- science, the understanding of planetary geology,
retical structure that provides a good working under-
standing of the behavior of vast numbers of objects
and the development of mathematics and physics.
and the relationships among them, and we have come
to understand many of the principles that underlie the
workings of the universe. [Evolution] When a body is not too far from a much more
Star clusters, nebulae, galaxies, and clusters of massive body, it orbits around the more massive
galaxies are bound by gravity, the same force that body, which is called its primary. The less mas-
holds our solar system together. Because the strength sive body is called the secondary. Planets orbit
of the gravitational force can be calculated, it is the sun in this way, and satellites (moons) and
possible to pmdict how the stars in a galaxy will
rings orbit the planets. The motions are governed
move with respect to each other. Such calculations
have shown that there is much more matter than we by the gravitat5nal force. Newton showed that,
can observe. Thus, 90 percent of the matter in the because the gravitational force conforms to an
universe is of an unknown natum. The task of detect- inversesquare behavior, the orbtt of every
ing the as yet unseen matter by means other than secondary around its primary conforms to
gravity, and thus learning more about it, is major Kepler' s laws:
problem of modem astronomy. [Systems and Interac-
tions, Stability] I . The orbit is an ellipse, with the primary at
The most pervasive force on the astronomical scale one focus.
is gravitation. Symmetry and regularity, so often
found in astronomical objects, usually arise from the 2. The line joining the primary and the secon
action of gravity and other forces, notably the electro- dary sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
magnetic force. (See Chapter 3, Section C, Force and
Motion; and Section F, Energy: Electricity and 3. When several secondaries orbit the same
Magnetism.) [Scale and Structure, Stability] primary, the squares of their orbit periods
Meteoroids (and occasionally asteroids and comets) (T) are proportional to the cubes of their
can come close to planets much larger than they are, average distances (a) from the primary.
so that the gravitational force exerted on them by the
planets deflects them greatly. As a msult, these a 13 = T12
smaller bodies often have orbits that am less stable
than the orbits of planets. When a meteomid comes a 23 T 12
close to the earth, it can be captured by the earth's
gravity and fall to the earth as a meteor, visible in the In this equotion the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to
sky. Most meteors am quite small (typically the Si7X any two secondaries about the same primary.
of sand grains) and are vaporized under the action of With a little extension, Kepler' s laws also de-
atmospheric friction long before they reach the scribe the motion of stars in their local clusters,
earth's surface. Only the very largest meteors mach
the surface, and their remains are called meteorites. of clusters in their galaxies, and of galaxies with
[Stability, Systems and Interactions] respect to one another.
Astronomers not only discover new objects but also

95 Chapter 4Earth Sciences 83

=Moe
them well enough to evaluate their importance. The
Studies show that a great majority of students at unseen-mass problem exemplifies how much we still
have to learn.
the high school level retain misconceptions
about phenomena that are often taught at the
elementary and middle school levels. For ex-
ample, asking students to explain why we have
seasons often evokes unusual ideas about the How has the universe evolved?
way the earth orbits the sun and how-light is Kindergarten Through Grade Three
absorbed by the earth and other bodies.Thus;
When we look at the sky, we can see many types of
before the teacher begins a unit on stars or any objects. All of them are far away, but some of them
other topic in astronomy, he or she should ask arc much farther away than others. The object that
questions to find out what students think about looks very much the Imightest is the sun, which is the
the elementary concepts that underlie the unit. star closest to earth. The sun gives us so much light
that we cannot see anything else in th3 sky dming the
daytime, except sometimes the moon. The sun is in
create new themies and models. For example, it has the center of a systein that includes the earth and
long been known that comets eventually "die" as their eight other planets, satellites (moons and tings),
ices evaporate in the warmth of the sun. Where does a asteroids, comets, and so forth.
new supply of comas come from? Jan Oort proposed There arc many stars other than the sun. They are
that they come from a hugc- swarm of ice and dust, very far away, but we can see many of them when we
called the Oort cloud, beyond the outermost planets look up at the clear night sky. Many of these stars
of the solar system. This theory is now widely may have planets as the sun does, but they arc so hard
accepted, even though no one has directly obsetved to see at such great distance that we have not yet seen
the Oort cloud. This is because Oort's theory is any such planets. When the sky is clear and dark, we
currently the best explanation for why we see comets can trace arrangements of stars (constellations and
today. asterisms). [Scale and Structure, Systems and Interac-
Beyond the solar system are stars of many types. tions]
The appearance of a starthe amount and color of
the light it emitsdepends mainly on two factors: its A-2 How has the universe evolved?
mass and its age. Among the important types of stars
Grades Three Through Six
are main-sequence stars with their many subtypes, red
and blue giants, white dwarfs, neutron stars (among The setting point of the sun can be recorded each
them pulsars), and stellar black holes. Closely related day to find long-term patterns or change. These
are the proto-stellar and post-stellar nebulae. Many patterns can help us to devise a calendar to mark the
stars arc most readily seen by the visible light they seasons.
emit; others emit mainly radio waves or X rays. We can make models to explain why the sun,
Groupings of stars also have typical appearances. moon, and stars seem to Ilse in the cast and set in the
Among the types are open clusters, globular clusters, west; why the moon goes through phases, and why
galaxies of many types including quasars, and galaxy we have seasons.
clusters. Each system has a typical history. [Energy, Telescopes may be thought of as funnels that
Evolution, Stability, Systems and Interactions, collect and concentrate light. Because the amount of
Patterns of Change] light that a telescope can collect depends mainly on
Because the nearest objects are the easiest to how big its main lens or mirror is, astronomers keep
observe, we know the most about them. More distant trying to build bigger and bigger telescopes.
objects may turn out to be more important in gaining We have sent space probes to the earth's moon,
a deeper understanding of the structure and history of several comets, and all but one of the planets. Won-
the universe, but we cannot as yet obsetve many of derful photographs, videotapes, laser disks, and

84 Part llThe Content of Science

96
planetarium programs are available that describe The earth and similar objects nearer the sun
these space probes and richly illustrate what we have Mercury, Venus, Mars, and the mooncondensed at
learned about them. temperatures too high for hydrogen and other light
gases to condense. The matter accreting onto the
earth transferred its energy of motion into heat
A-2 How has the universe evolved?
energy. This accretionary heat was the initial heat of
Grades Six Through Nine
We learn about how the universe evolved by
studying astronomical bodies. With telescopes and Most students are familiar with three states of
other devices, astronomers measure where objects matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Plasmas are a
t.re, how they move, what they are made of, and how fourth state of matter in which the atoms are
they change. This helps us to reconstruct the early broken up into positively and negatively charged
history of the universe. [Scale and Structure, Patterns
particles. A common example of a plasma is the
of Change]
The universe is very old. Estimates based on the glowing matter inside a neon light.Plasmas of a
information currently available yield an age some- wide range of densities exist in the universe
where between 18 and 21 billion years, though that from thin interstellar clouds to the interiors of
estimate may yet be revised to a greater age. There is stars.The Crab Nebula is a dramatic example of
strong evidence that the universe "began" with a a plasma. Electromagnetic forces are very impor-
colossal explosion called the "big bang." (See Chap-
tant in governing the behavior of plasmas.
ter 3, Section A, Matter.)
In the first million years or so, matter and energy
evolved from forms now unfamiliar into forms we The distances to a few hundred of the nearest
know today. Prominent were the simplest gases, stars can be measured by the parallax method.
hydrogen and helium. The earliest stars condensed When we observe a nearby star twice at six
from this mixture. In condensing to form a star, the months apart, we see it from viewpoints that are
matter heats up until the nuclear fusion process can
about 300 million km apart, because the earth
start. Hydrogen nuclei fuse to foam helium nuclei,
and energy is released in the process. moves around the sun. As ct result, we see a slight
When a star having roughly the mass of the sub. or shift in the position of the nearby star relative to
less has fused most of its hydrogena process that stars much farther away. By measuring the shift,
takes billions of yearsit expands greatly and we can calculate the distance to the nearby star.
becomes a red giant. It then quickly fuses nearly all Measurement of greater distances depends on a
of the remaining hydrogen over a much shorter period
variety of other methods, which can be. cross-
and ends up as a white dwarf. While it is not certain,
it appears that white dwarfs eventually cool down and checked.
become brr wn dwarfs; if this process occurs, it takes
a long time. But stars more massive than the sun One method, devised about 1910 by Henrietta
(roughly, more than two and a half times more Leavitt, uses the so-called Cepheid variables. The
massive) die by exploding violently, producing the absolute brightness of a Cepheid variable deter-
spectacular displays called supernovas. A supernova
spews much of its matter into the surrounding space,
mines its period, which can be readily observed.
where it mixes with interstellar hydrogen and helium. By measuring its apparent brightness, we can
Later generations of stars start with this enriched determine its distance and thus the distance of its
mixture of hydrogen,telium, and more complex neighbors. Still greater distances can be mea-
elements. Orr!' own solar system condensed in this sured by other methods, notably by means of the
way about 4.6 billion years ago. Most of the hydro- red shift.
gen and helium ended up in the sun and in the gas-
giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune).

Chapter 4Earth Sciences 85

97
 immense quantityof the next simplest element,
A visit to a planetarium is very usefid in giving helium. Because the universe is so large, the atoms of
students a feeling fw- the scale, number, and these elements are mostly spread out as extremely
. variety of astronomical objects and distances. thin gases. However, there are places where the gases
are thick enoughthough still very thinto appear
to us as clouds. When such clouds condense under the
influence of gravitation, fusion begins and stars form.
the earth. During this period the matter differentiated
Stars contain very concentrated matter, and most stars
into core, mantle, crust, aunosphere, and hydrosphere
are very hotmuch hotter than familiar flames. Stars
according to density. Dense material sank, and less
come in a wide range of masses, from 1 percent or 2
dense material rose, forming layers. The cores of
percent of the sun's mass (that is, a hundred times
earthlike planets are formed largely of metals, the
bigger than Jupiter) to 40 or more times the sun's
mantles are formed largely of matter less dense than mass. [Evolution, Energy]
the metals, and the crusts are formed largely of less
In the interiors of the stars, hydrogen fuses into
dense rocks. We live on the crust in the thin zone helium, and large amounts of energy are released.
where the crust and its waters meet the bottom of the
More massive stars fuse helium into many still more
atmosphere, and our deepest wells have not yet dug complex elements, releasing more energy. These
all the way to the mantle. [Evolution, Scale and
Strucnare] processes are called nuclear fusion processes. The
energy works its way to the surface of the star where
Is there life elsewhere in the universe? At present
it radiates outward into space. This is how stars shine.
any discussion must be highly speculative. Neither
In massive stars, fusion takes place much faster than
living organisms nor the traces of extinct living
in less massive stars. Even though the massive stars
organisms have been found to date on any of the begin with more fuel, they run out of fuel much faster
planets and moons we have visited with space probes. than the less massive ones. [Energy, Evolution,
However, one can argue plausibly that life is possible Stability]
elsewhere. Although no planets have been defmitely
The evolution of the galaxies is an important area
detected around other stars, there are vast numbers of
of study. When we look at the most distant parts of
sunlike stars in the universe. Among the many planets
the universe that we can see with instruments, we see
they may have, there may be many having conditions
a part of the universe that looks rather different from
much like those on earth. On at least some of those,
the part nearer to us. The reason is that the light from
some kind of life may have evolved; the laws of
distant parts of the universe has taken so long to reach
nature are the same everywhere in the universe. At us-10 billion years or morethat we see a sample
present, however, we know very little. If life exists of what the universe was like a long time ago when it
outside our solar system, we could probably not
was much younger than it is today. That is, looking at
detect it in the foreseeable future unless it included
distant objects is like looking back in time. A striking
intelligent beings who transmitted electromagnetic
feature of the young universe is the very energetic
signals. There has been much discussion about
galaxies called quasars. Although the relationship
whether we could detect such signals. Searches for
between quasars and the less distant galaxies that we
them by NASA have been ursuccessful to date, but
see by the light they have emitted relatively recently
more extensive efforts can be expected in.the future.
is not fully understood, the study of quasars has con-
In any case we cannot at present expect to have dircct
tributed much to our understanding of the evolution
contact with any intelligent beings that may exist
of the universe and is expected to contribute much
because of the vast distances involved.
more as we learn more about them. [Evolution, Scale
and Structure, Patterns of Change]
A-2 How has the universe evolved? It has been known since the 1920s that the universe
Grades Nine Through Twelve is expanding at a measurable rate. The major evi-
dence supporting this understanding is the so-called
The universe contains an immense quantity of the red shift. When we use spectrographs to look at
simplest element, hydrogen, and a lesser but still distant galaxies, we find that their spectra are shifted

86 Part IIThe Content of Science

CI 0
../ (...)
toward longer wavelengths. The more distant the big bang picture. Many versions of the big bang
galaxy, the greater the shift. This observation can be model have been proposed to explain the very earliest
understood by an analogy. Imagine a balloon with epochsback to 10-43seconds after the big bang.
small spots painted all over its surface. If the balloon Explanations of the very earliest epochs of the
is inflated, the spots will separate. The farther apart universe art also explanations of the structure of
any two spots are, the faster they will separate. We matter a! its most fundamental level. However, much
can pmject the expansion backward, with proper work remains to be done. Many aspects are highly
corrections for gravitational and other effects. When uncertain. And as with all science, the focus of these
we do so, we find that the universe must have been models is on the mechanics, not on any notion of
very small about 20 billion years ago. final cause. [Evolution, Energy, Scale and Structure,
Will the universe continue to expand indefinitely, Systems and Interactions]
or will it reach a maximum size and begin to col-
lapse? The answer depends on the total mass of the
universe, which we do not yet know precisely enough
to make an answer. We do know, however, that the
universe will continue to expand for a very long time, How do we learn about the contents and structure of
at least much longer than the time since the beginning the universe?
of the universe.
The evidence supporting the big bang picture arises Kindergarten Through Grade Three
from a variety of sources, but the most compelling is Most astronomical objects are so far away that we
the so-called 3 K background radiation. All models of cannot visit them; all we can do is observe them fmm
the very early universe agree that during the first afar. We can tell that the sun is far away, for example,
three minutes or so, light and other forms of electro- by noting that it is sometimes hidden from view by
magnetic radiation could not travel very far without clouds, so it must be farther away than the clouds.
colliding with matter that absorbed it. After about
three minutes, the universe had expanded and cooled
to the point where it became transpamnt, and much of A-3 How do we learn about the contents and structure
the light emitted by matter at that time has continued of the universe?
to propagate without further collision with matter. For Grades Three Through Six
this reason the spectrum of the radiation preserves a
record of the temperature of the universe at the outset Astronomers use telescopes to gather light from
of transparency. Because the universe continues to distant objects. Some telescopes are large spyglasses;
expand, the radiation has been Doppler shifted (see others look quite different. Some telescopes measure
Chapter 3, Section G, Energy: Sound) to the low kinds of light not detected by our eyes, such as radio
temperature of about 3 K, which it displays today. waves or X rays. Such telescopes look very different
The rate of expansion, which has been known since from the more familiar ones that are designed to work
about 1930, makes possible a reconstruction of the with visible light. For example, radio telescopes look
situation that existed at the onset of transparency. like large television dish antennas. They collect radio
Many properties of the background radiation cannot waves from stars and other astronomical objects
be explained by any plausible model other than the (these are naturally generated electromagmtic waves

41=1,1111011SMENINIMMI177KISI

The daily movement of the sun can be observed and recorded by marking the shadow of a wooden post
set in the groundfrom time to time during the day. Each day that we can see the moon, we can record its
shape by drawing a picture of it. Both of these activities are astronomical observations from which more
sophisticated conclusions can be drawn as the student grows older.

Chapter 4Earth Sciences 87

99
 Many astronomical observations are accessible to stwients at this level through the
use of simple equip-
ment. For example, the setting of the sun can be observed every clear day, the time being
noted with a
clock or watch and a protractor being used to -estimate the angle between the
setting point and some
convenient fixed object, such as a building. Long-term patterns can be discerned and models con-
structed to explain the observations. Many photographs, videotapes, laser disks,
and planetarium pro-
grams are available to extend and enrich the observations and inferences the students have made by
themselves.

analogous to light, and not artificial radio signals). Galileo first used a telescope to look at the sky in
Analysis of these radio waves is analogous to analysis 1609. There have been great improvements in tele-
of visible light collected by optical telescopes, and scopes since Galileo's earliest instruments. Through
the information gathered complements the informa- the nineteenth century, telescopes were improved
tion gathered by optical astronomy. through the use of larger and batter lenses. In the
Astronomers put their observing instruments where twentieth century the most powerful telescopes are
they can see best. Most telescopes are far from based on large mirrors rather than lenses. Because it
interfering city lights, on top of tall mountains, where is not practical to make good mirrors much larger
the air is clear and stable. Many instruments are put than those currently in use, the telescopes of the
in spacecraft and launched into space, entirely above 1990s use many relatively small mirrors, which are
the air, to get the clearest possible view. electronically controlled to act together as one very
The first step in studying an astronomical object is large mirror.
to establish its location in the sky so that it can be Astronomers rarely search the sky at random. They
located again. When that task is done, it is possible to almost always try to obtain specific types of informa-
study how the object moves, allowing us to find out tion and carefully design their obser:ina iristruments
about its distance and its relation to other objects. with that specific information in mind. That is -,vhy
Most astronomers work at learning as much as astronomers use so many different kinds of instru-
possible about the objects they are studyingtheir ments. [Systems and Interactions]
size, mass, shape, composition, temperature, and Visible light is only one kind of electromagnetic
other conditions. This information can then be used to radiation. Other kinds, which have different wave-
determine how the objects must have evolved to lengths, cannot be detected by our eyes. (See Chapter
become as we see them now. [Evolution, Scale and 3, Section G, Energy: Light.) Astronomers use
Structure]
devices to collect and analyze radiation of these
wavelengths, too, because information can be ob-
A-3 How do we learn about the contents and structure tained that is not present in visible light. From the
of the universe? longest to the shortest wavelength, the electromag-
Grades Six Through Nine netic wavelengths useful to astronomers are called
radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible
Because astronomical objects are so far away, it light, ultraviolet radiation, X rays, and gamma rays.
takes fine technology to extract as much information Some of these forms of radiation penetrate the
as possible from the tiny amount of light that reaches atmosphere poorly or not at all, and the observing
us from them. Much ingenuity goes into designing instruments must be launched into space. [Energy]
equipment for catching, magnifying, and analyzing When an object is first discovered, very little
the light. With the advent of spacecraft, it has become usually is known about it beyond its position in the
possible to detect light waves coming from the ob- sky and its brightness. A spectroscope attached to a
jects that do not penetrate our atmosphere and could
telescope can be used to break the light (or other
not previously be observed. [Scale and Structure] radiation) into its component wavelength and analyze

88 Part IIThe Content of Science

10
it. The resulting informa!ion can be used to determine
the size of the object, its temperature, chemical Capable of predicting solar and lunar eclipses
composition, pressure, linear and rotational speeds,
amount of mapetization, and several other character-
with remarkable accuracy, Mayan astronomers,
istics. When many related objects have been studied, like many around the globe, attained a high level
it is often possible to compare their similarities and of astronomical knowledge. They could calculate
diffemnces. Such comparisons can reveal how the the average period of Venus' s synodic revolution
objects evolve and how they Mate to other categories as well as determine the length of the year, the
of objects. [Stability, Scale and Structure, Systems length of seasons, and the length of a lunar month.
and Interactions, Energy]
Remnants of what appears to be a Mayan obser-
A-3 How do we learn about the contents and structure vatory can still be seen in the stone ruins of Cara-
of the universe? col, in Chichen Itza on the Yucatan peninsula.
Grades Nine Through Twelve
Astronomers am rarely able to manipulate the
objects they study, as is possible in other experimen-
tal sciences. However, they can sometimes simulate
the conditions on those objects in the laboratory, or
they can use their observations to make predictions
about further observations on the same objects or
different ones. The process of planned observation,
theory building, prediction on the basis of theory, and
further observation characterizes the scientific
practice of astronomy. In particular, astronomers
draw heavily on the theoretical structures and obser-
vations of physics to carry on their work. Astrono-
mers and physicists who carry out this type of work
are called astrophysicists. [Systems and Interactions]
Spacecraft can carry instruments designed to make
measurements and observations not possible within
the atmosphere. Studying a few space missiors can *--Att.0.**4.0 eachnig #0**101',
teach much about devices and methods, accomplish- .4-g:otii*Oni
ments and limitations. Some missions on which
spacecraft have carried astronomical instrumentation
intuaktf
have been Apollo, Viking, Voyager 2, Giotto, Atheneurfabataliowcd
Venera, and various space shuttles. :t11.0***."'
A wide variety of observational data, obtained from ervatnsmadc :0:60Xt**.#44-401)
many objects at many different times and places, can :900,0**00.. óoftopApoinicd
be used to build theoretical models of the structure of
the universe or some part of it. It is possible to infer
.pastronqxñy and 4,*0:0.:*,
how the universe (or parts of it) has evolved over time
_obiosiooliat aut.= ne-14.00;;*0
spans that are vastly longer than the time over which becan a 4vo1orcqtt1 '44047'
human observation has taken place. Computer model-
ing has made possible much more detailed studies ::tre't'tn-4"44111ill'Off4ihtitotico-lis$0--;
than were previously possible. [Systems and Interac- :4400hIctoio:
tions]
Astronomy is an interdisciplinary field. High-
energy particle physics, chemiStry, geology, biology,

Chapter 4--Earth Sciences 89

101:
 electronics, optics, mathematics, computer science, which geological and biological evolution have
space science, and a wide range of other technical occurred. Uniformitarianism simply means that the
fields are applied to questions that astronomers ask laws of nature have always been in operation as they
about the composition, structure, and evolution of our are now. It is a primary working assumption of
universe.
sdence as we approach questions of time and the
Astronomer is a general term .tat applies to scien- past; it is an affirmation of method and of empirical
tists who focus their efforts on learning about the reality that is necessary in order to draw any scientific
universe and objects in it. More specific terms that conclusions at all.
apply to scientists in fields within or related to
astronomy include astrophysicists, radio astronomers, B-1 How has plate tectonics shaped the
cosmologists, planetologists, and exobiologists. evolution of the earth?
B-2 How are rocks and minerals formed,
how are they distinguished, and how
are they classified?
B-3 What is the history of the earth, and
how have geomorphic processes
PLATE tectonics is the unifying theory of geology shapqd the earth's present features?
today. But only 40 years ago, this theory had not
taken shape. Sonie elements of it then proposed, such B-4 What are the responsibilities of humans
as continental drift, were strongly disputed because toward natural resources?
no known mechanism could move the continents.
Since about 1960, new evidence about tectonics has
accumulated that has explained continental drift, as
well as the origins of mountain belts, earthquakes,
volcanic activity, and deep oceanic trenches. How has plate tectonics shaped the evolution of the
The earth's early evolution, perhaps even before the earth?
crustal plates fonned, set the stage for the earth's Kindergarten Through Grade Three
unique ability to support life. In that formative period,
outgassing from the cooling earth released most of The earth's surface has not always had its
present
the water and gases that became the oceans and the form; it has changed over time. We can see that
atmosphere; later plate movements and their resulting moving water, wind, and ice change the features of
volcanic activity undoubtedly added more of each. the earth, while beneath the surface more changes are
The free oxygen in the atmosphere, upon which much constantly occurring. Stress in the earth's crust,
life depends, was produced by photosynthesizing caused by the movement of the earth, is released
green plants in the early seas. through earthquakes and volcanoes. [Energy; Systems
There are still many questions about how life first and Interactions; Evolution]
evolved, about how mountain belts in continental
interiors can be explained by plate tectonics, and why B-1 How has plate tectonics shaped the evolution of
some volcanoes occur well within the crustal plates, the earth?
to mention just a few.
Two other very important building blocks of a Grades Three Through Six
student's geological education are the concept of The earth is broadly differentiated into a crust,
deep time (the ancient age of the earth) and the mantle, and core. Each is different in its composition,
principle of uniformitarianism. Small children, of structure, and temperature. One result of these
course, cannot grasp the vastness of time, and even differences is that the crust, which makes up the
older children may feel disoriented by the vast abyss continents and ocean bottoms, floats on the molten
of time through whidh the earth and its life have mantle and moves slowly on it. Because we have not
passed. But deep time really is the backdrop against yet drilled into the mantle and core, we learn about

93 Part llThe Content of Science

11)2
People often think that continental plates are on the land and that oceanic plates are beneath the water.
This is not strictly so. A great deal of formerly oceanic rock has been elevated onto the continental
surfaces and gives us our best knowledge of ancient deep-sea deposits. Some plates straddle continental
and marine areas; for example, the North American plate extends from the western edge of North
America east to the submarine Mid-Atlantic ridge in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean.

the interior of the earth by recording and charting faults, uplifted plateaus, and so forth). Second, there
energy waves from earthquakes and other evidence. is geophysical evidence: measurements and records
As the earth moves through space, pressure builds of stress, strain, and forces that cause movements
up inside the earth and is released. Earthquakes occur within the earth (e.g., earthquakes and earthquake
along fault lines, which reflect the pattems of energy waves, records of magnetic reversals in rocks with
released from beneath the earth's surface. Earth- iron-bearing minerals). Third, there is paleontological
quakes often occur along a line that can be drawn on evidence that indicates that the floras and faunas of
a map; this line helps us to recognize the edges of now widely separated, climatically different conti-
crustal plates and places where the crust is being nents were once identical or nearly so; records of
stretched. marine fossils from ancient ocean basins now sepa-
Both the continents and ocean bottoms are divided rated by thy land provide us with similar conclusions
into plates. Where different plates lie next to each about plate movements through time (continental
other, the plates may be slipping past each other in drift, openings and closings of ocean basins, and so
different directions, or one may be moving below or forth). [Energy, Evolution, Patterns of Change]
above the other, or the two may be moving apart as
new material comes up from beneath the surface. B-1 How has plate tectonics shaped the evolution of
[Energy, Systems and Interactions] the earth?
Grades Nine Through Twelve
B-1 How has plate tectonics shaped the evolution of
the earth? Plate tectonics is a unifying theory that explains a
wealth of evidence for large-scale geological change
Grades Six Through Nine through time. The principal mechanisms of tectonics
Plate tectonics is a name for crustal processes that
are driven by heat within the earth, where forces are
continually shifting and releasing energy. Over Geologic and geomorphic processes and struc-
geologic time, tectonic forces have been responsible tures should be distinguished. Geological proc-
for all the major features of the earth's crust, from esses include the large-scale movements of plate
mountains and valleys to ocean floors and trenches.
Tectonic processes such as plate movements and
tectonics that contribute to the development of
mountain building are the chief source of construc- mountains, valleys, and so forth. Geomorphic
tion and elevation of geologic features. These pro- processes such as erosion and deposition sculpt
cesses counter the constant destructive effects of these larger features into today' s surface features
erosion and weathering, which wear down surface that, for example, make the Rocky Mountains (a
features over time. [Energy, Patterns of Change, relatively young range) different in shape and
Evolution]
There are several lines of evidence by which we
detail today from the older Appalachians, even
understand plate tectonics. First, there is structural though they were formed by the same geologic
evidence: physical features that show us that pro- processes.
cesses tcok place (e.g., mountain ranges, volcanoes,

Chapter 4Earth Sciences 91

1)3
 The history of the development of the theory of continental drift is
a classic example of how science
works. Since the 1500s explorers had noticed the match of the continental edges
of South America and
Africa and had wondered about whether they had once fit together.
Alfred Wegener, the German meteorologist, is well known for proposing in the early
1900s three lines of
evidence that supported drifting continents: (1) the similarity of fossil records; (2)
the continuity of
mountain ranges; and (3) the identical surface features from ancient glaciations, all on what are now
widely separated continents. But although Wegener' s ideas were well accepted
among scientists on the
southern continents, geophysicists rejected the idea because there
was no known mechanism to move the
continents, plowing solid through solid.
Following World War II, with the wartime development of echo sounding, the
sea floor was charted and
its topography detailed. In the 1960s magnetic stripes, records of magnetic reversals, were discovered
in association with oceanic sea floor ridges. These stripes make symmetrical
patterns on either side of
the ridges; the stripes away from the ridges were found to be older. It thus
became apparent that a new
sea floor was being thrust up along the ridges and that the ocean floors were spreading away from these
great sutures.This discovery, perhaps more than anything else, was the evidence needed
to support the
reality of continental drift. With other concurrent discoveries, it led to the development
of what we now
know as plate tectonic theory.

92 Part 11The Content of Science

104
(thermoconvection) come from within the earth, in between these points it will show varying degmes
whose interior is constantly changing and shifting as of inclination. As a rosult the vertical component of
convection currents within the interior move and heat this inclination (magnetic dip) can be used to deter-
is transferred from inside the earth to the crust. This mine the latitude (but not the longitude) at the time
builds up and releases energy. "onvection motion in the magnetic minerals were fomied or deposited.
the upper mantle of the earth appears to drive the Such minerals also indicate that the earth's magnetic
movement of crustal plates en the surface, and field has reversed many times through geologic
together they create mountain belts, earthquake history. (The reasons for this are not entirely clear,
zones, and volcanic belts. As a result, the surface of but processes within the earth am the most likely
the earth is in constant change, both from causes that causes.) Data from these investigations have been
lie within the earth and from the effects of solar used to reconstruct the ancient positions of the
energy that drive the wind and ocean-current patterns. continents. [Evolution, Patterns of Change, Systems
The direction that these winds and ocean currents and Interactions]
follow is, in turn, governed by Coriolis force. [En-
ergy, Patterns of Change, Systems and Interactions]
Surface features and processes that are manifesta-
tions of tectonics include earthquakes, volcanoes,
mountain building and plate collision, and seafloor How are rocks and minerals formed, how are they
spreading. [Patterns of Change, Evolution] distinguished, and how are they classified?
Continental and oceanic plates am distinguished by Kindergarten Through Grade Three
their densities (continental material is less dense) and
their ages (older rocks are usually confined to conti- Rocks are made of minerals. Minerals are made
nental plates because the older oceanic rocks, which from pure elements in the eanh that combine to form
are denser than continental rocks, have all been a great array of substances. Minerals are identified by
subducted). For this mason, as far as we know, no key characteristics, including hardness, color, and
oceanic plates are older than about 200 million years other features. [Scale and Structure]
(Jurassic period):.[Evolution, Patterns of Change] Most rocks are combinations of several different
In addition to spreading centers (divergent plate minerals, and they are formed in many different
boundaries; e.g., mid-oceanic ridges) and subduction environments. Some am formed under heat and
zones (convergent plate boundaries; e.g., the pressure inside the earth. Some are laid down in wet
PeruChile trench or the Himalayas), there are other and cool environments by water, wind, and ice. Some
kinds of plate boundaries. Some former plate bounda- rocks am melted within the earth and cooled into rock
ries are seismically inactivu at present, yet at one time again. [Scale and Structure, Patterns of Change]
were very active. In other boundaries, notably trans-
form boundaries such as the San Andreas Fault, B-2 How are rocks and minerals formed, how are they
plates slide past each other with no significant loss of distinguished, and how are they classified?
land mass from either plate to the lower crust. Some- Grades Three Through Six
times, however, these boundaries are characterized by
occaSional large earthquakes. [Patterns of Change, Minerals vary in their hardness, crystal form, and
Energy] color because they have different chemical makeups
The past positions of the continents can be recon-
structed by analyzing the magnetic orientation of Crystals have no power to heal, enhance energy,
iron-bearing minerals in their rocks. When these
or reduce your electric bill; neither does water
rocks were laid down, their iron minerals assumed
positions marking the magnetic declination at the witching have any demonstrable scientific value;
time (that is, they pointed toward the magnetic poles nor can animals predict earthquakes, though
of the earth, as fossil compasses). A magnetic needle some are more sensitive to the precursor waves
will point straight down over a magnetic pole and of earthquakes than humans are.
occupy a horizontal position at the magnetic equator,

Chapter 4Earth Sciences 93

105
 Students should not be taught that there are three kinds of rocks. Instead,
they should be taught the
processes that explain the origin of rocks and the changes that rocks frequently
laid down. Igneous and sedimentary rocks have different experience after being
both of these are subject to metamorphism; metamorphism sources and enVironments of formation, but
is a process that results from increased tem-
perature and pressure within the earth.

and because they form under different conditions

within the earth. The internal crystal structure of a tary rocks are further classified by these components.
mineral is unique, even though the shape and color of [Scale and Structure, Energy]
a mineral can vary, deiniding on the conditions Sediments become rocks mostly by compression
under which it was formed. [Scale and Structure, and cementation of their particles. Some rocks, such
Patterns of Change] as mudstones, aiv more consolidated by pressure than
Rocks are classified by how they are formed within cemented; other rocks, such as sandstones, are
the rock cycle fluid, which is the cycle of deposition, cemented. The cement comes mostly from silicates,
formation, and erosion of rocks. Rocks that were once sulfates, carbonates, or iron oxid.3s that are dissolved
in water and fill spaces between the particles of the
fluid within the earth (igneous) can be brought to the
surface and cooled (volcanic) or hardened within the sediments. Pressure squeezes out most of the water.
[Scale and Structure, Patterns of Change]
earth (plutonic). Rocks that are forined on the earth's
surface are laid down by wster, wind, and ice into
B-2 How are rocks and minerals formed, how are they
sediments. Both igneous and sedimentary rocks can
be buried and affected by high temperatures, pres- distinguished, and how are they classified?
sure, and hot fluids within the earth so that their Grades Nine Through Twelve
physical structure and their chemical arrangement are
changed (metamorphism). [Scale and Structure, Because igneous rocks cool and solidify at different
Energy, Patterns of Change] rates, they are classified in part according to the
conditions under which they were formed. This gives
B-2 How are rocks and minerals formed, how are they
evidence of their sources and of the processes beneath
distinguished, and how are they classified? the earth's surface that extrude them. Sedimentary
rocks are further classified by the sizes of their
Grades Six Through Nine particles. When rocks have undergone metamor-
phism, whether they are igneous or sedimentary in
Minerals are further classified by criteria of luster,
origin, they are studied and classified according to
crystal structure, cleavage, and their reaction to
their metamorphic structure, w.hich relates to the
certain chemicals. Minerals have ramy uses, from
jewelry to precision instruments, and are the source conditions and degree of alteration. Thus, important
of all our metals. Rocks are used in paving, building, information about metamorphic rocks includes their
farming, and other industries. [Scale and Structure] mineral content and texture. [Energy, Scale and
Structure]
In addiiion to being classified by how they were
formed, rocks are classified by their mineral contents. /Ms

Igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks generally have

different mineral contents. Igneous rocks are further The properties that separate different forms of
classified by their cooling historieswhether they minerals should be taught as manifestations of
cooled within the earth or on its surface, hovi quickly, cher.ical composition and energy bonds and the
and so on. Sedimentary rocks are largely made up of
conditions under which such minerals were
particles of other rocks. They are also composed of
organic remains and chemical precipitates. Sedimen-
formed in the earth.
:..

94 Part 9The Content of Science

 Gravity causes all sedimentary rocks to be laid have changed through time. (See C,hapter 5, Section
down as nearly horizontal beds (except in structures B, Cells, Genetics, and Evolution.) [Evolution]
such as talus slopes), conforming to the surface on Mountains, valleys, plains, deserts, rivers, lakes,
which they rest. Through tectonic processes and and oceans are all features of the surface of the earth.
metamorphism, these layers may become com- They are formed by the construction and uplift of
pressed, warped, folded, fractured, or overturned. land by forces within the earth and by the processes
Their original depositional structures can be obscured of wind, water, and ice that wear down surface
because the structure of the rock has been physically features over time. [Scale and Structure, Patterns of
and chemically transformed. Erosion may remove Change, Evolution, Systems and Interactions]
some layers completely in some areas. [Energy, Scale
and Structure, Patterns of Change] B-3 What is the history of the earth, and how have
Almost all fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. geomorphic processes shaped the earth's present
Sedimentary rocks also provide evidenccof past features?
environments through analysis of their fossil, mineral,
Grades Three Through Six
and organic content; their depositional structures
(such as ripple marks); and their larger features (such In an undisturbed sequence of rock strata, the oldest
as cross-bedding). [Systems and Interactions, Evolu- rocks are on the bottom, and the upper ones are
tion] successively younger. Similar rock strata in different
Minerals have physical and chemical properties by areas can be compared and matchcd to demonstrate
which they am analyzed and classified. Bonds of that they were laid down at the same time. Both the
chemical energy give mineral crystals their physical composition of rocks and their fossils can be used to
structure, which can be altered by the cnergy of heat match strata. [Evolution, Scale and Structure]
and pressure. The chemical and physical structure of Through time many landforms have risen and
each mineral is diagnostic; when these are altered, a subsided, as the processes of uplift and erosion have
different mineral is frequently formed. [Scale and continued to work. Different featums of the earth
Structure, Energy] have different ages: the high, craggy Himalayas are
younger than the low, rounded Adirondacks; parts of
the Pacific Ocean seafloor are older than the Atlantic
Ocean seafloor. Many groups of living things ha' e
evolved and become extinct. This sequence of change
What is the history of the earth, and how have in living things, a result of the process of evolution,
geomorphic processes shaped the earth's present
can be seen in the fossil record. Because different
features?
living things evolved at specific times in the past and
Kindergarten Through Grade Three then became extinct, the presence of their fossils in
rocks can tell us the age in which the rocks were
The earth is very old. Through time, many changes deposited. (See Chapter 5, Section B, Cells, Genetics,
have occurred in its features. Mountains have been and Evolution.) [Evolution, Patterns of Change]
elevated, worn, and washed away. Rivers have arisen,
changed their course, and disappeared. Lakes and
ponds and continental arms of the seas have expanded 8-3 What is the history of the earth, and how have
and dried up. The earth's surface is constantly geomorphic processes shaped the earth's present
changing. Through time, many different kinds of features?
plants and animals have lived on the face of the earth, Grades Six Through Nine
and most of these are now extinct. [Evolution,
Patterns of Change] Uniformitarianism is the assumption that the
Geologists say, "The present is the key to the past." chemical and physical laws of nature as we know
This means that we can observe the earth and its life them now have always been in operation. Through
today to give us clues about how it was in the past. It this assumption scientists are able to study patterns
does not mean that things have always been as they and rates of changes in the earth through geologic
are today. Many things about the earth and its life time and tc, see how they have differed. Uniformitari-

Chapter 4Earlh Sciences 95

107
 region; the content and mineral resources of its rocks
The formation of the earth and its atmosphere is and soils; its economic resources, transportation
discussed in Section A, Astronomy. r.Tates, water sources, and potential for agriculture,
fishing, and support of domesticated animals all
ultimately depend on geology. (See History-Social
nism does not imply that rates and processes have Science Framework.) [Scale and Structure, Systems
always been the same as they are today. [Patterns of and Interactions]
Change, Stability]
The age of rocks can be measurtd by absolute
B-3 What is the history of the earth, and how have
means (radioactive decay of isotopes of various
elernents; each calibration is independent and useful geomorphic processes shaped the earth's present
for different ranges of time) and by relative means features?
(comparisons of rock sequences, fossil assemblages, Grades Nine Through Twelve
and so on). These methods provide the means to place
geologic events in a time sequence called the geo- Uniformitarianism is the basic operating principle
logic time scale. [Evolution, Scale and Structure] of historical geology. It affirms that the laws of the
The history of the earth is marked by changes in sea universe have always been in operation as they are
level and the uplift and subsidence of landforrns, the now, although natural rates and processes (such as
formation and breakup of continents, and the open- erosional rates, which were surely altered by the
ings and closings of ocean basins. The piticipal evolution of land plants) may have differed in the
driving force of these changes is slow convection in past. [Evolution, Patterns of Change, Stability]
the earth's upper mantle. With these changes have The age of rocks and formations can be compared
come changes in the flora and fauna that reflect by relative means (the comparison of rock sequences
different environments in an area over time. [Systems arid fossil assemblages, called stratigraphy) or by
and Interactions, Patterns of Change, Evolution] absolute means (radioactive decay, which can be
Soils are formed from the weathc ring of rocks and calculated independently of the strata in which the
the decomposition of organisms. Soils can be charac- elements are found and which depend only on chem-
terized according to their chemical composition and istry and physics). Isotopes of different elements
are
physical structure. Different kinds of soils are pecu- useful for calibrating different ranges of time. Carbon
liar to different areas and owe their compositions dating is useful only to about 50,000 to 70,000 years
to in the past, even with enhanced techniques. By
the rocks that are in an area, the climate, and the
organisms in the area. The extent to which societies contrast, rubidium-strontium dating is useful up to
can farm and develop agricultural resources depends almost 50 billion years in the past, although at a scale
on the properties of their local soils. [Scale and so vast that it can be calibrated only to the nearest
Structure, Evolution, Systems and Interactions] several billion years. For events in the more recent
Soils are part otthe rock cycle because they are past, carbon, potassium-argon, or uranium-lead
formed from the breakdown of rock (and organic isotopes are more useful. [Scale and Structure,
material) and later may become lith,lied themselves. Evolution, Stability]
Soils in a region reflect their local geology and The ancient environments of the earth can be
determine in part what kinds of plants can grow in a studied through sedimentologic analysis and through
region. [Patterns of Change] paleoecology. Through time, the movements of plates
Geographic features of the earth's surface are and changes in the configurations of bodies of water
manifestations of its geology. The topography of a have had tremendous effects cin the evolution of life
on earth, the geography of plants and animals, and the

Uniformitarianism should not be called "the law of uniformity"

It implies neither uniformity nor uniform change, and it is or "the law of uniform change."
not a law but a principle.

96 Part IIThe Content of Science

1 I)
 4"17,140

vMOO....,..
The age of the earth and the growth of tlze geologic time scale are good examples of how scientific
understanding evolves and is refined through time. It is instructive to show how Lord Kelvin's original
calculations of the maximum possible age of the earth were too low because he assumed that the earth
had cooled uniformly from an originally molten state. He did not know that radioactivity inside the earth
provided an important source of energy that invalidmed his calculations. When nuclear energy was
understood, Kelvin' s arguments were no longer va;td. Isotopic radiometric dating, based on the uni-
formitarian principles of physics and chemistry, provides a set of independent time scales for the geo-
logic record.This is the source of absolute dates, which are complemented by the relative dates pro-
vided by fossils and stratigraphy.

vast changes in climates of marine and continental renewable at all. Therefore, their use must be seen as
areas. (See Chapter 5, Section B, Cells, Genetics, and ephemeral, and they must be conserved judiciously.
Evolution.) [Evolution, Stability] [Energy, Systems and Interactions]
All of the biological processes of carth's life
depend on the rock cycle, the water cycle, and the B-4 What are the responsibilities of humans toward
nutrient cycle of soils. Together, these cycles deter- natural resources?
mine the character and resources of earth's dynamic
environment. [Patterns of Change, Evolution] Grades Six Through Nine
Energy is often required to convert matter from a
less useful into a more useful form for human needs;
e.g., ore into metal, seawater into fresh water, and the
What are the responsibilities of humans toward retrieval and refinement of fossil fuels. (See Chapter
natural resources? 3, Section D, Energy: Sources and Transfmmations.)
Conservation and management of resources are
Kindergarten Through Grade Three ethical and practical concerns involving pubac policy
All resources used by humans, including fuels, and individual responsibility. [Energy, Systems and
metals, and building materials, ultimately come from Interactions]
the earth. Many of these resources are not in endless Geological phenomena such as earthquakes and
supply. They have taken many thousands and mil- landslides affect how people must plan their cities
lions of years to develop and accumulate. They must and their uses of resources. Buildings, dams, and
be used with care, conserved, and recycled. [Energy, bridges must be constructed to resist earthquakes and
Systems and Interactions] should not be situated on unstable soil or near active
fault zones. This is also true for areas subject to
B-4 What are the responsibilities of humans toward landslides. Public landfills must be planned responsi-
natural resources? bly to allow maximal use of the land once it is
reclaimed. Toxic wastes buried in landfills adversely
Grades Three Through Six affect the groundwater supply and thus affect public
Humans use air, fresh water, soil, minerals, fossil water and public health. Improperly graded and
fuels, and other sources of energy that come from the settled landfills arc unsuitable for building. Aque-
earth. Some of these materials are nonrenewable; they ducts that run across fault zones should be designed
cannot be replaced or can be replaced only at such to accommodate movement because earthquakes may
slow rates and under such rare conditions (e.g., fossil break them and cause great waste of water. [Systems
fuels) that they am for all practical purposes not and Interactions, Patterns of Change]

Chapter 4Earth Sciences 97

1 ;)
 8-4 What are the responsibilities cl humans toward meteorology. The water cycle integrates the earth, air,
natural resources?
and water components of the earth's surface environ-
Grades Nine Through Twelve ments. Ocean water evaporates, condenses, and
precipitates over land and water. Movement of water
Nonrenewable resources can be conserved through through rivers, lakes, and oceans recycles nutrients,
careful use, recycling, and-applicatioa ofenergy. If nourishes living things, and sculpts the earth's surface
the energy appliedin recycling and conserving comes features. Water is the single most important determi-
from another nonrenewable source, then the effect is nant of how life persists on earth. We have water on
to trade one nonrenewable resource for another. If the earth because of tectonic processes that released and
energyis taken from a renewable source or inexhaust- combined hydrogen and oxygen within the earth to
ible file fa practical purposes, such as the wind, sun, form the original oceans and atmosphere. Gravity
waterixt. ;er, or from nuclear energy, then a net gain holds the atmosphere on earth, which in turn allows
in resources is generally made. [Energy, Systems and the water cycle to occur. This in turn controls the
Interactions] climate and weather on the earth's surface. Therefore,
In addition to the potential slangers of earthquakes meteorology is best presented as an extension of
and landslides, soil types must be considered when oceanography and geology.
planning houses and other buildings. Sedimentary It is important for students to understand that solar
structures such as talus slopes and the "toes" of hills energy and forces within the earth and the earth's
are not suitable for buildings and should not be rotation are the basis for the circulation of ocean
removed. The angle of repose of beds is important to waters and the water cycle. Much of eanh's secon-
consider. [Patterns of Change] dary atmdsphere has come from outgassing, released
Environmental reclamation involves the need to by tectonic processes. Astronomers are interested in
restore mining sites, clean up oil spills, and dispose of other planets that show signs of tectonic processes.
toxic wastes properly. These responsibilities always The planets may have once had molten interiors and
accompany the exploitation of natural resources. thus couldhave. held atmospheres and oceans capable
[Energy, Systems and Interactions] of supporting life.
The water cycle provides not only water in the form Other vital areas in oceanography are the structures
of precipitation (rain and snow); it is also the source and environments of the ocean bottoms and their
of the eanh's groundwater resources. Much of the histories through time, the habitats and life that the
United States depends on gmundwater as its water oceans have sustained through time, and the composi-
source.for humans and agricuhure. There is a finite tion of the oceans' waters. There are many divisions
amount of fresh water on earth,.and many groundwa- of oceanography, including biological, chemical, and
ter sources are renewed at a slower rate than they are physical, but the study of oceans is interwoven with
used, because their ultimate source is precipitation. the theory of tectonics and its ramifications for the
The permeability and porosity-of rocks under the structure and evolution of the oceans.
surface determines groundwater movement and
resources. The composition of these rocks also affects C-1 What is the water cycle? How does the
the mineral composition-ancithe quality of the water water cycle affect the climate, weather,
for human use. [Energy, Systems and Interactions] and life of the earth? How does water
affect surface features of the land and
,Sectian C Oceanography the ocean floor?
C-2 What are the oceans? What are the
IN the earth sciences, the disciplines of geology, environments and topography of the
oceanography, and meteomlogy are interconnected, ocean bottoms? How do the oceans
and one should not be studied in isolation from the support life, and how have the oceans
others. The water cycle should be taught as a vital and their marine life changed through
part of oceanography, as well as of geology and time?

98 Part 11The Content of Science

1 10
 C-1 WhSt is the water cycle? How does the water
C-3 How do waters circulate in the ocean, cycle affect the climate, weather, and life of the
and how does this circulation affect arth?-flow -Coeswateraffect surface features of
weather and 'climate? the lind.and-theCCean floor?
C-4 How.do humans Interact with the Gradei.Six Thrdugh Nine
oceans? What may be some long4term Evaporation of water frem-the surfaces of the
effects of humaninteractions with the oceans is the principal source of the clouds that form
oceanic, environment-0 precipitation. Because the earth constantly rotates,
these clouds circulate over the land surfaces ih
pattenis that are affected by thetopography Of Ideal
regions..The oceans also affect ciimatebecause they
retain heat energy better than the air or the land
What is the water cycle? How does the water cycle surfaces do. bifferences in the water, air, and land
affect the-climate, weather,.and life of the earth? How temperatures cause the condensation of water vapor
does water-affect surface features of the land and the that creates precipitation for the water cycle. Precipi-
ocean floor? tation gradually erodes rocky surface features of the
land, washes away soil, and redistributes it in rivers,
Kindergarten Through Grade Three
lakes, and oceans, thereby creating new geological
Rain, snow, hail,,and.sleet all come from clouds, features by erOsion arid depoSition. (See Section-13,
which are made of water. This water cOmes mainly Geology arid Natural Resources.) [Systems and
from the oceans and rises into the air as water vapor Interactions, Patterns of Change]
when the sun evaporates water on the ocearf s sur- Water evaporating from the ocears leaves most
face. (Often, water can evaporate from the surface salts and particulate matter behind, and the evapo-
simply when the air is cooler or warmer than the rated water condehses into clouds. Precipitation from
water, as when fog rises from a ,;ler, or when warm these clouds falls over land and water surfaces. Much
and cold air masses meet.) Most falls directly of the rain and snow that falls on continental surfaces
back into ihe ocean. Much of the water that falls to collects in rivers and is returned to the oceans en-
the earth's surface runs into rivers and streams that riched with nutrients. [Systems and Interactions]
return it to the oceans, where the cycle starts again.
The-fresh water provided by the water cycle is C-1 What is the water cycle? How does the water
necessary to all terrestrial life on "earth. [Systems and cycle affect the climate, weather, and life of the
Interactions, Patterns of Change] earth? How does water affect surface features of
the land and the ocean floor?
C-1 What is the water cycle? How does the water Grades Nine Through Twelve
cycle affect the climate, weather, and life of the
earth? How does water affect surface features of The water cycle sustains the earth's land life, which
the land and the ocean floor? is in constant need of new supplies of fresh water.
This cycle can continue became the earth's gravita-
Grades Three Through Six tional field holds the atmosphere on the planet. As the
Precipitation comes from water vapor that con- earth constantly rotates and the sun warms a portion
denses in clouds when weather conditions are appro- of the earth's surface, differential conditions of
priate. It provides the continental land areas with their temperature and moisture are created and changed in
source of fresh water, which plants and animals need the atmosphere, causing ocean currents, winds, and
to live. Water may be collected in natural waterways evaporation, condensation, and precipitation of water.
and reservoirs or tapped by wells from below ground Water vapor reacts chemically with gases and
surface; but it all comes from precipitation. This particles dissolved in the atmosphere, and these are
water may sink below ground, and it may also drain precipitated along with water. (Acid rain is a harmful
into streams and rivers That carry it to the sea. [Sys- by-produa of such chemical reactions.) As precipita-
tems and Interactions, Patterns of Change] tion falls, its physical and chemical action on the

iii Chapter 4Earth Sciences 99

 earth's surface features causes rock to erode and
dissolve and soil to wash away. These effects are produce large variations in ocean volume and sea
usually. gradual, but cataStrophic rates and events can level through time; this has happened repeatedly in
also occur during episodes of especially high precipi- the past. [Patterns of Change]
tation. (See Section B, Geology andNatural Re-
sources.) groded material it tOnsported to other land
and water Surfaces, and also to the oceans, where it
enriches themineral and nutrient content of nearshore What are the oceans? What are the environments
waters. It can also form deltas,,undersea fans, and and topography of the ocean bottoms? How do the
other submarine geomorphic features. oceans support life, and how have the oceans and
The water cycle describes the flow of water through their marine life changed through time?
evaporation, condensationintbclouds, and precipita-
tion over.water and land, returning most water to the Kindergarten Through Grade Three
oceans: Additional water comes from melting of polar The oceans are vast bodies of salt water that cover
Ice caps.:Enough water is stored in the ice caps to
almost three-fourths of the earth's surface. Their

100 Part 11.The Content of Science 112

 deepest parts aredeeper than the highest mountains. Section 13, Geology and Natural Resources.) For
[Scale and Structure] some time until about 200 million years ago, a giant
The oceans are salty, unlike freshwater lakes and supercontinent (Pangea) was composed of nearly all
streams. Many forms of life live in the oceans, mostly of the present continents and was surrounded by one
near the shores...(See Chapter 5; Section A, Living world ocean. Today, the world oceans arc connected,
'Things, and,SectiorrC, Ecosystems.) [Scale and but continental drift has separated the supercontinent
Structure; Systems and Interactions] Pangea into several continents. As the continents
Through time, many different kinds of life have have drifted, new oceans have formed, and new
lived in the oceans. Most of these forms are now species of marine life have evolved and filled them.
extinct. [Evolution] Marine life has evolved through time as the oceans
have changed. (See Section B, Geology and NaIural
C-2 What are the oceans? What are the environments Resources', and Chapter 5, Section B, Cells, Genet-
and topography of the ocean bottoms? How do ics, and Evolution.) [Evolution]
the oceans support life,-and h.-Jw have the oceans
and their marine tife changed through time? C-2 What are the oceans? What are the environments
and topography of the ocean bottoms? How do
Grades Three Thrcugh Six the oceans support life, and how have the oceans
Oceans cover three-fourths of the earth's surface, and their marine life changed through time?
butcOmpared with the mass and volume of the whole Grades Six Through Nine
earth, they are really only-thin-films on_parts of the
outer surface. The four largest oceans (Atlantic, The surfaces of continents and the bottoms of
Pacific, Indian, and Arctic) are connected, though occaris conipose-great pieces of the earth's outer crust
each has its own features of water circulation, cli- called plates. Ocean waters dever the oceanic crust
mate, and marine life. The ocean bottoms are punctu- cind parts of the continental margins. Along the
'ated by mountain ranges, active and extinct volca- continental margins am shallow waters rich with
noes, and deep trenches. [Scale and Stmcture] nutrients. Where ocean plates meet continental plates,
The oceans are salty because of the salts that are trenches form on active margins where subduction is
-dissolved in ocean waters. Some dissolved compo- occurring. Mountain ranges (e.g., the Andes) can
nents (such as nitrogen, silicon, calcium, and phos- arise from this interaction. The ocean bottoms are
phoms) and other minerals are used by marine life as streaked by, mountain ranges, trenches, and fault
nutrients and to build their skeletons. Marine organ- zones where plates meet. Like continents, the oceanic
isms take in oxygen and carbon dioxide that are plates have been continually moving through time.
dissolved in sea water..(See Chapter 5, Section A, Active and extinct volcanoes mark undersea "hot
Living Things, and,Section C, Ecosystems.) Water is spots" where molten material from the earth's interior
cycled through the earth's environments. Because the escapes to the surface. (See Section B, Geology and
oceans contain most of the water on earth, there are Natural Resources.) [Scale and Structure, Systems
many forms of life that depend on the oceans. The and Interactions]
oceans have a profound effect on local Aveather Oceans are large masses of salt water that retain
patterns and general climatic conditions. (See Section heat much longer than air or smaller bodies of fresh
D, Meteorology.) [Systems and Interactions] water do. They tend to moisten air that passes over
The oceans provide many different habitats for them and moderate the air temperature. This air in
marine life, ranging from shallow shores and tide turn moderates the temperature of continental mar-
pools to abyssal depths. Characteristics of these gins. (See Chapter 3, Section A, Matter.) [Scale and
physical environments, such as light, temperature, Structure, Systems and Interactions]
and proximity to upwelling areas, are primary deter- Chemical components in the oceans have come
minants of the living communities that they support. largely from the earth's crust and upper mantle,
(See Chapter 5, Section C, Ecosystems.) [Scale and mainly by volcanic activity. Some of these compo-
Structure] nents (containing mainly chlorine, sodium, magne-
Over geologic time, the continents have moved sium, sulfur, calcium, and potassium) contribute to
with respect to each other and to the poles. (See the shells of marine organisms and are recycled into

113 Chapter 4Earth Sciences 101

 The oceans have alwaysbeen salty, because
salts and other minerals and compounds were part of the
crust of the earth when the primordial ocean was formed. As water
goes through the water cycle, these
compounds are left in the sea-and not carried in the evaporation
of ocean water. Therefore, the ques-
tion iS.not "Why are the oceans salty?" but rather "Why aren'
t snow, rain, rivers, and streams salty?"
The answer is that-evaporation leaves the salts behind.

the 'waters and ocean sediments when these organ-

isms die. [Scale and Structure, Patterns of Change] taken up by other kinds of animals. [Evolution,
Within the oceans are many kinds of environments Systems and Interactions
that support ecosystems of marine organisms. These
C-2 What are the oceans? What are the environments
ecosystems crirbo classified according to the depth of
the enviromnent (tidal, subtidal, abyssal, and so and topography of the ocean bottoms? How do
-forth): Like terrestrial ecosystems, they have their the oceans support life, and how have the oceans
and their marine life changed through time?
own fOod chains and webs. The primary producers of
the Wean are microscopic plants in the plankton; Grades Nine Through Twelve
these form the base of food chains of planktonic
herblVores and carnivores, as well aS larger inverii- Sea levels have fluctuated through time. (See
brates and vertebrates. The flow of nutrients and Section B, Geology and Natural Resources.) Because
energy in the-ocean is concentrated around continen- current sea levels are relatively high, the continental
ial-margins andnear the surface of the ocean. Some margins are covered with ocean water. Beneath the
organisms also 'hie at the deep ocean bottom, where waters are various kinds of geomorphic features.
mostofthem gain energy from the constant rain of Where rivers empty into oceans and seas, submarine
fecal matter and-dedaying plankton from the surface. fans may form that are similar to or extensions of
Much of the ocean is nutrient poor and sparse of life. deltaic fans. These environments are generally rich
(See Chapter 5, Section A, Living Things, and with nutrients. In the deep sea, submarine canyons,
Section C, Ecosystems.) [Scale and Structure, Sys- abyssal plains, and oceanic islands are among the
tems and Interactions, Energy, Patterns of Change] features composing the topography of the ocean floor.
The ocean floor, like the continents, is made up of [Scale and Structure]
crustal plates, but the oceanic crust is slightly denser Ocean waters are rich in minerals and salts. These
than continental crust. Through time, these plates substances have always been present in the oceans,
have been moved as new material has been pushed up and new material is constantly but slowly added-by
from the upper mantle. As the surface plates have extrusion of additional material from the earth's_
moved;.some ocean-basins-(e:g., the Atlantic) have -interior-at-rifting-zone-S." alidirom runoff of material
been opened. The shapes and positions of the conti- from the earth's land surfaces. [Systems and Interac-
nents and oceans have changed remarkably through tions, Patterns of Change]
time. (See Section B, Geology and Natural Re- Various chemical elements are cycled through the
sources.) [Evolution, Patterns of Change] skeletons of marine animals and plants, and these in
The sea level and the volume of ocean water have turn produce biological nutrients that are cycled
risen and fallen frequently through geologic time, and through marine ecosystems. Additional minerals and
tectonic processes and glaciations have controlled nutrients reach the oceans through runoff from land
these Patterns. These changes have had great effects as water returns to the oceans through rivers. [Scale
on marine life and on land climates. Many different and Structure, Systems and Interactions, Energy,
kinds of marine animals that used to be very numer- Patterns of Change]
Ocean environments are of two general types:
ous and diverse, such as the ammonites and trilobites,
coastal and open water. Environments in coastal
are now extinct. Their ecological roles have been
waters are generally characterizcd by their depth and

102 Part IIThe Content of Science

114
 , _AummomP111111111111

distance-from the shore (tidal, subtidal, littoral, ,and so nal filter feeders; corals have replaced sponges and
forth). Depending on local topography, wave energy, mdistid clams, as the.pkincipal reef builders.) Verie-
arittmitrient richness, ecosystems may host reef brates evolved in the oceans, probably in the Cam-
communitiesrburrowing comMunities, and a variety briari period;in the Devenian period, they first
of ePifatinal.inyertebrates. Open-water ecosystems invaded* land. Some fishes, such as sharks, have
are gerierallyliniiteiliby their organisms' need for changed little since.the-Paleozoic era. Others, like the
light: phytoplankton,need light to manufacture ray-finned Mlles, have diversified remarkably. Many
energy; ancrother OrganismSfeed on-them and invertebrate groupsrincluding clams, snails, corals,
contintiethe,foOd:chains-and webs of the open ocean. arid arthropods; have-also dive:sified in many ways.
BeloW4hout 290 ineiers, productivity declines The invertebrate marine life of the past is the best
cOnsiderablY.. The-ocean floor supports communities represented sector of the -fossil record. (See Chapter
.that are-ftieled.by the detritus that rains constantly 5, Section B,tells, Genetics, and EvOlution.) [Evolu-
from *ye...Other abyssal communities-live near tion]
deep-sdayents and are supported by geothermal
-rather thair solar. energy. [Systems and.Interactions,
BAIPNA.
At-the-end:of the Paleozoic era, all the continents
Were-Merged into the supercontinent Pangaea. Near How do waters circulate in the ocean, and how does
the end:ofthe Triassic periOd, about 200 million years this circulation affect weather and climate?
Ago; the.AdantieOccanpegan to ferm by the rifting Kindergarten Through Grade Three
of conthlental plates;.this rifting.is still occurring, and
the Mid7Atlantic ridge remains an active source of Water in the oceans moves because the motion is
seafloor, extension. The Tethys Sea, separating the powered by the sun's energy; the earth rotates and
merthern and southern centinents, began to develop receives solar energy that drives the winds. Waves
-shortly thereafter. The Red Sea is an exaMple Of a art one kind of movement we can see in the oceans.
young ocean in an early stage of extension. The Water in the oceans is always moving; and as its cold
Pacific, Indian, and Arctic oceans are similarly scored and wami layers move, their temperatures affect the
with the reconk of ancient movements and faults. It temperature and moisture of the air that passes over
is difficult to reconstruct the histories of the oceans the oceans and onto the land. As the atmosphere
before 200 million years ago because the ocean moves, different air masses collide or mix. This in
bottom from earlier times has been subducted. (See turn causes patterns of climate and weather on land.
Section B, Geology and Natural Resources.) [Evolu- The temperature difference also causes wind. (See
tion] Section D, Meteorology.) [Systems and Interactions,
Marine communities, like their individual organ- Patterns of Change]
isms, have evolved through time. (For example,
clams have replaced brachiopods as the main epifau- C-3 How do waters circulate in the ocean, and how
does this circulation affect weather and climate?
11111
Grades Three Through Six
During the Mesozoic era, shallow seas covered Cold water, like cold air, sinks because it is denser
much of Europe and North America. Ichthyo- than when it is warm. As it sinks, warmer water rises
saurs, plesiosaurs, and mosasaurs were among to the surface. Water also circulates because the earth
the top predators, but these now-extinct forms rotates, and the force of this rotation causes move-
have been replaced in their ecological adaptive ment of surface waters. The earth receives more solar
zones by large fishes, porpoises and dolphins, energy in tropical areas and less at the poles; this
warming differential caves ocean water circulation.
sharks, and whales. Many such examples illumi- Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon
nate the history of marine life. and sun on the earth.

Chapter 4Earth Sciences 103

II5
1
 which the sun and moon together will exert the
The oxygen isotope ratio in marine shells can be strongest and weakest effects on the earth. [Systems
used to -construct a record of the variation of and Interactions, Patterns of Change]
oceanic temperatures through time.
C-3 How do waters circulate in the ocean, and how
does this circulation affect weather and climate?
As ocean water circulates, its temperature affects Grades Nirge Through Twelve
the temperature of the air-above it. This creates
patternS of climate and weather when this air moves Waves are phenomena of water movement gener-
ally caused by wind; they may also be produced by
over land. Movement of the atmosphere causes
different-air Masses to collide or mix. This, in turn, earthquakes, undersea landslides, volcanoes, or other
causes weather on land. Plgces near the ocean often geological activity. Tides are predictable, periodic
have more moderate climates than places slightly fluctuations of ocean waters caused-by the gravita-
inland..But such areas are often prone to hurricanes tional attraction of the sun and the moon on the earth.
and other Oceanic storms. (See Section D, Meteorol- The surface circulation of the oceans is priMarily
ogy.) [Systems and Interactions, Patterns of Change] caused by Coriolis processes, whereas deep ocean
circulation is caused mainly by the difference in
density between wanner and colder waters. Because
C-3 How do waters circulate in the ocean, and how the earth rotates, surface currents flow in closed loops
does this circulation affect weather and climate? (gyms) that move clockwise in the Northern Hemi-
Grades Six Through Nine spham and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemi-
sphere. [Systems and Interactions, Energy, Patterns of
Waters circulate piimarily because of winds and Change]
solar heating. The_direction that-these currents follow The oceans moderate climates on land. The reasons
is caused by the earth's rotation. Solar heat also for this effect include (1) the high heat capacity of
causes cycles of water convection. As-the earth water, which can warm or cool air that then passes
rotates, its ocean waters circulate past the continents over land; (2) the mixing of surface waters by waves
in patterns that determine global climatic conditions and currents; and (3) the evaporation of water from
because air that passes over oceans often is warmer or the ocean's surface. Long-term weather patterns can
cooler than air that passes over continental surfaces. be caused by oceanic disturbances, such as the Pacific
(For example, the Atlantic Gulf Stream gives London oscillation and the associated El Nino phenomena.
a milder climate than Buffalo, New York, even [Systems and Interactions, Energy, Patterns of
though London is farther north. In the same way, San Change]
Francisco's waters are usually colder than those
*outside New York City because the California current
moves from north to south, whereas the eastern Gulf
Stream nms from south to north.) (See Section D,
Meteorology.) How do humans interact with the oceans? What may
Ocean tides are caused mainly by the gravitational be some long-term effects of human interaction with
pull of the moon on the earth. The gravitational the oceanic environment?
attraction of the sun also affects tides; this varies with
gnvitational attraction over the span of a year and is Kindergarten Through Grade Three
especially strong when the sun, moon, and earth are
People use the oceans for fishing and collecting
aligned in one plane. The sun-earth and earth-moon food, swimming and boating, transportating people
revolutions am not synchronized, but each is regular
and products, drilling for petroleum, and collecting
in its timing; consequently, especially high and low minerals. They also dump waste materials into the
tides can be predicted by calculating the times at oceans.

104 Part II--The Content of Science I6 1

C-4 How do humans interact with the oceans? What
may be some long-term offects of human
interaction with the oceanic environment? Energy consumption in America is on the rise,
drades Three Through Six according to the U. S. Department of Energy
(DOE), In order to keep domestic petroleum
Water iS essentiato all forms of life. Humans use production at its current levels, we will need 32
the Oceans for food, energy, minerals, and medicine,
.and dispbsal of waste. billion barrels of new oil reserves by 1995.
Throughout the 1980s, California legislators
Hew do'humans interact with the oceans? What
fought off numerous attempts to open offshore
C-4
may be some long-term effects of human leases for oil exploration along envirohmentally
interaction with the oceanic environment? sensitive areas. The DOE estimates that as much
Grades Six Through Nine as 60 percent of the crude oil still to be discov-
ered in America will come from public lands, and
The oceans are frequently used as a dumping 56 percent of that amount is likely to be from
ground for waste materials. Disposal of toxic wastes
have caused environmental problems and, unless
offshore drilling. Because oil reserves have both
carefully regulated, can threaten the future of much domestic and strategic value, future voters will be
marine life. Pollutants carried into oceans and lakes faced with the important task of weighing the en-
affect living things and need to be controlled by vironmental consequences of their energy deci-
individual behavior and public policy. sions. These informed decisions will require
The ocean basins are also a source of fossil fuels voters to have a deep knowledge of all forms of
(petroleum), which can be retrieved from deposits
beneath the continental shelveS. The benefits of these
energy supplies and to examine thoroughly the
fuels may be offset by the cost of retrieving them and environmental impacts associated with the
by the hazards to coastlines, shipping, and marine life development and use of each energy source.
posed by oil spills and other accidents. Like other
fossil fuels, submarine resources are nonrenewable.

C-4 How do humans interact with the oceans? What caused by sewage outfalls and runoff from fertilized
may be some long-term effects of human lawns and fields that deposit high concentrations of
interaction with the oceanic environment? nutrients into waterways.
Occasionally, heavy metals (e.g., mercury) accumu-
Grades Nine Through Twelve late to abnormally high levels in the tissues of shell-
If humans am to continue using the oceans as fish living in coastal waters polluted by industrial
repositories of waste material, they must have a waste. These minerals become concentrated in the
thorough understanding of ocean currents, conditions, higher levels of food chains and have at times poi-
marine ecology, and marine geology. Marine msource soned humans who have consumed contaminated fish
management includes an understanding not only of and shellfish.
science but also of sociology, economics, ethics, and Fishing for marine invertebrates, fishes, and
government mammals in international waters requires interna-
As in freshwater ecosystems, marine eutrophication tional cooperation and agreement. Cultural differ-
occurs when the natural nutrients that contain nitrates ences in the use and harvesting of these resources has
and phbsphates become concentrated, encouraging been a frequent source of misunderstanding and
algal blooms. (In current usage, eutrophication refers dispute. International agreements should be guided by
to the inadvertent nourishing of algae in lakes to the a thorough understanding of marine ecology and
detriment of other living things.) Some algal blooms ecosystems and by realistic biological predictions of
are toxic to marine animals. Eutrophication is often how such populations should be managed, used, and

117 Chapter 4Earth Sciences 105

 prevented from becoming extinct. (See the
to live. We breathe the air of the atmosphere; we
Department's History-Social Science Framework.) depend on the atmosphere for rain. Rain falls from
[Systems and Interactions, Patterns of Change]
clouds, which consist of tiny particles of water or ice.
Clouds are made to move by the wind. Sometimes we
can see a cloud grow bigger or smaller. [Patterns of
Change]
The earth is warmed by heat from the sun. It is
usually wanner in the daytime than at night. It is
:METEORCLOGY is the study of our atmosphere and usually warmer in summer than in winter. The earth
Weather. AlthOugh meteoroloists have long collected is not so close to the sun that we boil, nor so far from
data on the earth's surface to predict weather patterns, the sun that we freeze. [Patterns of Change]
the advent of weather satellitet vastly increased their Most of the earth is covered by the water of the
ability to monitor the earth's atmosphere and alert the oceans. The sun heats the water, which is continu-
public not only of impending dangers (e.g., hurri- ously evaporated into the atmosphere to form clouds.
eants)but also of long-term atmospheric perturba- Clouds may move a long distance before producing
tions such as ozone depletions and increases in car- precipitation. Water falling on the ground may soak
bon dioxide. Further systems analysis of the-complex into the ground or flow immediately into streams and
intéractiorisbetween earth's masses of air, water, and rivers. Eventually, the water finds its way back to the
land may yield insight into the kinds of efforts that ocean. [Systems and Interactions],
must be undertaken to mitigate disturbing global
trends (e.g., atmospheric warming and pollution).
D-i What are the physical bases of the earth's climate
0-1 What are the physical bases of the and weather?
earth's clIniate and weather? Grades Three Through Six
D-2 What are the major phenomena of The sun heats the water near the surface of the
climate and weather? What are the oceans. The water holds the heat a long time, releas-
large- and smzil-scale causes of ing it very slowly. Colder air moving over the water
climate and weather? is warmed by the water. Warm air is less dense than
cold air and cold air moves in, pushing the warm air
D-3 How are we affected by weather? How upward. As the air rises, it cools and descends again.
do we predict it? How can we alter it? This cycle is the "engine" that drives the winds.
Warm winds passing over cold regions tend to warm
them. In many places, the wind blows from the same
direction much of the time (prevailing winds).
[Patterns of Change, Systems and Interactions]
What are the physical bases of the eart's Warming of the atmosphere results, among other
climate and weather? things, in formation of regions of nonhomogeneous
pressure. The variation of atmospheric pressure can
Kindergarten Through Grade Three be measured with a barometer. Meteorologists
depend on a network of thousands of stations at
We live on the surface of the earth, surrounded by a which the the atmospheric pressure is measured at
blanket of air called the atmosphere, which we need
regular intervals. The results arc displayed on weather
AN/Mk 1110.,

The discovery and careful charting of jet stream winds is

an a ;hievement of the past half century.
Airplanes make much use of jet stream winds, riding them
downstream and avoiding them upstream.
Taking advantage of jct stream winds can be worth a considerable detour.

106 Part llThe Content of Science

118
maps. Air tends:to move from high- to low-pressure
regions. [System's and Interactions]
Because the earth is round, sunlight falls on parts of Change in temperature is both an important
itmear.dreequator.more intensely than on parts near weather effect and an important cause of weather
the poles. Generally-speaking, the equatorial regions changes. Systematic temperature measurement is
are warmer than the polar regions. [Stability] vital to understanding weather. Galileo was the
The earth's axis is inclined with respect to the plane first person to measure temperature quantita-
of its orbit. As a result, the region of most intense
sunlight moves northward and Southward over the
tively, about 1592, but the first reliable ther-
year. At the same time, the length of the day varies. mometers were made early in the eighteenth
Taken together; these effects determine the seasons. century by Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit. Ile took
When it issurrimer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is 00 to be the lowest temperature he could achieve
winter in'the Southern Hemisphere. (See Section A, with an ice-salt mixture and 1000 to be his wife' s
Asubrionly).[Patterns of Change] body temperature. Because there are 100 degrees
Climate is die daily and seasonal weather that a
partieular region experiences over a period of time.
between these two fixed points, Fahrenheit' s
Climate isdescribed as the average conditions and the scale is a centigrade (100-degree) scale. Fahren-
extrenies-that have been experienced by the region. heit soon found that his fixed points were not
-[Scale and Structure] readily reproducible and shifted to the freezing
The.earth's atmosphere consists of a mixture of and boiling points of water. In order to keep the
gases. About four-fifths is nitrogen, and most of the new scale compatible with his old one, he as-
rest is oxygen,-which has an essential role in.life
signed the value 32° to the freezing point and
proceSses. The-atmosphere also contains Small but
significant amotints of other gases. Carbon dioxide 212° to the boiling point. The modern Celsius
and water yapor are.the most important, both for scale is also a centigrade scale, but the chosen
climate and for life. Nearly all of the atmosphere lies fixed points are more reproducible.
within about 50 kilometers of the earth's surface.
[Scale andStructure, Stability]
Water constantly evaporates-from the earth's containing water vapor cools, the vapor condenses
surface, the bulk of it from the oceans. The water is back into the liquid state. (See Chapter 3, Section A,
transported as vapor-by the winds, often over long Matter.) This liquid water forms tiny droplets or ice
distances. The vapor forms clouds that release crystals that make the air opaque. When this occurs
precipitation as rain, snow, and other forms. Most of on the ground, we call the effect fog. When it occurs
the precipitation falls back into the ocean, but some above us in the air, we see the result as clouds.
falls on land: Some of the water falling on land soaks [Patterns of Change, Systems and Interactions]
in to form groundwater. Depending on geological
fonnations, groundwater may stay where it is for long
periods, or it may percolate quickly over considerable D-1 What are the physical bases of the earth's climate
distances, or it may reappear at lower points on the and weather?
surface as springs that feed streams and lakes. Much Grades Six Through Nine
groundwater is returned to the atmosphere as vapor
through the process of transpiration in plants. This The overall temperature of the earth is determined
process is especially important in rain forests and largely by two factors: its distance from the sun and
affects weather and climate. Runoff water goes the properties of the atmosphere. If it were too close
directly to streams, which coalesce into larger streams to or too far from the sun, the earth would be too hot
and rivem. Most rivers flow into the oceans; some or too cold to support life, regardless of other condi-
flow into deserts and are completely evaporated. tions. But within these broad limits, the propert;es of
[Patterns of Change] the atmosphere are very important in determining
When water evaporates, it changes from the liquid how much of the heat of the sun is retained by the
to the gaseous state, and we cannot see it. When air earth and how much is reflected. [Stability]

Chapter 4Earth Sciences 107

119
 turbulent but has some effect on weather. [Scale and
Success in agriculture depends heavily on close Structure]
undgrstanding and exploitation of microclitnates. Most clouds,form in the troposphere. Clouds
consist of tiny water droplets, or ice crystals, or a
Farmers,have known for millenia, for example, combination of both. Water vapor condenses around
that frost will damage crops in a hollow when tiny particles in the air into these forms. Such par-
crops grown on the hillside above escape frost, ticles can be made of dust, or sca salt, or other
or that fruit will mature on trees on hills facing substances. [Patterns of Change, Scale and Structure]
south while it does not ripen on neighboring, Differences in temperature between regions lead to
northward-facing hillsides. The California grape- differences in barometric pressure. These pressure
differences cause air to flow from high- to low-
growing industry has benefited greatly from new
pressure areas. We call this flow wind. The greater
and.more detailed understanding of microcli- the pressure difference, the stronger mc wind. How-
mates all over the state. ever, air masses do not flow in straight lines from
high to low pressure. Because the earth rotates, force
Most students are aware of the dramatic climatic is exerted on the moving air in a direction perpen-
differences between the California coast, the dicular to its motion (Coriolis force). As a result,
Central Valley, the mountains, and the high and moving air masses follow a curved path. In the
low deserts. California students may not be Northern Hemisphere, air masses circulate clockwise
around high-pressure areas and counterclockwise
aware that these wide variations over relatively around low-pressure areas. The opposite is the case in
small distances are atypical and result largely the Southern Hemisphere. These circulating air
from the prevailing westerlies blowingfrom the masses interact with one another in a complicated
ocean over a series of mountain barriers. Study way that can be seen on a weather map. Weather
of weather maps will reveal that Midwestern the short-term variation of temperature, humidity,
climate, for example, varies signcantly only winds, and barometric pressure, among other things,
in any given placeis a result of the details of these
over much larger distances. interactions. [Systems and Interactions]
Winds can be influenced by many things. Near the
surface, trees and buildings cause winds to break up
into a complex of irregular, twisting eddies. These
The hottest part of the summer usually comes after eddies can cause the wind speed and direction to
the day when the sunlight is most intense and the day fluctuate rapidly. [Patterns of Change, Systems and
is longest. TIfis is because it takes time to warm the Interactions]
earth and the sea. Similarly, the coldest part of the Land breezes and sea breezes occur because the
winter usual; comes after the day when thc sunlight land warms up faster than the sea in the daytime and
is least intense and the day is shortest. Because water cools faster at night. In the daytime, for example, air
is heated so slowly, the delay is longest on parts of rises over the warmer land, and cooler air rushes in
the land near the ocean; these parts have a coastal from the sea. Valley winds and mountain winds arc
climate. In the middle of the continents, far from the caused by a similar temperature difference. Down-
ocean, the delay is shorter, and the extremes of slope winds flow down mountains, warming due to
temperature are greaten these parts have a continental compression as they sink. [Energy, Systems and
climate. The range of coastal climates depends very Interactions]
much on the direction of the prevailing winds .and the On a larger scale, winds constitute the general
presence of mountains. [Scale and Structure] circulation of the atmosphere. Prevailing winds are
The atmosphere is divided roughly into several the westerlies of the temperate zones, the trade winds
layers. The lowest layer, the troposphere, is the of the tropics, and the polar easterlies. Between the
region where most weather phenomena take place. westerlies and the adjacent trade winds lies a region
The stratosphere (above the troposphere) is less of variable and frequently weak winds called the

120
108 Part IIThe Content of Science
horse latitudes. Between the Northern and Southern
hemisphere trade winds arc the doldrums, whem
sailing ships have often spent weeks in stifling heat In 1785 Henry Cavendish carried out a measure-
waiting for wind. Prevailing winds arise from the ment of the nitrogen and oxygen content of the
large-scale warming of air near the equator and atmosphere and found that he could nct account
cooling near the poles. [Scale and Stmcture, Systems for about 1 percent of the total. A centuty was to
and Interactions]
Cold'air is generally associated with high pressure;
elapse before the major constituent of this resi-
and warm air, with low pressure. The equatorial due, argon, was discovered. Cavendish' s re-
"low" and the polar "high" are Tairly stable and do searches spanned a wide range; among other
not move much; they influence the earth's weather in things, he was the first to isolate hydrogen and
a fairly predictable way. The same is true of other the first to measure the universal gravitational
important highs and lows. [Stability, Systems and constant in the laboratory.
Interactions]
When large air masses migrate, the leading edges
can produce very strong winds. At an altitude of
about 9 km, jet streams can form, and jet stream
winds can travel over 100 knots and occasionally of calcium carbonate. With much of the original
over 250 knots. [Patterns of Change] water and carbon dioxide removed, nitrogen became
DescriPtion of climate depends on the size of the the main constituent of the atmosphem.
area whose climate is to be described (global climate, Ultraviolet light from the sun, acting on water
mesoclimate, microclimate). (Scale and Structure) vapor, produced oxygen and hydrogen by a process
Global climate is governed by the intensity and called photodissociation. Most of the hydrogen
variation of sunshine with latitude, by the distribution escaped to space, leaving the oxygen behind. How-
of land and water, by ocean currents, by prevailing ever, the preponderance of the evidence indicates that
winds, by areas of high and low atmospheric pres- the bulk of the oxygen in the modem atmosphere
sure, by mountain barriers, and by altitude. [Stability, arose from photosynthesis by primitive green algae
Energy, Systems and Interactions] and similar photosynthesizing organisms. Photosyn-
The earth's atmosphere has not always been the thesis consumes carbon dioxide and releases oxygen;
same as it is today. The earth was formed mom than the presence of photosynthesizing plants thus
four billion years ago from interstellar matter consist- changed the composition of the atmosphere in a
ing largely of hydrogen and helium. During the dramatic way. The present-day atmosphere consists
formation of the earth, most of these light gases of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and
escaped, leaving the earth with little atmosphere. about 1 percent of argon, carbon dioxide, other trace
Gases trapped in the intcrior at the earth's formation gases, and water vapor. [Evolution, Systems and
or produced by chemical reactions within the earth Interactions, Patterns of Change]
were probably expelled at the surface. This process,
called outgassing, resulted in a second atmospheo D-1 What are the physical bases of tho earlh's climate
from which today's atmospitem evolved. It is prob- and weather?
able that the composition of these gases was similar
Grades Nine Through Twelve
to that emerging from volcanoes today: water vapor,
85 percent; carbon dioxide, 10 percent; the rest, Most of the light energy from the sun arrives at the
Mostly nitrogen with a variety of other more compler earth in a range of wavelengths to which the clear
gases such as ammonia and methane. atmosphere is fairly transparent. However, clouds are
Much of the carbon dioxide in the second atmos- eftbctive in reflecting a large am..ant of energy back
phere dissolved in rainwater and was transported to into space, The overall temperature of the earth is
the oceans. Through various chemical (and later influenced greatly by this proportion. Snow can
biological) processes, this carbon was locked up in reflect as much as 95 percent of the solar radiation
sedimentary rocks such as limestone, which is a form that strikes it; clouds, on the average, about 65 per-

121 Chapter 4Earth Sciences 109

 example of release of energy stored in water vapor.
Rising over the upwind slope of a mountain range,
Analysis of global warming trends is extremely
the air expands as the pressure decreases. Its tempera-
important, but it may be necessary to take signifi- ture does not decrease because heat is supped to the
cant action before the final results of scientific air as condensation of water vapor occurs, usually
study are in. The risk lies in the possibility that it with precipitation. Descending the downwind side of
may be too late to avoid serious consequences if the mountain range, the air compresses and warms,
action is delayed and it turns out that the current ending with a temperature considerably higher than
projections are confirmed. This is an excellent its temperature when it began to ascend the upwind
slope. [Energy, Systems and Interactions]
e.xample of a problem having scientific content
Water vapor also affects the movement of air.
that must be decided on the basis of a variety of Because the molecular weight of water is less than
social, economic, and political as well as scien- that of dry air, humid air tends to rise when sur-
tific considerations. rounded by dry air at the same temperature. [Systems
and Interactions]
Climate has been observed and recorded at least
since the time of the ancient Greeks, who recorded
cent; forests, from 3 percent to 10 percent. The the number of days of sunshine per year more than
overall average for the earth is about 30 percent. The 2,000 years ago. Humans create their own climate
earth's heat balance is crucial; because the amount of modifications by building cities. Urban heat islands
radiation from the sun is closely constant, any reduc- have been known and studied for more than a cen-
tion in energy radiated back to space increases the tury. There is evidence that air pollution can influ-
average temperature of the earth Over a year the ence the precipitation pattern over an area. [Systems
average temperature varies by only about 0.1°C. Any and Interactions, Stability]
effect that substantially exceeds this variation can Even the global climate may be changing as a result
result in major climatic changes over the earth. of human activities. The observed increase in average
[Energy, Systems and Interactions] temperatures over the past decades may be due to
SunEght that reaches the surface is absorbed by the increased quantities of greenhouse gases in the
land and the water. When the land and water are atmosphere. However, confirmation and quantitative
warmed, they reradiate energy upward at infrared analyses ait very difficult because other important
wavelengths, longer on the average than the wave- effects not under human control are present. Among
lengths of incident light. The atmosphere is somewhat these effects the most notable is the sequence of ice
opaque to the reradiated energy and retains much of ages dating back at least as far as the Pleistocene, or
this radiation. The more that is retained, the warmer about a million years, whose traces have been care-
the earth is, on the average. The opacity of the atmos- fully analyzed. Nevertheless, there is a need for more
phere is affected by the presence of water vapor, study to evaluate the threat of current human activi-
carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, and ot.',er gases ties. [Systems and Interactions, Patterns of Change]
present in smaller amounts. The process of heat
retention is called the greenhouse effect because the
glass of a greenhouse acts in very much the same way
as the atmosphere in keeping the interior warm.
[Energy, Systems and Interactions] What are the major phenomena of climate and
Considerable energy is required to evaporate water. weather? What are the large- and small-scale causes
Conversely, energy is released when water vapor of climate and weather?
condensfs; thus, transfer of water from the sea via the
air to semeplace where precipitation occurs involves Kindergarten Through Grade Three
considerable transfer of energy as well as water. This The surface of the earth has cold and hot places.
energy transfer is very important in weather pro- The land and water masses near the North and South
cesses. The chinook phenomenon is a dramatic poles are cold almost all the time because they

110 Part ItThe Content of Science 11r)

a. 4 Zs
receive little sunlight. The air is warmed or cooled by terms depends to some extent on the latitude. In
the land or water it is near. There are places on the middle and low latitudes, high clouds generally form
earth that arc too hot and dry for people to live above 6000 metres. Because the air is always yery
withoitt water, or too cold for people to live there cold and dry at this altitude, high clouds are almost
without shelter. Different places areyann and wet, always thin and almost always made of ice crystals.
warm and dry, cold and wet, and cold and dry. [Scale Middle clouds have their bases between about 2000
and Structure] and 7000 metres; they usually consist of water dmp-
Weather changes all the time. We see clear skies, lets, sorhetimes with some ice. Low clouds have their
clouds, rain, and snow; hot and cold days and nights; bases below 2000 metres. They are almost always
and calm and windy days and nights. Short-term composed of water dmplets, except in cold weather,
weather changes are superimposed on more general when they may contain ice and snow. [Scale and
seasonal thanges. In California, it rains more in the Structure]
winter than in the summer, but this is not true every- Clouds are divided according to form into three
where. [Systernsond Interaction, Stability, Patterns of main classes: cirrus, cumulus, and stratus. Further
Change] distinctions are made by means of such prefixes as
alto- (high) and nimbo- (rainbearing). Types of
0-2 What are the major phenomena of climate and clouds have suung associations with types of
weather? What are the large- and smah-scale weath2r. [Scale and Structure]
causes of climate and weather?
Grades Three Through Six 0-2 What are the major phenomena of climate and
weather? What are the large- and small-scale
When air is waimed and rises, it is replaced by causes of climate and weather?
neighboring air that rushes in. The resulting horizon- Grades Six Through Nine
tal flow is called wind. There are winds that affect
large parts of the earth (like the westerlies), and there In summer, the warm water of tropical seas warms
arc winds that affect only small regions (like sea the air strongly, transferring much energy to the air.
breezes). The mtation of the earth and friction between The result is a weather pattern involving very strong
the air and the surface affect the way in which the air winds and much rain (a tropical storm, a hurricane, or
flows. [Patterns of Change, Systems and Interactions] a typhoon). On a smaller scale, there are thunder-
When a mass of warm air moves into a cooler area, storms, caused when wann air is pushed up forcefully
the leading edge is called a warm front. When a mass by neighboring cold air. The stmng turbulence and
of cold air moves into a waimer area, the leading rapid cooling result in heavy rain. The strong friction
edge is called a cold front. [Scale and Structure] produces electric charge and results in lightning.
Clouds are classified according to a standard Lightning is dangerous, and there are safety rules to
scheme. To begin with, there are high, middle, and follow when lightning is near. Thunder is produced
low clouds; these terms refer to altitude above the when a lightning flash quickly heats a small amount
surface. The quantitative distinction among these of air to a very high temperature. The air expands

Students should be encouraged to study the weather map in the daily newspaper on a regular basis and
to view videotapes of a good television weather-map sequence, with frames frozen as necessary. By
studying a series of maps on a daily basis, students can stt. the shon-term changes in weather; by
comparing different geographic areas, they can understand climatic differences; by comparing maps in
efferent seasons, they can learn about the effect of seasonal changes on weather. However, weather is a
three-dimensional phenomenon that cannot be completely represented on a weather map.

123 Chapter 4Earth Sciences 111

suddenly. After the flash the hot air quickly cools and The temperature in a hurricane is usually above 26°C.
contracts. The two rapid movements are the source of Hurricanes are seasonal, occurring mainly in summer
loud sound called thunder. You can tell how far away through autumn and usually from between 5° and 20°
a lightning flash is by counting the seconds between latitude. At higher latitudes not enough energy is
the flashInd the thunder. Each three seconds corre- available; at lower latitudes, the Coriolis force is not
spond roughly to one kilometer. [Energy, Systems great enough to confer the characteristic powerful
and Interactions] spin on the storm. Friction between air and sea is an
Some regions of the earth, called source legions, important factor in the organization of hurricanes.
are consistent producers of large masses of warm or [Energy, Panerns of Change]
cold, dry or humid air. Major source regions at high Ocean currents arise from warming of seawater by
latitudes are arctic ice and the snow-covered plains in the sun and from frictional drag of the surface water
winter. At low latitudes there are subtmpical oceans by the prevailing winds. Ocean currents are much
and hot desert regions. Air masses originating in slower than winds but cany much more heat. The
these source regions migrate and interact in middle temperate climate of northern Europe, for example, is
altitudes. The boundary between two air masses of due to the warming effect of tropical water carried
different barometric pressure is called a front. Be- across the Atlantic Ocean from the Gulf of Mexico by
cause the pressure difference is due to temperature the Gulf Stream. The California coast is cooled by the
difference, the temperature usually varies considera- southward-flowing cold water of the Japan current.
bly across a front. The humidity often varies as well. [Energy, Scale and Structure, Stability]
[Scale and Structure, Stability, Systems and Interac- Long-term variations in ocean currents have
tions] important economic effects. In the case of the south-
Even though fronts appear as lines on weather ern oscillation or El Niflo, the prevailing cold current
maps, they are boundaries that extend vertically as off the coast of South America is deflected. The
well as horizontally. They are of four types: resulting warming of the water has disastrous effects
1. A stationary from, which moves very little. on the important fishing industry, and the warming of
2. A coldfront, which brings a considerable temper- the air suppresses rainfall, with equally disastrous
ature change over a short horizontal distance and effects on agriculture. It is becoming evident that the
is accompanied by changes in relative and abso- El Niflo phenomenon is only one part of a much
lute humidity, shifts in wind direction, pressure larger pattern involving the entire Pacific Ocean. A
changes, and clouds, often with precipitation. similar phenomenon of smaller magnitude is only
3. A warm front, in which the wanner, less dense now coming to light in the smaller Atlantic Ocean.
air rises over the cold air, producing clouds and [Scale and Structure]
precipitation well in advance of the surface
boundary of the front. The vertical slope of a 0-2 What are the major phenomena of climate and
warm front is much gentler than that of a cold weather? What are the large- and small-scale
front. Precipitation is usually cold or moderate causes of climate and weather?
and covets a wide area.
4. An occludedfront, which results when a cold Grades Nine Through Twelve
front overtakes a warm front. The oncoming
Energy from the sun drives atmospheric circulation,
cold air mass may push the warm air upward,
whose pattern is very complex. In general, however,
producing drastic temperature changes and often the winds in the upper atmosphere are westerly
violent weather, or the oncoming air mass may
because of the rotation of the earth. However, the
not be much colder than the warm air and may
flow is not constant; it breaks up into eddies (cy-
ride over the warm air. This results in extended
clones and anticyclones) that transfer heat and
unsettled weather. [Scale and Structure, Systems
momentum from equatorial to polar regions. [Energy,
and Interactions]
Patterns of Change]
Hurricanes are storms with winds exceeding 64 Jet streams of various types arise from strong,
knots that form over the tropical waters of the world. large-scale tempera:we differences. The tropical

112 Part IIThe Content of Science

124
easterly jet stream arises from the summer heating of
land masses to temperatures that are higher than ths;
neighboring oceanic temperatures toward the equator.
Relative humidity is measured with an instrument
Strong polar westerly jet streams, called the strato- called a hygrometer. Several varieties of hygrom-
spheric polar night jet streams, arise in winter from eters exist, including the convenient but not very
the normal temperature difference between lower and accurate hair hygrometer, the wet-dry bulb
higher latitudes. [Scale and Structure] thermonwer, and its variant, the sling psychrom-
Jet streams have an important influence on the eter. (Systems and Interactions)
motion of fronts because air masses tend to be
deflected by jet streams, which themselves curve Clouds form when water condenses from air that
under the action of the Coriolis force. Highs are
is cooled below its dew point. The condensation
deflected generally southeastward; and lows, gener-
ally northeastward. [Systems and Interactions] almost always occurs on tiny airborne particles
When the jet stream bends, a wave deVelops in the called condensation nuclei, whose sizes range
fonn of a trough of relatively low pressure at lower from about 0.2 micrometer to 1 micrometer.
elevations and ridges of relatively high pressure at Although the air may look clean, it almost always
higher elevations. When an upper-level trough is contains plenty of condensation nuclei; typically
located to the west of an area of low pressure at the
there are 100 to 1,000 per cubic centimeter. Even
surface, horizontal and vertical air movements result
in the fonnation of storms at the surface, driven by when the air is dry, these particles often show up
the rising of warm and the descent of cool air. [Pat- as dry haze. (Scale and Structure)
terns of Change]
The amount of water vapor contained in air is
described in terms of the specific humidity and the warm air along a frontal boundary. [Energy, Systems
relative humidity. The specific humidity is the ratio and Interactions]
of the mass of water vapor contained in a quantity of More severe thunderstorms form along fronts.
air to the total mass of the quantity of air. Relative There may be numerous storms in a line, and they
humidity is the quantity most frequently used in may produce high winds, large damaging hail, heavy
meteorology and is often misunderstood. The maxi- rains that can cause flash flooding, and even toma-
mum amount of water vapor that can be contained in does. [Patterns of Change, Systems and Interactions]
a given quantity of air depends very sensitively on Major ocean currunts do not follow the winds
temperature. A small increase in temperature leads to precisely, though they are affected by the winds and
a considerable increase in this maximum. Relative by the Coriolis force that.affects the winds as well.
humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor in Currents flow in semiclosed circular whirls called
a quantity of air to the maximum amount of water gyms. [Stability, :kale and Structure]
vapor that the air.can contain at the same temperature. In the North Atlantic, the prevailing winds blow
As the temperature of a mass of air increases, its clockwise and outward from the subtropical high,
relative humidity rises rapidly. When the relative while the ocean currents flow in a more or less
humidity reaches 100 percent, further removal of heat circular clockwise direction. As the water moves
leads to condensation of some water. For this reason beneath the wind, the Coriolis force deflects the water
the temperature at which a given sample of air attains to the right in the northern hemisphere. As a result,
100 percent relative humidity is called the dew point the surface water moves generally at right angles to
if its value exceeds 0° C and the frost point if its the wind. [Systems and Interactions]
value is lower than 0° C. [Patterns of Change, Energy] As ocean currents transport warm water away from
When warm unstable air rises in an unstable its source, there is upwelling of cold water from
environment, a thunderstorm is born. The immediate below. The interaction of this cold water with the air
source of the instability may be uneven surface has profound effects on weather and climate. [En-
heating, or the effects of topography, or the lifting of ergy, Systems and Interactions]

3. 2 5 Chapter 4Earth Sciences 113

 Becauk water condenses on airborne particles,
How are we affected by weather? How do we predict scientists have tried to induce rain by seeding
it? How can we alter it? clouds with fine particles. One method involves
Kindergarten Through Grade Three seeding cold clouds, which already contain water
droplets at temperatures belowbut not too far
Weather forecasting is difficult Meteorologists are
below-0° C. The water is supercooled; that is, it
quite accurate in their predictions about two days into
the future. Over longer times, forecasting rapidly does not freeze. Freezing can be induced by
becomes less reliable. [Patterns of Change] introducing tiny crystals, such as silver nitrate
Scientists have experimented with various ways of crystals, which resemble ice crystals. As this
changing the weather, especially to make it rain. freezing process progresses, crystals are formed
[SystemS and Interactions] that are large enough to fall. To date, the results
Severe weather can produce great damage by of seeding are uncertain, although some coun-
means of winds and floods. [Systems and Interac-
tions] tries have successfully sued others for "stealing"
their rain through the seeding process. [Systems
and Interactions]
0-3 How are we affected by weather? How do we
predict it? How can we alter it?
Grades Three Through Six
rain showers. Further growth into cumulonimbus may
Forecasting weather is very important because result in thundershowers. [Scale and Structure]
much of what people do is detennined by the
weather. Forecasting beyond a few days is very
D-3 How are we affected by weather? How do we
uncertain, but with sophisticated computer technol-
predict it? How can we alter it?
ogy and better data-gathering networks, meteorolo-
gists will probably be able to do a better job of Grades Six Through Nine
forecasting for a longer time in the future. However,
it is doubtful that meteorologists will ever be able to Clouds can indicate whether the local atmosphere is
predict in advance the weather patterns for an entire stable or unstable. When the atmosphere is stable, a
season. [Patterns of Change] volume of air that is raised or lowered tends to return
Severe weather can produce great damage. In some to its original position. When the atmosphere is
parts of the world, hurricanes are frequent Hurri- unstable, a volume of air that is4-aised or lowered
canes do damage mostly through their very strong tends to continue in the same direction. Unstable
winds and by means of the surges of seawater they atmospheres are associated with updrafts, downdrafts,
push into coastal areas. Tornadoes, though very local, turbulence, and precipitation. [Scale and Structure,
have even mom powerful winds than hurricanes and Stability]
produce severe, though localized, damage. Heavy
rainstorms do damage largely through flash flooding. 0-3 How are we affected by weather? How do we
Lightning-caused fires sometimes do great damage, predict it? How can we altor it?
especially in forests. [Systems and Interactions]
Grades Nine Through Twelve
Because particular types of clouds are strongly
associated with types of weather, clouds are useful in When a mass of air rises to regions of lower
short-term weather forecasting. Puffy white cumulus pressure, it expands. If (as often happens) it does not
clouds are associated with fair weather. Sometimes, exchange significant heat with neighboring air, it
cumulus clouds that are small in the morning grow cools. Similarly, descending air warms. As long as
into towering cumulus in the afternoon and produce rising air does not cool to its dew point (reach satura-

114
126
Part IIThe Content of Science
don), its temperature drops at about 10°C for every raindrop is 0.5 mm in diameter and contains as much
kilometer of rise. If the rising air cools to its dew water as a million cloud droplets. Under proper
point, water vapor condenses and clouds form. conditions, the droplets can coalesce as they collide,
[Energy, Scale and Structure, Stability] or they can collide with ice crystals and contribute to
The droplets of water or ice crystals in clouds are the growth of the crystals. Once a raindrop of ice
so small that friction with air limits the speed of their crystal is big enough to fall, it collides with smaller
fall to negligible values. In order to fall as rain, the raindrops in its path and continues to grow. [Scale
droplets must grow to much larger sizes; the typical and Structure, Systems and Interactions]

127 Chapter 4Earth Sciences 115

 thapor 5

We Sciences

Secoon A Living Things

What are the characteristics of living things?

In previous frameworks the topic Living Things was
divided into separate sections on plants, protists, Kindergarten Through Grade Three
animals, and human beings. Although it is feasible to
Living things have characteristics by which they
separate curricula into these component parts (and
can be described and distinguished from nonliving
many teaChers prefer instructional materials that do
things (e.g., they take in nutrients, give off wastes,
so), the present framework is designed to emphasize
grow, reproduce, and respond to stimuli from their
the continuity and comparability of living systems,
environments). They are all made of smaller struc-
their components, needs, and histories. In this way
tures that can be observed and studied (birds, for
-the concepts of integrative themes are stressed.
example, have beaks, wings, feet, and feathers). The
Whichever format is used, it is essential to show that
structures themselves am composed of smaller,
classification of living things is based on evolution,
observable features (bird wings, for example, have
because evolution explains both the similarities
feathers, skin, and bones). All living things need
among living things and the diverse paths taken by
different groups through geologic time. certain resources to grow, such as food, water, and
gases to breathe. If any of these things are lacking,
A-1 What are the characteristics of living the organism will die. [Energy, Systems and Interac-
things? tions, Scale and Structumj

A-2 How do the structures of living things A-1 What are the characteristics of living things?
perform their functions, interact with
each other, and contribute to the Grades Three Through Six
maintenance and growth of the Living things are all composed of cells, or if they
organism? are too small to have individual cells (i.e., are noncel-
lular or one-celled), they still perform all the func-
A-3 What are the relationships of living
tions that specialized cells do in a larger body. Living
organisms, and how are living things things grow, metabolize food, reproduce, and interact
classified? with their environments. All living things have basic
A-4, 'How do humans interact with other requimments of nutrition and growth, needing food,
water, and gas exchange for respiration. Plants, as
living things?
well as some one-celled organisms that can photosyn-
thesize, am able to make food out of air and water,

116 Part llThe Content of Science

128
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Chapter 5Life Sciences 117

J. 2
 Young students should appreciate that they are growing individuals and know what their needs are for
growth and health. They should be aware of the basic body systems that enable growth to occur. Energy,
derivedfrom food, is necessary for all living things. Nutrition is based on good food habits. Humans
have a responsibility to conserve life and resources and not to overuse or threaten sources of energy.

using the energy from sunlight and nutrients from soil demonstrates the unity of living things and their
or water. All other organisms depend on obtaining evolution from a common source. The complex
food from other sources of energy, usually by.feeding structures, cycles, and processes that characterize
on other organisms or biochemical compounds. living things require energy to grow and to maintain
Living things depend on other living things in many them. [Energy, Evolution, Systems and Interact.:ons]
ways. [Energy, Systems and Interactions, Scale and
Structure]

A-1 What are the characteristics of living things?

How do the structures of living things perform
Grades Six Through Nine their functions, interact with each other, and
contribute to the maintenance and growth of the
All living things have DNA and RNA, the genetic organism?
material that determines the growth and development
of each organism. Because all organisms have this Kindergarten Through Grade Three
genetic material, they must have evolved from a
single ancestor that also had DNA and RNA. (See Living things have structures that do specific things
Section B, Cells, Genetics, and Evolution.) Digestion, to help the organism live and grow and meet their
needs as they interact with their environments. [Scale
respiration, metabolism, water regulation, and repro-
and Structure, Systems and Interactions]
duction are functions common to all organisms; all
but the simplest organisms have specialized tissues, Humans, like other animals, gain information about
organs, and organ systems to perform these functions. the world around them through their senses. They
need fresh air, good food, rest, and exercise to stay
Living things use nonliving materials to build their
healthy.
structures and to enable them to perform certain
necessary functions of life (e.g., calcium and phos-
phate in bones and teeth; carbon, nitrogen, and other A-2 How do the structures of living things perform
minerals in animals and plants; copper and iron in the their functions, interact with each other, and
blood). Cycles, such as those of carbon, nitrogen, contribute to the maintenance and growth of the
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other nutrients, are organism?
processes and patterns by which living things convert Grades Three Through Six
external materials to grow and maintain themselves.
[Scale and Structure, Systems and Interactions, Multicelled organisms have particular tissues (e.g.,
Energy, Patterns of Change] bones, musclA, wood), organs (e.g., livers, lungs,
hearts, stems, roots, leaves), and organ systems (e.g.,
A-1
circulatory, respiratory, reproductive) that perform
What are the characteristics of living things?
specific life functions (structural support, water
Grades Nine Through Twelve regulation, digestion, circulation of nutrients, and so
forth). One-celled organisms perform all these
All living things have a homologous genetic functions within their cell membranes, using special-
material, represented by RNA and DNA (in some ized organelles for each function. Organisms can
viroses, only RNA or DNA is present). This feature tolerate some variations in the things they need in

/I
118 Part llThe Content of Science 0
order to survive (light, temperature, water, nutrients), other stimuli; animals have nervous systems that
but they do best under certain conditions. [Scale and process and store information from the environment.
Structure, Systems and Interactions] [Systems and Interactions]
Variations in an organism's structum (e.g., flower
color, bristle number in flies, sex) are passed to the A-2 How do the structures of living things perform
next generation through reproduction. Living things their functions, interact with each other, and
have structures that allow them to mproduce sexually contribute to the maintenance and growth of the
or asexually, depending on their adaptations and organism?
evolutionary histories. Organisms progress through Grades Six Through Nine
life cycles of birth, growth, reproduction, and death.
(See Section B, Cells, Genetics, and Evolution.) Organisms need energy to help them perform
These cycles include the growth and development of functions necessary to life. They obtain energy
the young. There is variation in the rate of growth of through various means, either from sunlight or by
most species (e.g., adolescence in mammals). [Pat- digesting complex molecules and producing simpler
terns of Change] ones. [Energy, Systems and Interactions]
Structums of organisms show their adaptations to The digestive, osmoregulatory, circulatory, respira-
their environments and ways of life. (For example, tory, and mproductive systems have comparable
tooth differences between herbivoms and carnivores; functions in different groups of organisms, even
warm-blooded and cold-blooded adaptations; plant though the oan systems that perform them are often
adaptations to pollination by insects, birds, and quite different. Within large groups of organisms,
mammals.) Information about the environment is such as animals or plants, tissues and organ systems
collected by all organisms. This information helps are homologous because they have been inherited
them to adapt to local or temporary conditions, to from a common ancestor. For example, the intestines
obtain food, and to resist predation and death. Plants of vertebrates and most invertebrates are homolo-
have tissnes and organs that mact to light, water, and gous; however, these are not homologous to the

Science has recently entered the great age of molecular biology, which is marked by discoveries and use
of recombinant DNA. Molecules of DNA, containing genetic information, can be moved in the labora-
tory from one species to another. This opens seemingly endless possibilities for developing new types of
Jiving organisms, for repairing genetic defects, and for discovering new improvements in agriculture,
such as "engineered" food crop plants. The laboratory techniques for working with DNA are ultramod-
ern, and new procedures are continually being discovered and introduced.

One of the biggest scientific studies ever started, certainly the biggest single undertaking ever proposed
in biology, is the Hwnan Genome Project, which is designed to identify and characterize all the genes in
human DNA. There are about three or four billion pairs of nucleotides (abbreviated as A, C, G, and T)
in the DNA of a human cell. The project will attempt to map all the genes in each of the 23 human
chromosomes. The total number of human genes is probably between 50,000 and 100,000, and a gene
contains about 1,000 pairs of nucleotides. Hereditary diseases usually result from mutations or other
changes in genes. Several countries are starting work on this project, which will take at least 20 years to
complete. Molecular biology will provide careers for many scientists in genetic engineering and bio-
technology.

Chapter 5Life Sciences 119

 The body systems of humans (support, respiration, circulation, and so forth) can be used as examples of
animal systems necessary for the growth and maintenance of life.

organelles in unicellular organisms that perform the A-2 How do the structures of living things perform
intestine's functfors, nor to analogous digestive their functions, interact with each other, and
structures in plants. (See Section B, Cells, Ger tics, contribute to the maintenance and growth of the
and Evolution.) [Systems and Interactions, Scale and organism?
Structure, Evolution]
There is a hierarchy to the structure of biological Grades Nine Through Twelve
systems. Cells are organized into tissues, tissues into Metabolic energy is obtained in different ways by
organs, and organs into organ systems that perform different organisms. Energy is stored and released as
particular functions in an individual. Individuals chemical bonds and structures are formed or broken
themselves are organized into reproductive groups down. (See Chapter 3, Section A, Matter, and Section
(such as populations and species) that are part of D, Energy: Sources and Transformations.) Plants and
larger-taxonomic units (species and higher categories) unicellular organisms, such as algae, can photosynthe-
changing and evolving through time. Cells are size and use this energy to convert carbon dioxide,
composed of organelles that perform cellular func- water, and minerals into sugars and amino acids. Fungi
tions, including reproduction. These functional obtain food and energy from plants, animals, or other
systems are different at each hierarchical level (cells, organic 'truer. Viruses require host cells to obtain
tissues, organs, and so forth). Although separate, they the energy they need in order to grow and reproduce.
contribute to processes and patterns at other levels. Animals obtain proteins and other nutrients from the
[Scale and Structure, Systems and Interactions, plant or animal material that they digest. [Energy,
Evolution] Scale and Structure, Systems and Interactions]
Humans vary in their characteristics, most of which In similar ways the systems of circulation, respira-
are inherited from their parents. Individuals of the tion, support, osmoregulation, reproduction, and so
same age can vary in growth, abilities, and develop- forth can be directly compared among different
ment. During adolescence, growth is rapid and often groups of organisms. Some tissues and organ sys-
uneven, and sexual maturation occurs at this time. tems, as well as biochemical molecules, are homolo-
[Note: Instruction in human reproduction and sexual- gous within large groups because they are inherited
ity is subject to Education Code Section 51550. from a common ancestor. Other functions are per-
Special care should be taken that these conccpts, formed by completely different, nonhomologous (but
including reproductive anatomy, menstrual cycle, analogous) structures in different organisms. These
sexual intercourse, conception, pregnancy, and birth, structures and functions are directly comparable at
are introduced at the appropriate level according to the anatomical, histological, and biochemical levels.
local district policy. See Appendix B. For related All basic activities of organisms are biochemical
material, consult the Health Instruction Framework.] and are mediated by enzymes that regulate the rate at
The genetic diversity of populations of organisms is which chemical reactions occur. This regulating
greatly increased by sexual reproduction, because system allows the organisms to maintain the steady
new combinations of characters appear. Asexual state of biochemical conditions known as homeosta-
reproduction does not allow such recombination. This sis. The organism's health, well-being, and effective-
limits potential variation and adaptation in asexual ness in its environment depend on the ability to
organisms, but it also limits the spread of disadvanta- maintain homeostasis. The basic biochemical pro-
geous characters through a species. Some combina- cesses of all organisms share fundamental similarities
tions of characters are better suited to some environ- because the conditiods necessary for such biochemi-
ments than others. cal reactions to occur, and for enzymes to carry out

120 Part iiThe Content of Science

Organ and tissue systems are often presented in life science curricula as if they were systems peculiar to
mammals (e.g., "The liver is an organ in a mammal that . . ." ). This approach is incorrect and mislead-
ing. Such systems should be explained in terms of their general structures and functions in living things.
As necessary, variations on these structures and functions can be explained for different groups. It is
important to show where in the evolutionary sequence particular organs, tissues, and functions ap-
peared, so students can grasp the concept of homology and the evidence by which scientists unite organ-
isms into evolutionary groups.

their functions, are based on chemical and physical breathe, take in food, reproduce, and so forth). Life
processes that are universal. [Energy, Stability] has been on the earth for a long time. Many plants
The human reproductive system, like the reproduc- and animals, such as dinosaurs, trilobites, mammoths,
tive systems of many other animals, is adapted for the giant tree ferns, and horsetail trees, lived long ago but
conception and development of a relatively small have become extinct. [Evolution]
number of offspring (in contrast to insects or plants,
for example). Some kinds of birds and mammals, A-3 What are the relationships of living organisms,
including humans, have a longer developmental time and how are living things classified?
and are more dependent on parental care than other
animals are. Unlike other animals, human beings are Grades Three Through Six
capable of controlling their own reproductive rates Groups of organisms are known to be related
through the control of their behavior and the use of a because they share essential features common to them
variety of techniques to prevent conception. (See note
but not to other organisms. Examples are feathers,
in the section for the grades six-through-nine level.)
which all birds have but no other organisms have; fur,
Because of its size and complexity, the structure of
the animal nervous system makes a variety of re-
sponses and behaviors possible. In general, as the size
and complexity of the nervous system increase, so Just as humans are mammals, they are also
does the potential for learned behavior beyond simple primates, and they retain characteristics of other
innate responses. Human behavior, like that of most primates seen in the hands, eyes, brains, and
mammals and birds, is both innate and learned. genetic and biochemical systems. Within the
Humans can control their behavior in many ways. primates, hwnans are classified with the other
Behavior can be altered by biochemical means, such
anthropoid apes because they lack tails and have
as the use of drugs or alcohol. Good nutrition contrib-
utes to the well-being of both the body and the mind. an unusual erect or sem:erect stance and
(See Health Instruction Framework.) [Scale and semibrachiating forelimbs. Anatomical, genetic,
Structure, Systems and Interactions] and biochemical data indicate that chimpanzees
and gorillas are the closest living apes to hu-
mans . The first hominids (animals on the evolu-
tionary line from the other apes to living humans)
What are the relationships of living organisms, and appeared over two million years ago; human
how are living things classified? evolution since then has been marked by impor-
Kindergarten Through Grade Three tant changes, including upright posture, larger
brains, toolmaking, speech, art, and other cul-
All living organisms are known to be related, tural aspects.
because they have the characteristics of life (they

Chapter 5Life Sciences 121

 which is unique to mammals; and flowers, unique to A-3 What are the relationships of living organisms,
flowering plants. Most groups of organisms have long and how are living things classified?
histories that are known from the fossil record. The
early members of groups have some, but not all, of Grades Six Through Nine
the characteristics shared by later forms. Many forms Groups of organisms are recognized because they
have become extinct, while other new forms have share derived characteristics (evolutionary novelties)
evolved from preexisting ones. that appeared in their common ancestor and have
Humans are mammals, with the basic characteris- been passed on. (For example, the first bird had
tics bf mammals (hair, milk-giving, sets of teeth feathers, and its offspring inherited them.) Many of
replaced only once, and so forth). Humans also have these characteristics are adaptive, but the functions of
the basic functions of mammals and other animals, some are not known. These characteristics serve as
including respiration, digestion, circulation, sensing the basis for diagnosing and classifying groups of
the environment, movement, and so forth. [Evolution, organisms. Within each of these groups are othe .
Scale and Structure, Systems and Interactions] groups that am distinguished by their own unique
The major groups of living things are plants, characteristics. (For example, within mammals there
animals, and a variety of one-celled forms. Living are hoofed animals, further divided into even-toed
things are classified according to their common and odd-toed groups, and carnivores, which have
ancesuy. At each level of classification, distinct unique shearing teeth.) By identifying these unique
characters are used to identify the organisms within characteristics, we discover the evolutionary pattern,
each group. Living things are divided into three which is the basis for classification. [Systems and
kingdoms'of multicellular organisms called fungi, Interactions, Evolution]
plants, and animals, as well as a vast number of one- Living things are conventionally divided into five
celled forms. kingdoms, but only fungi, plants, and animals are

Usually, organisms are divided into five kingdoms (plants, animals, fungi, Protista, and Monera) in the
traditional Linnean system of classification. But Linnaeus' s system (which originally had only two
kingdoms) was developed when far fewer organisms, both living and extinct, were known. Besides, his
taxonomic ranks (order, family, and so forth) are too few to accommodate and reflect the descent oflife.
(How can reptiles and their descendants, the birds, both be legitimately ranked as classes?) Accord-
ingly, the five-kingdom arrangement needs revision. Plants, animals, and fungi are all legitimate group-
ings, because each has unique characteristics. Monera and Protista do not; some of their members are
closer to the other three groups and share some characteristics with them, and so cannot be easily
classified.

While it is still acceptable to call Protista, plants, animals, and fungi eukaryotes (comprising eubacteria
and archaebacteria) and the others prokaryotes (in reference to their cell types, with or without nuclei),
or Monera (cells which lack a membrane-bound nucleus), these five groups should not be treated as of
equivalent rank. This situation arises because what we know goes beyond our ability to express it. What
we now know of the evolutionary relationships of organisms cannot easily fit into the relatively few
categories of the Linnean system of classification. We can explain the unique characteristics that unite
the members of each group of eukaryotes and then show how the members of each evolved as well as
how each eukaryotic group is related to specific prokaryotes.

122 Pan llThe Content of Science

134
well-unified evolutionary groups. (The one-celled
forms are often divided into Monera and Protista, but Evolutionary relationships are best understood if
the distinction, is arbitrary.) Within these kingdoms, .we use criteria of group membership, basing our
there is a hierarchical arrangement of groups within classifications on shared characteristics. In this
gmups. Classification is founded on evolutionary
way, we can diagram a pattern of characteristics
relationships. The Linnean system of classification
was established before evolution was understood, but that shows us the relationships of groups within
in general it can be modified to accommodate new groups. (For example, the first birds evolved
information and theory because it is a simple, work- from small carnivorous dinosaurs, so birds are
able system. [Scale and Structure, Evolution] properly considered members of the dinosauria,
Viruses arc:not placed in any kingdom of living regardless of how they are traditionally classi-
things because they lack cells and either RNA or
fied. Similarly, humans evolved from other
DNA and are uniquely tied to their hosts for growth
and reproduction. It is likely that viruses evolved apestailless primatesand are, in turn, apes,
from host cells and are most closely related to the primates, mammals, anmiotes, vertebrates, and
groups that host them. so forth.) Group memberships must be employed
The fossil histories of groups show that the simplest fully and consistently in evolutionary classifica-
organisms appeared first, then multicellular ones, tion. Shared derived characteristics, diagrammed
which diversified into plants and animals. Within
according to how widely they are distributed
plants, photosynthesizing green algae were the pre-
cursors of multicellular plants, and the nonvascular among organisms, are the basis for understand-
mosses and liverwort.s appeared before the vascular ing evolutionary relationships. (See the discus-
plants; the most recen2 vascular plants to appear are sion of honwlogy under Section B, Cells, Genet-
the angiosperms o flowering plants. This sequence of ics, and Evolution.) [Scale and Structure, Evolu-
appearance is supported independently by the patterns tion]
of shared derived characteristics from which phylo-
genies of living and fossil organisms are constructed.
(See Section B, Cells, Genetics, and Evolution.) within groups are recognized by the characteristics
that they share. (For example, al: mammals have fur,
A-3 What are the relationships of living organisms, but not all mammals give birth to live young. Those
and how are living things classified? that do, the marsupials and placentals, are more
Grades Nine Through Twelve closely related to each other than either is to monotre-
mes, which like other amniotcs retain the habit of egg
The purpose ot sudying organic diversity is to laying. But monotremes, which have fur and give
discover the relationships of living and extinct milk, are closer to the other mammals than arc the
organisms by linking groups into evolutionary trees, other amniotes, such as birds and reptiles, which do
based on shared derived characteristics. Life is not have fur and do not give milk.) [Scale and Struc-
considered to have had a single origin (to be a "natu- ture, Evolution]
ral" evolutionary group) because all living things Organisms are classified by shared derived charac-
have the same genetic material (RNA or DNA). The teristics, and their relationships are mapped by the use
kingdoms of living things, plus viruses, are united in of cladograms (diagrams of derived characteristics
these characteristics and within kingdoms arc broken shared by successively inclusive groups of taxa; see
down into subgroups using successively less inclusive Section B, Cells, Genetics, and Evolution). The
characteristics. evolutionary trees that result from cladograms can be
Discovering evolutionary relationships is less a used to test many kinds of hypotheses about evolu-
search for ancestors than for groups that arc most tionary history, including how species relate, how
closely related to each other. We recognize these evolutionary adaptations have been assembled, and
relationships on the basis of shared derived character- how species and adaptations have changed through
istics, inherited from a common ancestor. Groups time.

Chapter SLife Sciences 123

135
 A simple cladogram demonstrates how shared derived characteristics
are mapped according to how
they are distributed among organisms. This shows us the relationships of
these organisms. In this ex-
ample, note that marsupial and placental mammals are united by the
shared derived characteristic of
giving live birth, which monotreme mammals and other vertebrates lack. All
mammals are united by
having fur and giving milk, as well as by the unique mammalian jaw joint.

Mammals are united with the birds and other reptiles by having an amniote egg; amphibians
are united
with amniotes (and separated fromfishes) by having four walking limbs; and so on. For
any such
diagram of evolutionary relationship, many more characteristics than the
ones used in this simple
cladogram are needed in order for it to be considered a robust hypothesis. Students
can use these and
additional characteristics to identify the correct evolutionary placement of other
organisms. (For ex-
ample, lions would be placed at a branch from point A, because like elephants
they have well-developed
placentas; lizards and snakes would branch off point B, because, like all
other reptiles, they have color
vision (only primates have this among mammals] and they secrete uric acid; and
so on.) It is important
for students to see the evidence and reasoning on which these methods
are based in order to establish
evolutionary relationships. They should not be told that organisms are classified based
on some vague,
undefined notion of similarity.

124 Part IIThe Content of Science I r.1 CN

..k. tl r)
 Evolutionary relationships are established by A-4 How do humans interact with other living things?
arranging shared derived characteristics on diagrams
Of Oe distributions of these characteristics (clado- Grades Six Through Nine
grams;see insert on page 121 and Figure 5). Shared Humans first domesticated animals and plants
derived characteristics, such as feathers for bids or thousands of years ago. Humans have learned to
fur pt mammals, arc evolutionary novelties that selectively breed animals and plants to obtain desir-
appear in an organism and are passed on to its descen- able characteristics (artificial selection), much as
dants, inchiding descendant species. Shared derived natural selection has operated in evolutionary time.
characteristics can be taken from many different kinds (See Section B, Cells, Genetics, and Evolution.) By
of inforM,,,Ion, including bones, leaves; reproductive managing crops and animals and by judiciously
Parts, soft tissues, genetic and molecular composi- tilling and developing the earth, farmers have in-
tions, 0-4 behavioral traits. By mapping how different creased agricultural productivity and efficiency, par-
charactarisdcs are distributed among organisms, we ticularly with new breeding and genetic technologies.
Can pint the sequence in which these characters [Evolution, Systems and Interactions]
appear4ind so establish the mlationships of the
eigaPisms. (See Fig= 5.) A-4 How do humans interact with other living things?
Grades Wine Through Twelve
1.11111111111111111111111111111M Agricultural and biomedical advances have greatly
improved the health of humans and the hardiness of
Mow do humans interact with other living things? domesticated plants and animals. The spread of
disean caused by microorganisms has been drasti-
Kindergarten Through Grade Three cally reduced because of advances in microbiology
Humans use plants and animals for food and cloth- and epidemiology, coupled with improved public
ing. They farm the soil, mine resources from the earth, health laws and practices. These advances have
and get energy by burning fuels, including wood, resulted in rapid human population growth, especially
which is also used to make paper and to build. People during the last century. As a consequence, humans
can become sick from infection by some tiny organ- must be increasingly conscious of the effects of
isms, but human systems can also fight such diseases. population growth and take steps to plan safe,
Other tiny organians produce foods, such as yogurt healthy, and spacious communities that nurture the
from cow's milk. Living things and essential msources best physical and psychological conditions for their
peed to be respected. [Systems and Interactions] inhabitants. They also need to consider the ethical
ramifications of biomedical advances that can pro-
long life beyond the natural capacity of a traumatized
A-4 How do humans interact with other living things? body. [Evolution, Systems and Lnteractions]
Grades Three Through Six Human beings have complex social organizations
and behaviors that have allowed them to adapt to a
Humans are part of the biosphere and are dependent wide variety of environments. Unlike other organ-
on it. Humans rely on a great variety of living things isms, humans have done this largely through cultural
for many reasons. They need to exercise judgment, evolution, without changing important basic physical
+my, and planning in their use of natural resources, characteristics. Through thought, reasoning, and
including plants, animals, soil, and water, and in their toolmaking, humans have manipulated their environ-
practices of disposing of wastewater and materials. ment to the point where they can change the genetic
Human-caused extinctions continue at a rapid pace. constitution of species (e.g., through selective breed-
Hundreds of species of plants and animals become ing and genetic engineering). They have learned to
extinct each year as humans destroy the natural habitat use the products of other organisms to build houses,
in tropical rain forests and other ecosystems to plant gain food, and light disease, among other things.
crops and raise animals, harvest firewood, dam rivers, Because of their evolutionary success, humans have
and drain estuaries. [Systems and Interactions] developed far-reaching interactions with most habi-

IR Chapter 5life Sciences 125

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tats of the biosphere; these interactions are causing Evolution is studied through many independent
great changes in both the physical and biological en- lines of evidence, including the fossil record; com-
vironments. (See Section C, Ecosystems.) The diver- parative anatomy, development, and biochemistry;
sity of life is threatened by some human agricultural, and genetic structure and change. Evolution explains
industrial, political, and recreational practices. why similar structures in different organisms are
Humans have a responsibility and a vested interest in similar and is a highly predictive and (for past events)
maintaining natural ecosystems. [Evolution] retrodictive theory. The classification of organisms
indeed all of comparative biologyis based on
evolution. Curricula must reflect this centrality of
Section et Cells, Genetics, and evolution in the biulogical sciences.
Evolution' The molecular theory of the gene. explains the
structure of genetic material and integrates a vast
amount of evidence from biochemistry, genetics, and
development. In the curriculum for kindergarten
THE unifying theory of biology is evolution; as through grade twelve, the simpler elements and
Theodosius Dobzhansky said, nothing in biology strands of this theory should be stressed as central to
makes sense without it. It is accepted scientific fact, molecular biology and genetics because they give us
and has been since the mid-1800s, that organisms are the chemical and physical bases of how the genetic
descended with modification from other organisms. material changes. This theory is also the basis for ag-
The patterns, processes, and mechanisms of thi.. ricultural and other technological developments that
descent make up the theory of evolution. Such depend on an understanding of molecular and cellular
processes include (but are not limited to) genetic biology, genetics, and evolution. [Scale and Structure,
mutation and recombination of genetic material; Evolution, Systems and Interactions]
populational processes of natural selection, genetic
drift, migration in and out of the population; and B-1 What are cells? What are their compo-
larger-scale processes of speciation, extinction, and nent structures and their functions?
adaptive radiation. How do they grow? What is the biochem-
ical basis of life and of metabolism?
'In this section, the term cells includes tlw mend areas of cellular and
molecular biology, as well as biochemical topics covered in high school B-2 How are the characteristics of living
biology. Cells also includes general histological and structural features of
tissue and organ systems, as well as cellular parts and components in coe things passed on through generations?
celled and multicelled organisms. Genetics includes genetic structure and How does heredity determine the
developmental processes. Evolution includes population genetics,
evolutionary biology, and paleontology.
development of individual organisms?

126
,
Pan HThe Content of Science -)
B-3 How has life changed and diversified B-1 What are cells? What are their component
through time? What processes and structures and their functions? How do they
grow? What Is the biochemical basis of life and
patterns characterize the evolution of of motabollsm?
life?
Grades Six Through Nine
An organism is an individual with parts that are
organized into a functional whole. The parts (cells,
What are cells? What are their component structures tissues, organs) cannot suivive apart from the whole;
and their functions? How do they grow? What is the and at every level of organization, these parts have
biochemical basis of life and of metabolism? stmctures that perform specific life functions. The
Kindergarten Through Grade Three major kingdoms of living things are characterized by
differences in how cells are organized and differences
All living things are made of smaller structures, in the structure of organs and tissues. [Evolution,
such as tissues and organs. (See Section A, Liying Scale and Structure, Systems'and Interactions]
Things.) These structures perform the vital functions Living organisms combine atoms and molecules
of life and help the organism to interact with the into particular structural and functional compounds.
environment and survive. [Scale and Structure, Through the conversion and use of energy, different
Systems and Interactions] cell organelles perform the functions of life at the
cellular level. [Energy, Scale and Structure]
B-1 What are cells? What are their component The content and nutritional value of foods can be
structures and their functions? How do they understood in terms of calories (or kilojoules) and
grow? What is the biochemical basis of life and nutrients. Food that is digested and absorbed may
of metabolism? then be oxidized by the cells to release energy neces-
sary to maintain cellular functions and produce new
Grades Three Through Six
cells. Some food sources carry levels of fats, choles-
There are many different kinds of cells in animals terol, or other substances that can be unhealthy in
and plants, and different kinds of cells (e.g., muscle, excess quantities. [Energy, Scale and Structure]
blood, bone, skin, wood, and guard cells) perform In order for growth and maintenance of the body to
different functions in the bodies of their whole occur, cells must divide to form new cells. Old cells
organisms. The different functions of cells all contrib- are constantly dying off and being replaced by new
ute to the well-being of the organism. [Scale and ones. Mitosis is one phase of the repeating cycle of
Structure, Systems and Interactions] cell division that occurs constantly in the body. The
Living organinns have tissues and cells that can be cell cycle is governed by environmental factors inside
examined to reveal their component parts and func- and outside the cell that signal the appropriate time
tions. The component parts of most cells (e.g., for division (in the case of cancer cells, this signal is
membranes, nucleus, and other small organelles) have not observed). Normally, the newly produced cells
different functions, including the conversion and use are identical to the parent cell or one-celled organism.
of energy, protection, and reproduction. Some [Patterns of Change, Stability, Energy]
organisms are one-celled or unicellular, and even
these have component parts. Organisms that are very B-1 What are cells? What are their component
different (e.g., sponges, humans, oak trees, ferns) structures and their functions? How do they
nonetheless have parts that perform the same kinds of grow? What is the biochemical basis of life and
functions for their organisms. [Scale and Structure, of metabolism?
Systems and Interactions, Energy] Grades Nine Through Twelve
There is a hierarchy in the organization of living
systems, from cells and their components to tissues, Cytoplasm and cell organdies have specific struc-
organs, organ systems, and whole organisms. At each tures and compositions, and they perform specific
step in the hierarchy, these component parts contrib- cellular functions, such as the production of enzymes,
ute to the overall maintenance of the organism. the metabolism of food, mitosis, and the removal of

Chapter 5tife Sciences 127

139
 wastes. These functions are common to the cells of all
closely than cousins or distant relatives do. [Scale and
living things, even'though they are performed by
Structure, Systems and Interactions]
different structures/in different kinds of organisms.
[Systems and Interactions, Scale and Structure] B-2 How are the characteristics of living things passed
Initially, most cells have the ability to become any on through generations? How does heredity
kind of cell because they contain the same genetic determine the development of individual
information. Through the process of their growth and organisms?
development, they differentiate and specialize in
structure and function (e.g., to becOme blood or leaf Grades Three Through Six
cells), but they retain the basic information that also Within a species there is usually considerable
allows them to reproduce themselves mitotically. variation in characteristics. In humans, hair color, eye
[Systenis and Interactions, Scale and Structure] color, and many other physical features are largely
The chemical and physical bases of metabolism, determined by heredity. The variation can be in the
including photosynthesis and the Krebs cycle, are organism 's appearance or in its genetic. makeup (or
fundamental cellular processes. These cycles describe both). Inheritance is coded by the genetic material
the releese and use of energy by the organism. found in the nuclei of cells. Some of this material,
Enzymes serve as catalysts to promote essential normally in equal amounts, comes from both parents
chemicat reactions in cells. Cellular processes that of multicelled organisms. Variation in this material
sustain end renew life can be understood by studying determines some of the variation in the characteristics
the interactions of molecules, atoms, and electrons. of individuals. Although many characteristics are
Large molecules (macromolecules: e.g., fats, polysac- inherited from parents, nutrition and other environ-
charides, nucleic acids, and lipids) govern life func- mental factors during the growing period contribute
tions by playing parts in the structure and regulation vitally to adult form and health. [Scale and Structure,
of the cell's metabolism. [Scale and Structure; Systems and Interactions]
Systems and Interactions, Energy] Living organisnis progress through a life cycle that
Regulatory mechanisms in all organisms control the is characteristic of their species. This cycle begins
flow of energy and maintain homeostasis of bio- with the combination of genetic material in the new
chemical reactions and metabolic rates. Although the cell and continues through all the phases of growth
normal activities of life (e.g., feeding, locomotion) and development to the adult form through reproduc-
cause departures from equilibrium, regulatory sys- tion and death. [Patterns of Change]
tems restore this balance and maintain the organism
in working condition. (Disease often results from
failures in these systems.) [Energy, Stability]
Students should understand that "mutants" and
"mutations" are not terms laden with negative
connotations. Mutations themselves are not
helpful, harmful, or neutral, but their effects are,
How are the characteristics of living things past.ed on in given situations. Mutations are the agents of
through generations? How does heredity determine genetic change in evolution, affecting nearly all
the development of individual organisms?
structural and developmental processes. Each
Kindergarten Through Grade Three human carries dozens of mutations in the chro-
Living things resemble their parents because all mosomal material; thus, we could all be consid-
parents pass on their physical characteristics to their ered "mutants" (a term that should probably be
offspring. In organisms with two parents, the off- avoided because of its connotations). Many
spring normally inherit characteristics of both. embryonic deaths, on the other hand, arise from
Usually, closer relationships mean more similarities:
lethal mutations.
brothers and sisters tend to resemble each other more

128 Pea llThe Content of Science 140

 harmful, neutral, or helpful effects in different genetic
and external environments (e.g., mutations for dark or
Until the 1960s, most mutations were thought to light coat color in arctic mammals may be advanta-
be harmful in their effects, and wild populations geous or not, depending on the season and the sur-
were thought to have generally low levels of roundings). [Evolution, Patterns of Change, Systems
genetic variability. The discovery of neutral and Interactions]
evolution in the 1960s changed this understand- All living things follow the patterns of various
ing. Molecular and genetic studies revealed that cycles (e.g., life cycle, respiration and energy release,
reproductive cycle, Krebs cycle) and cyclical rhythms
there was far more variation in organisms than (e.g., daily, seasonal, annual). Other patterns of
had ever been suspected. Yet organisms seem to change may be directional (e.g., growth, develop-
have no trouble surviving in spite of all this ment, and maturation). [Patterns of Change]
variation. Therefore, most mutations could not be
deleterious in their effects but rather seem to B-2 How are the characteristics of lMng things passed
on through generations? How does heredity
have no strong effects at all.
determine the development of individual
organisms?
Grades Nine Through Twelve
8-2 How are the characteristics of living things passed
on through generations? How does heredity DNA, the genetic material, is universal to all
determine the development of individual organisms (except some viruses which have only
organisms? RNA or DNA). DNA is read and transcribed by RNA
polymerase to produce a complementary strand of
Grades Six Through Nine
RNA. DNA codes the production of proteins, which
The genetic material DNA makes up the genes, are composed of 20 different amino acids, most of
which determine heredity. Genes are segments of which serve as catalysts for cellular functions of
chromosomes in the nuclei of cells. The genetic growth and development. The sequence of these
system is organized so that variations and changes amino acids is determined by the genetic code, read
can occur in several major ways, including (1) as codon triplets of the four RNA bases. Sixty-one of
mutations; (2) errors in copying genetic material the 64 triplets code for the production of a specific
when cells divide; and (3) recombination of genetic amino acid, and the other three are stop signals.
material. Not all genes are equally expressed; some There is great repetition in the genome, probably
have mom influence on physical form and develop- because this material has been duplicated and addi-
ment than others. In some cases, one gene may tional material has been incorporated many times
influence several characteristics; in other cases, through evolutionary history. There are active and
several genes contribute to the same characteristic. inactive sections of DNA molecules, and not all parts
Genetic factors contribute to individual variation, and code for characteristics. In fact, few sites appear to
such variations are the raw material of evolution. code for specific features, and we know very little as
[Scale and Structure, Systems and Interactions, yet about what function most DNA serves, although
Evolution] the main purpose seems to be to code for specific
Mutations are changes in the DNA that may be proteins and to regulate growth.
caused by errors in replicating genetic material. Most If the sequences of DNA molecules are compared
causes of mutation (heat and cold, radiation, chemical in different organisms, the evolutionary relationships
compounds in the environment) are natural; a few of the molecules can be determined; the degree to
result from active or accidental human interference, which DNA sequences correspond in different organ-
such as those from chemicals or X rays. Most muta- isms provides data about their evolutionary relation-
tions am neutral in their effects on the individual ships. (See Figure 4, page 115.) DNA molecules can
organism, though many are harmful, and some are also be artificially modified by the addition or dele-
helpful in their effects. The same mutation may have tion of genetic material to promote desirable charac-

Chapter 5Life Sciences

i4 129
 teristics (such as frost resistance in plants) or to As climates have changed through time, the variety of
eliminate undesirable ones (such as virulency in an life has changed accordingly and increased tremen-
infective microorganism). [Scale and Structure, dously. Life has been on earth for a very long time.
Systems and Interactions, Evolution] Fossils tell us about past life, most forms of which are
The relationship between genotype and phenotype now extinct. [Evolution]
is complex: normally, there is not a one-to-one All living things have features that they inherit
contspondence between genes and external charac- from their parents. All life forms are related to each
teristics of the organism. There is an explicit and other because they share common features. Living
inseparable relationship between genetics and evolu- things are grouped together on the basis of these
tion. Darwin used the methods and benefits of
features, which they have inheriteli from common
selective animal and plant breeding to convey the ancestors. [Evolution]
idea of natural selection by comparison to artificial
ielection. [Evolution, Systems and Interactions]
The genetic code instructs the production of
enzymes and other proteins in the cells. The relation- In evolution, the selective value of traits depends
ship between the genetic code and the fully developed on the environment. The peppered moth (Biston
adult organism is not completely understood. Most betularia) is a famous example of natural selec-
genes do not appear to code for specific structures tion under conditions of environmental change.
(e.g., fmgers) or functions (e.g., heating ability).
Rather, most genes appear to regulate processes of
Before the industrial revolution, both dark and
cell growth and enzyme production that function in light moths were present in the population. As
development. The need for insight into just how industrial pollution increased, light-colored trees
genes contribute to development is one of the most darkened, and the light-colored moths were more
exciting frontiers in biology. conspicuous to the birds that fed on them. Hence,
Developmental programs may be continuous, as in the proportion of light-colored moths in the
vertebrates and many plants, or they may result in a
series of very differtnt looking, independent, free- population decrzased. However, as industrial
living developmental stages. Examples include the pollution declined, the tree trunks lightened
caterpillar-pupa-butterfly transition of lepidopteran again, and lighter-colored raoths were favored.
insects and the nauplius and veliger stages of many
marine invertebrates, as well as in the dual life cycle Students should understand that this is not an
of sporophyte and gametophyte seen in vascular example of evolutionary change from light-
plants. [Patterns of Change, Systems and Interactions, colored to dark-colored to light-colored moths,
Evolution]
because both kinds were already in the popula-
tion. This is an example of natural selection, but
in two senses. First, temporary conditions in the
environment encouraged selection against dark-
How has life changed ;and diversified through time? colored moths and then against light-colored
What processes and patterns characterize the moths. But second, and just as important, is the
evolution of life? selection to maintain a balance of both black and
Kindergarten Through Grade Three white forms, which are adaptable to a variety of
Today, there are a great many kinds of living environmental circumstances. This balanced se-
things, including plants, animals, fungi, and many lection increases the chances for survival of the
one-celled organisms. The fossil record indicates that species.This is in many ways the most interesting
at one time there were only very simple, one-celled feature of the evolution of the peppered moth but
forms; but through time, the larger (many-celled) one that is often misrepresented in textbooks.
plants and animals evolved from these simple forms.

130 Part 11The Content of Science

142
B-3 How has life changed and diversified through
time? What processes and patterns characterize The algae found in stromatolites (hardened mud
the evolution of life? layers) ar- more complex than are many other
Grades' Three Through Six bacteria and microbes; therefore, the first life
must have appeared somewhat earlier than 3 .5
Organisms resemble their parents because they billion years ago. Many forms of life are known
inherit features from them. New combinations and
changes in the genetic material cause variations in
from rocks older than 600 million years, but they
offspring. Over geologic time, life has evolved and are mostly tiny and one-celled. During the Cam-
differentiated into the forms that live today. Only a brian period (ca. 500-570 million years ago),
very small proportion of all life forms that ale known nearly all the present groups of multicelled
to have existed survive today. Many forms no longer animals first appeared in the fossil record, but
living are seen in the fossil record. The sequence of not all at once.
these forms in the fossil record helps us to see the
order in which life evolved.

Chapter 5--Life Sciences 131

143
 Evolution is an ongoing process. There are many direct examples of
quite recent natural selection (e.g.,
rapid evolution of genetic resistance to antibiotics by pathogenic
bacteria, to insecticides by insects, and
to herbicides by weeds), evolution of new species (Hawaiian moths and fruit flies),
and new adaptations
(e.g., British titmice have learned to pry the lids off milk bottles
so that they can drink the cream).

B-3 How has life changed and diversified through

time? What processes and patterns characterize subtidal algal mats of today. (See Chapter 4, Section
the evolution of life? B, Geology and Natural Resources.) [Evolution]
Scientific theories about the origin of life are based
Grades Six Through Nine on an understanding of what conditions were like on
earth billions of years ago. The earliest rocks tell us
The earth is about 4.6 billion years old; the oldest
rocks ate some 4 billion years old; and life on earth is what the earth, its waters, and its atmosphere were
like at that time, as far as can be known. Scientists
first known from rocks 3.5 billion years old. Plants,
animals, and fungi did not exist then. Instead, these combine this information with what is known of the
life forms were small, multichambered cells and tiny, chemical and physical mquimments for life today,
thin filaments much like some one-celled organisms especially for the simplest forms of life, to mcon-
of today. They are often found arranged in thin beds struct what the earliest life on earth may have been
of hardened mud layers (stromatolites) similar to the like and how life may have first evolved. Experimen-
tal evidence is also used to understand how complex
biochemical molecules may have first been as-
sembled. (See Chapter 4, Section B, Geology and
The evolution of life should be presented to Natural Resources.) [Evolution, Systems and Interac-
students not as a disconnected series but as a tions]
pattern of changing diversity united by evolution- Changes in the genetic material DNA am mspon-
sible for new variations in individual organisms that
ary relationships and distinguished by changes in may be passed on to their offspring. Changes occur in
the environment and by adaptations to those several ways, including recombination of genetic
changes. Nor is evolutionary history a sequence material from pamnts and mutations. Natural selec-
of increasing complexity, because this does not tion is an explanation of how these variations may
adequately or accurately define evolution. The contribute to the survival of an individual to the age
history of life is not merely the evolution of of mproduction. Attaining reproductive age is impor-
tant because that is when these characteristics can be
complex forms from simpler ones; for example,
passed on. Natural selection has been extensively
parasites are generally simpler than their non- demonstrated in natural and laboratory populations of
parasitic relatives because theyfrequently lose many kinds of organisms. Though an important factor
the ability to perform certain vital functions (such in evolution, it is only one of many processes contrib-
as digestion and locomotion) that their hosts now uting to evolutionary history. Others, such as adapta-
provide for them. One-celled and other simple or- tion, speciation, extinction, and chance events, are
also of primary importance.
ganisms persist because they fit viable evolution- Natural selection and adaptation are diffemnt
ary niches. Although multicellular organisms concepts. Natural selection refers to the process by
evolved from simple one-celled ones, it is mis- which organisms whose biological characteristics
leading to portray evolutionary history as a drive better fit them to their environment are better mpre-
toward increasing complexity. sented genetically in future generations. With time,
those that are mom poorly fitted would normally
become less well mpresented. Adaptation is the

132 Part IIThe Content of Science

process by which organisms respond to the chal- intervals and at certain points in the earth's history.
lenges of their environments through natural selection These include the evolution, diversification, and
with changes and variations in their form and behav- extinction of much fossil life. [Evolution]
ior. [Evolution, Patterns of Change, Systems and Extinction has been an inevitable biological process
Interactions] since life began. Over 99 percent of all the organisms
Evolution, dermed as "descent with modification," that ever lived me now extinct. Extinction, therefore,
is the central organizing principle in life science. It is a natural process. But humans have also caused eir
gives us a basis of comparison when we study contributed to the extinction of many forms of life
anatomy, structure, adaptation, and ecology. Homol- and continue to contribute to a rate that is much
ogy provides the vehicle of comparison. Homologous higher then at any previous time in human history.
features am those that are inherited from the common Extinction can stimulate further evolution by opening
ancestors of organisms (e.g., the forelimbs of fishes, resource space. (See Section C, Ecosystems.)
birds, horses, and humans are homologous, because
they have been inherited from a common ancestor, B-3 How has life changed and diversified through
even though thT; are very different in ther structure time? What processes and patterns characterize
and function). Tlius, homologies are defmed by the evolution of life?
ancestry; the criteria used to recognize homologies of Grades Nine Thrc 3h Twelve
structure include the position of the structure (topol-
ogy), its composition (histology), its development The earliest known organisms on earth are known
from the initial cell stages, and its biochemical from coccoid and filamentous structures similar to
makeup. Independent lines of evidence from anatomi- those of living cyanobacteria. They are associated
cal, molecular, and genetic material; development; with lithified algal mats known as stromatolites,
and the fossil record enable us to establish homolo- preserved in rocks 3.5 billion years old in South
gies, which we use to reconstruct the relationships of Africa and Australia. Because cyanobacteria are
organisms. Classification is based on evolutionary metabolically more complex than other microbes
relationships, not on any arbitrary criteria or on vague (e.g., they photosynthesize), it is presumed that life
notions of similarity. (See Section A, Living Things.) originated on earth at a somewhat earlier time. (See
[Evolution, Patterns of Change, Systems and Interac- Chapter 4, Section B, Geology and Natural Re-
tions, Scale and Structure] sources.) [Evolution]
Although most changes in organisms occur in small Conditions on earth when life first evolved are
steps over a long period of time, some major biologi- inferred from the geochemistry of the earliest rocks.
cal changes have taken place during relatively short Earth's earliest oceans and atmosphere were much

Homology should be kept distinct from similarity. Homology implies descent from a common ancestor.
Cytochrome C molecules in humans and horses are homologous. They are also similar; their sequenres
differ by only 1.1 percent. Consider two chains of ten nucleotides, with the sequences G-C-A-T-G-C-A-T-
G-C andT-A-C-G-T-A-C-G-C-G. In each, there are two As, two Ts, three Gs, and three Cs, so the two
sequences are identical in composition. But there is no similarity between them because none of the sites
match when the two chains are laid end to end. By contrast, two other chains, C-A-T-G-C-A-T-G-C-A
and C-A-T-G-C-A-T-G-T-G, have identical nucleotides in their firs: eight positions, but different ones in
the last two. So they are 80 percent similar. If the two sequences had a common evolutionary origin,
they would also be homologous in addition to being similar. If, however, they did not have a common
origin, they would be similar but not homologous.

Chapter 5Life Sciences 133

145
 Evolution is both a pattern and a process. It is also both
a fact and a theory. It is a scientific fact that
organisms have evolved through time. The mechanisms,
patterns, and processes by which this evolution
has occurred constitute the theory of evolution. Like
gravitation and electricity, evolution explains a
large range of observations and hypotheses about the
natural world. (See Chapter 1, "The Nature of
Science." ) As more detailed understanding increases, the
theory of evolution itself evolves.

different from what they are today. Available evi-

dence does not clearly favor a single theory of how appropriate materials, environmemal conditions, and
life first evolved. Current theories explore several input energy. These complex molecules are part of
possible mechanism., but knowledge of these is very biotic compounds. Chemical evolution differs from
organic evolution, which is change in life forms by
incomplete. Experiments attempting to synthesize
slf-replication (or as Darwin put it, "descent with
complex biochemical molecules have provided
considerable insight into what conditions were modification"). Chemical evolution entails no self-
replication and no inheritance.
necessary for the earliest life to evolve. (See Chapter
4, Section B, Geology and Natural Resources.) Evolution explains why biological patterns in
[Evolution] structure, function, biochemistry, and genetics show
the same recurring themes of relationship. It also
Chemical evolution refers to the assembly of more
complex organic molecules from simpler ones, given forms the basis for the establishment of homology,
which is studied through the criteria of topology,
histology, ontogeny, and so forth. Evolution unites
genetics and molecular biology with earth history and
Structural constraints, inherited by organisms the physical sciences by showing the continuity of
from their ancestors, are surmounted in interest- change and the records of these changes in the rocks
ing ways as new adaptations evolve. One ex- and in the structural and biochemical compositions of
all organisms. [Evolution, Patterns of Change,
ample is the "thumb" that the giant panda uses
Systems and Interactions, Scale and Structure]
to strip bamboo leaves (this is not a thumb at all, The sequence established from cladograms (see
but a modified wrist bone). Unknown adaptive or Section A, Living Things) can be compared with the
developmental constraints prevented the modifi- independent sequences of appearance of organisms
cation of the true thumb, perhaps; but even more and their characteristics in the fossil record. It can
interesting, the panda' s foot has grown a similar also be compared to the patterns of many biochemical
compounds, including the genetic material, DNA and
"thumb" from an ankle bone, even though ;he RNA. Evolutionar, relationships are thus understood
foot is not used to strip bamboo leaves. Evidently through a combination of independent lines of
the same genetic mechanism controls the devel- evidence, including anatomical, genetic, and bio-
opment of the first digit on both the hand and chemical data, ontogeny, and the fossil record.
foot, even though natural selection is working Organisms are classified according to these evolu-
only on the function of the panda' s thwnb. This lionary relationships. [Evolution, Patterns of Change,
Systems and Interactions]
shows the interaction of genetics with devdop- Genetic mutations and recombinations are two of
ment that contributes to the evolutionary process. the most important causes of the variations that form
(This and other interesting evolutionary examples the raw material for evolutionary change. Others
are explained in The Panda's Thumb by Stephen include errors in copying DNA, duplication and
Jay Gould.) rearrangement of chromosomes, and addition and
deletion of genetic material. These variations are
expressed in the phenotype as evolutionary novelties,
and they provide the material on which natural

134 Pad 11--The Content of Science

146
selection can act. Natural selection can work on
variations in any characteristics at any time in an Understanding the history of life requires a
individtfal's development. Through geologic time,
adaptation to environmental factors has beer. 4 central knowledge of the geologic timetable (see Chap-
theme in the evolution of life. Many fosFa lineages ter 3, Section B, Geology and Natural Re-
show the evolution of adaptations for feeding, loco- sources), including the ranges of some major
motion, reproduction, and coping with environmental groups of organisms and signifkant events in the
conditions. Because environmental conditions change history of life. These events include the emer-
over geologic time, populations of organisms must gence of important adaptations and groups of
have sufficient variation and plasticity to meet these
challenges or become extinct. Few evolutionary organisms, as well as evolutionary radiations
strategies are guaranteed success, and these cannot be and mass extinctions. The evolutionary and fossil
predicted in advance. [Evolution] histories of a few representative groups should
Not all evolution is adaptive, and organisms cannot be presented in life science curricula in detail, so
simply invent the characteristics that would serve that students can have a concrete appreciation
them well in particular circumstances. Evolution is for the data of the fossil record, the geologic
limited by the possibilities for genetic and behavioral
change because organisms can use only the genetic column, and the methodology of phylogenetic
and structural tools handed down by their ancestors. reconstruction.
Even so, living things have great potential to be
modified by natural selection to meet environmental
needs (e.g., the evolution of beak shapes in the small mass extinction caused by some kind of biotic or
group of Darwin's finches). [Evolution, Systems and physical crisis. In earth history, mass extinctions have
Interactions, Scale and Stnicture] often been caused by regressions and transgressions
The fossil record documents the appearance, of oceans, continental drift, and other geologic
diversification, and extinction of many life forms in processes; and perhaps by external agents such as
relation to environmental regimes and changes extraterrestrial objects and processes. Explanations of
through earth history. (See Section C, Ecosystems, extinction must take into account both the extinct and
and Chapter 4, Section B, Geology and Natural the survivors. (For example, any explanation of
Resources.) The sequence of life through time is dinosaur extinction at the end of the Cretaceous
known from the geologic ranges of major groups of period must explain why other forms of life survived,
living things. Tectonic events, including mountain see Chapter 4, Section B, Geology and Natural
building and continental drift, and climatic patterns Resources.) Extinctions from the end of the Pleisto-
that result from these processes contribute to the cene Ice Age are still occurring, while others are
separation and diversification of species over time, caused or hastened by the activities of humans.
such as the present geographic restriction of the Coast [Evolution, Patterns of Change]
redwood. The science of biology has made grcat progress in
Evolution, both a pattern and a process, has many the last ten years and has uncovered fundamental new
component patterns and processes, such as speciation, concepts. Molecular biology has become one of
natural selection, adaptation, and so forth. The biology's major themes; molecular biologists are
processes of evolution are studied at the species, exploring new horizons not dreamed of a decade ago.
popuhtion, genetic, and molecular levels; all contrib- At, ,ompanying these new insights is an expanding
ute information that explains the diversity and unity bia tchnology which is raising scientific and ethical
of life. Rates of evolution vary, both among different questions in medicine, agriculture, and law while at
groups of organisms and through geologic time. the same time forecasting far-reaching social and
Extinction is a natural part of life that has played an economic benefits for the state, the nation, and the
important role in evolutionary history. Extinction world.
consists of two modes: (1) a background of ordinary These new scientific and ethical questions are
extinctions of species; and (2) occasional events of forcing a reevaluation of public policy in scierm and

Chapter 5Lite Sciences 135

47
 tedraology, the health care industry, medical re-
vast scale of this change. There are many patterns:
search, agriculture, and, most important, in public
seasonal, reproductive, and populational cycles;
education.-Unfortunately, high school classrooms
have not similarly expanded their horizons in science migrations in and out of populations (which them-
and its ethical concerns and are falling further and selves wink in and out of existence); and extinctions.
The study of ecosystems has a dual purpose: (1) to
further behind,the times.
achieve a basic understanding of natural ecosystems
As a consequence of the rapid development in
and how they work; and (2) to apply this understand-
molecular biology and its technologies, the gulf
ing to making practical and ethical decisions about
between scientific advance and public understanding
is widening. In a 1986 study for the National Science ecosystems, often referred to as the science of conser-
Foundation, Jon D. Miller found that 57 percent of vation. Conservation of resources does not assume
that ecosystems do not change; the object is to ensure
the American people had little or no understanding of
DNA, the molecular biologists' lamp of knowledge that human intervention in ecosystems does not
and target of technological manipulation,' change them so rapidly or radically that their species
and ecological interactions are destroyed. Our chil-
For a participating democracy to succeed and
dren face a global crisis in conservation of natural
fh..aish, an informed public in which citizens make
resources. We are only beginning to understand its
knowledgeable decisions on technological issues is
depth and ramifications for the earth's food supply,
necessary. Students and teachers must have both a
finn understanding of the sciencs and an ethical atmosphere, water cycle, and biological diversity.
Communicating this awareness to students involves
framework for applying these ideas in a technological
society. Failure to emphasize boai science and ethics both the fundamental aspects of ecological theory and
in the biology curriculum means, in the final analysis, the applied theory of conservation biology in both
failure to fulfill teaching's most important function: ethical and practical aspects.
to prepare citizens capable of informed decision C-1 What are ecosystems, and how do
making in both the personal and public arenas.
organisms interact In ecosystems?
F07 example, genetic engineering of bacterial DNA
enabled medical researchers to mass-produce the C-2 How does energy flow within an
enemical interferon, which is produced bk human ecosystem?
cells as a natural defense to viral pathogens. Prior to
this biotechnological breakthrough, the interferon
C-3 How do ecosystems change?
supply was extremely limited and very costly, over C-4 What are the responsibilities of humans
$10,000 per milligram. Mass production decreased toward ecosystems?
costs, allowing widespread distribution to many more
cancer patients. Although interferon's overall effec-
tiveness was less than hoped for, many thousands of
cancetpatients went into, remission after taking it.
What are ecosystems, and how do organisms
interact in ecosystems?
Section C Ec9systems Kindergarten Through Grade Three
Living things need resources from their environ-
EcoLootcAL theory is concerned with the study of
ments in order to sustain life and help thcm grow.
natural systems. The balance of nature is in fact a They need food, waterrand space to live and grow.
shifting balance in which nothing is constant but
Living things live in particular kinds of environments,
change. A human lifetime sees only glimpses of the
because these are where they find the things and the
1.1on D. Miller. "Scientific literacy Among American Adults." Address conditions that they need to survive. Cycles, such as
given at the Forum on Scientific literacy held by the American Assocta- the water cycle, are characteristics of environments
eke for the Advancement of Science, Arlington, Virginia, October 6-7, that support life. [Scale and Structure, Systems and
1989.
Interactions, Patterns of Change]

136 Part IIThe Content of Science

t
 Some living things, such as algae and plants, vary according to the physical characteristics of their
produce their own food. Most others, including all environments and also by the presence or absence of
animals, get food by eating or ingesting other living particular species. Each species has particular needs
things. [Systems and Interactions, Energy] and interacts in particular ways with other species in
Living things interact with other living things in the environment. [Systems and Interactions]
many ways, depending on each other for food, Predation and competition are important regulator;
shelter, and mutually advantageous purposes such as of populations within ecosystems, and their effects
social groupings. The same kinds of living things have been demonstrated in living ecosystems. How-
often live together in groups. Usually, several differ- ever, the ability to survive within the physical envi-
ent groups of interdependent living things live with or ronment may be the most difficult task faced by most
near each other. [Systems and Interactions] organisms and may be the prime factor underlying
both adaptation and extinction. [Systems and Interac-
C-1 What are ecosystems, and how do organisms tions, Energy]
interact in ecosystems? The environment of a species consists of both
physical and organic resources that can be exploited
Grades Three Through Six and used by it and other species. There are many
All living things interact with each other and with kinds of adaptive zones in biomes (e.g., carnivorous
the physical environment. All organisms are part of or herbivorous, flying or swimming, moth-pollinated
their environments; they need things from their or wind-pollinated). Organisms have adaptations for
environments that enable them to survive and grow. coping with their environments and surviving to
All organisms are influenced by environmental reproduce. Some wiimal species live in social groups,
forces, and each organism also influences its environ- which enhances their ability to survive. Many bio-
ment to some extent. Interactions among organisms logical processes, such as mating and food gathering,
may have helpful, harmful, or neutral effects on the depend for their success on a certain population size
organisms involved. [Systems and Interactions] or size range. [Evolution, Systems and Interactions]
All organisms have roles in their environments. The earth supports an incredible diversity of
They eat other species, often serve as food for other habitats that have different kinds of physical proper-
species, and may shelter (trees) or decompose (fungi) ties and different associations of organisms. In each
other species. Some organisms fill more than one habitat the interaction of predation, competition, and
role. [Systems and Interactions] so forth and the flow of energy through organisms in
the system can be studied and compared with those of
C-1 What are ecosystems, and how do organisms other ecosystems. [Energy, Scale and Structure,
interact in ecosystems? Systems and Interactions]
Grades Six Through Nine C-1 What are ecosystems, and how do organisms
interact in ecosystems?
Populations are groups of the same kind of organ-
ism (species) living together because they share Grades Nine Through Twelve
common environmental needs. A population is also a
natural reproductive unit. [Systems and Interactions] The physicochemical conditions (temperature, mois-
Species are groups of populations of the same kind ture, chemical cycles) of an environment limit the
of organism, reproductively isolated from other biomes that can exist there. Among the biotic factors
species in their natural environments. (This definition contributing to the structure of biomes, interactions
has some exceptions, notably for many plant species, relating to the acquisition of food (predation, photo-
which hybridize freely in nature.) Each species has its synthesis, and so forth) and competition for available
own niche, which is the sum of its interactions with resources are important. Many different organisms
may exploit resource zones (e.g., the coral reef envi-
other species and with its physical environment.
[Systems and Interactions, Scale and Structure] ronment) and may occupy the same adaptive zones
A community is a system of species that share an (e.g., flight and insectivory in birds and bats), but the
environment and interact with each other. Ecosystems niche is a characteristic peculiar to individual species.

Chapter 5Life Sciences 137

- --
 Ecosystems are frequently described by ecologists
as systems in which organisms compete for finite re-
sources in the environment. In many cases, resources
used by one species are not available for use by other How does energy flow within an ecosystem?
species (e.g., sunlight intercepted by upper canopy
trees in a forest). In other cases, resources may appear Kindergarten Through Grade Three
to be incompletely exploited for reasons not con- Living things must gain cnergy from their environ-
nected with competition (e.g., despite the vast poten- ment, either by converting it from sunlight (algae and
tial for exploitation of grasslands by herbivorous mam- plants) or by eating other organisms or organic
mals and insects, plant life flourishes and appears to matter. Animals may eat plants, other animals, or
be undergrazed). A change in one part of an ecosys- decomposing organic material in order to gain
tem may have far-reaching consequences for othe' energy.
parts of the ecosystem. [Systems and Interactions]

-Cornbustio COOn
atmosphere

ft Respiration

Photosynthesis
41111

Light
Diffusion
Diffusion

Plankton k

Decay

Carbonification

Foisil fuels
(Oil, Gas, Coal)

Decay crgartisms

138 Pad 11The Content of Science

-
t
C-2 How does energy flow within an ecosystem? The biomass production of ecosystems is generally
higher nearer the equator than it is toward the poles.
Gtades Three Through Six
This is because more sunlight allows greater plant
Green plants are the foundation of the energy flow productivity, which in turn permits more complex
in most ecosystems because they produce their own food chains and food webs. [Energy, Systems and
fond, 4sing sunlight, water, air, and minerals from Interactions]
their environments. Animals eat the plants and in turn Through the absence or extinction of species, food
are often eaten by other animals. Food chains and chains and webs may become simpler, and energy
food webs describe the systems of energy flow flow may change through an ecosystem. The prolif-
through ecosystems. Energy is transferred upward by eration of sPecies makes food webs more complex
predation through the levels of food chains and food and also affects the flow of energy. [Energy, Systems
webs and back down to the base of the food chain and Interactions]
when organisms die and are decomposed. Nutrients Ecosystems are often characterized as being in
are recycled as living things die and decompose. equilibrium. This concept : invalid with respect to
the flow of energy, which is only inefficiently used
by consuming organisms. It is valid with respect to
C-2 How does energy flow within an ecosystem?
the cyclical flow of nutrients through trophic levels of
Grades Six Through Nine an ecosystem, because there is a more or less constant
amount of matter available for cycling through eco-
Energy and matter are transferred among organisms systems. [Energy, Stability, Systems and Interactions]
within each ecosystem. Matter needed to sustain life
is cycled and recycled within ecosystems; however,
energy is eventually lost to the ecosystem and must
constantly be renewed. Because energy is either used
by the consumer or lost to the environment as heat How do ecosystems change?
energy, its flow through a food chain can be repre-
sented as a pyramid. The efficiency of energy transfer Kindergarten Through Grade Three
decreases upWard through food chains and food webs. As seasons change, living things also change. Each
[Patterns of Change, Systems and Interactions] species has its own life cycle. Events in its life cycle
The stnicture of ecosystems varies, as food chains are matched with particular events in its surroundings
and food webs differ in complexity. Not all biomes (e.g., winter dormancy, the fall of leaves, the daily
have secondary carnivores or even any carnivores at cycle of opening and closing of many flowers, mating
all. Decomposers use organic material from produc- seasons). [Patterns of Change]
ers, herbivores, and carnivores, and themselves de- Ecosystems have changed through time as the
compose. Matter and energy are thus partly recycled living things in them have also changed. New kinds
in the environment. [Energy, Scale and Structure, of organisms have appeared, and others have become
Systems and Interactions] extinct. In this way ecosystems have changed through
time. Recently, changes in ecosystems have been
C-2 How does energy flow within an ecosystem? caused or accelerated by human intervention. Some
of these changes have been destructive to ecosystems,
Grades Nine Through Twelve causing the extinction of species and the disappcar-
Organisms are adaptable, dynamic systems that ance of their natural habitats. [Systems and Interac-
continually exchange energy with their environments. tions]
Matter needed to sustain life in an ecosystem is
cycled and reused. Some of the cycles arc the carbon C-3 How do ecosystems change?
cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the water cycle, and various Grades Three Through Six
mineral cycles. The presence of varinus species in
ecosystems is largely limited by these cycles. [Pat- Ecosystems and the organisms in them changc with
terns of Change] daily, seasonal, and annual cycles of environmental

; Chapter 3Life Sciences 139

 Global change has also occurred in the past. Humans, for example, have caused extensive
waves of
habitat simplification and deterioration in Europe, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean and have
caused massive extinctions of species in New Zealand, Hawaii, and other places.

change. Organisms have their own cycles of life, mensal systems. Habits such as browsing, grazing,
from birth to death, and also cycles of growth, camivory, and herbivory have evolved many times
feeding, and reproduction. [Pattems of Change] over. For example, herbivorous dinosaurs evolved
Changes in one part of an ecosystem (such as the from carnivorous ones, and the diet of bears ranges
introduction of a new predator or the extinction of a
from entirely carnivorous (polar bear) to omnivorous
producer species) affect other parts of the ecosystem. (black bear) to herbivorous (giant pandas).
Populations naturally increase and decrease according Populations may stabilize over a period of time in a
to changes in the food chain, particularly changes balanced ecosystem, where relationships among
related to available resources. [Systems and Interac- species are in a dynamic stability. Ecosystems are
tions, Pattems of Change] dynamic, and they change through time as climate
Changes in the physical environment of an ecosys- and species compositions change. Speciation, extinc-
tem, such as moisture and temperature, can drasti- tion, immigration, and emigration am four ways in
cally affect the entire system. Some of these changes, which the species composition of ecosystems can
such as El Milo, are a natural part of the environ- change. These changes affect the availability of
ment; other changes, such as depletion of the ozone sources of food and other resources (e.g., trees for
layer, are caused or accelerated by humans. These shelter), and they also affect the flow of energy
changes are frequently detrimental and have far-
through ecosystems. Ecosystems have changed
reaching consequences. through time as new species and adaptations have
In an ecosystem species move in and out, die, and evolved and others have disappeared. (For example,
evolve to adapt to changing conditions. Change dinosaurs and giant horsetaillike trees once were the
through time is a natural process of ecosystems, but dominant land plant and animal species, but now
in the recent past humans have quickened this change hoofed mammals and flowering plants occupy the
by overfaiming, overhunting, and clear-cutting similar environments of today.) Recently, humans
habitats for human use. As a result, many species have accelerated the rates of extinction of species and
have been wiped out, and others am threatened. also the rates of emigration of species from their
[Evolution]
natural habitats, but the rates of speciation have not
The diversity of species at the lower levels of food increased to keep up with the very high rate of
pyramids generally deteimines the diversity and destmetion of species due largely to human interven-
complexity of interactions at higher levels. For tion. [Evolution]
example, an ecosystem with few green plants may Natural catastrophic changes in ecosystems (e.g.,
have a limited number of herbivorous predators. fire, hurricanes) can wipe out many species in an arca
and reset natural cycles of succession (e.g., from
C-3 How do ecosystems change? grasslands to shmblands to low forest to high-canopy
Grades Six Through Nine forest; or underwater storms that can bury sedentary
organisms and open an area to new colonization). Not
The cycles of matter, such as oxygen, nitrogen, all ecosystems have a single inevitable sequence of
water, and minerals, are crucial to sustaining ecosys- succession. Fire and other catastrophic agents are a
tems. [Patterns of Change, Energy, Systems and natural part of most ecosystems. [Patterns of Change,
Interactions] Evolution, Stability]
Relationships among species also change through Changes in the environment can affect the size of a
time. Examples are the evolution of parasitic systems population, which may lead to its locai or global
(parasite and host), mutualistic systems, and corn- extinction. Species must be sufficiently adaptable to

140 Part IIThe Content of Science

absorb these changes and respond to them. Optimal adaptations (e.g., grazing dentition from browsing),
population size helps to ensure variations in the and create opportunities for the diversification of
organisms necessary for the population to survive. species (e.g., horses and other herbivores that moved
[Systems and Interactions; Stability] from wooded to open environments in the early
Tertiary period). The introduction of predators oi
C-3 How do ecosystems change? competitors, long-term and short-tenn changes in
Grades Nine Through Twelve climate, and environmental catastmphes are all
chance factors that shape the history of ecosystems.
Because of the innicate relationships that exist [Energy, Evolution]
among species in a community and because of abiotic
features of the biome, a change in one part of the
ecosystem may have Tar-reaching consequences to the
system. These changes are difficult to predict and to
control. For example, the introduction of a pike into a What are the responsibilities of humans toward
South American lake or of rabbits into the Australian ecosystems?
outback may have very detrimental consequences on Kindergarten Through Grade Three
thelocal natural flora and fauna. [Systems and
Interactions, Evolution] Human practices can often affect the well-being of
Various periodic cycles of organisms in an ecosys- other species in the environment. Humans should
tem, as well as cycles of nutrients and other neccssary respect living things and foster their survival. Be-
materials, are important controls on the diversity of cause we depend on other species for food, clothing,
ecosystems thmugh time. Quite frequently, ecosys- shelter, and other needs and will continue to do so, it
tems have a carrying capacity for each species that is important for humans to respect nature and con-
they can sustain. When these conditions are ex- serve natural habitats, resources, and species.
ceeded, overpopulation can lead to depletion of
resources, and local extinction can result. [Patterns of C-4 What are the responsibilities of humans toward
ecosystems?
Change, Systems and Interactions]
Species diversity (the number of species in an Grades Three Through Six
ecosystem) and species richness (relative numbers of Waste disposal, the use of land (particularly the
individuals of various species) are both important com- elimination of feeding and breeding grounds of many
ponents of diversity and how it changes through time. species), imprudent collecting, pest control, hunting
Organisms tend to be dispersed through their environ-
ment according to the availability of crucial resources,
which fluctuate seasonally and annually. [Evolution] The current attention to tropical deforestation,
Succession is a predominant but not universal acid rain, ozone layer depletion, and the green-
pattem of ecosystems; the dynamic stability of house effect is not a mere fad; these processes
species composition in ecosystems is maintained by
are evidence of the stresses that human activities
local biotic and abiotic conditions. Fire, disease,
storms, and prolonged extremes in weather conditions place on the global ecosystem. Such problems
are all natural features of ecosystems that constantly will increase in number and degree well into the
reset ecological conditions and contribute to the next century. Instructional materials in science
dynamic flux of biomes. [Evolution, Stability, must address these issues in an integrated way
Patterns of Change] not as isolated symptoms but as facets of the
Ecological relationships among species change
through time, as species evolve, become extinct,
same overarching issue. In some areas, humans
immigme, and emigrate. This affects the flow of have surpassed the carrying capacity of their
energy and of nutrients through the ecosystem. Some regions, which has caused widespread famine
important ecological changes (such as the evolution and further deterioration of atmospheric, oce
of grasslands) open new resource zones (e.g., food for anic, and ecological systems.
herbivorous mammals), promote the evolution of new

/1)0 Chapter 5Life Sciences 141

 practices, and the destruction of natural habitats Pollution comes in Many forms: the introduction of
through human-caused disasters have contributed to unnatural substances into an ecosystem; an excess of
the extinction of species and to the loss of their natural substances; or the acceleration of nutrient
natural geographic and ecological ranges and have flow through an ecosystem, bypassing natural pro-
thttatened or destroyed ecosystems. cesses and patterns (e.g., eutrophication of ponds and
lakes). In addition, visual, auditory, and thermal
C-4 What are the responsibilities of humans toward
Pollution not only detract from human appreciation of
ecosystems?
natural ecosystems but also affect adversely other
Grades Six Through Nine organisms living in them.
Ecosystems often exist in a fragile balance. The
extinction of a species by human contribution often
affects the weii-being of the ecosystem. Pollution, The environmental impacts of unregulated defor-
which can be defined as an unnatural excess of
estation have serious global consequences and
(usually) abnormal materials in an ecosystem, is a
primary human cause of local extinction. The destruc- are often devastatingly irreversible. Deforesta-
tion of natural habitats, such as the tropical rain tion is the permanent removal of forest and
forest, and the elimination of necessary resources, undergrowth. In the late 1980s, thousands of
such as bmeding grounds turned into areas for acres of virgin tropical rain forest were burned
recreation, agriculture, or housing, are the primary every day in order to clear land for grazing and
contributions by humans to the destruction of other crop production. Forest acreage equivalent to the
species. With careful planning, humans can manage
ecosystems to preserve their diversity and natural entire state of Maine was destroyed every year.
beauty, while allowing human use. This massive combustion of carbonaceous mate-
rial released enormous amounts of carbon diox-
C-4 What are the responsibilities of humans toward ide imo the atmosphere, thus exacerbating the
eco'dystems?
greenhouse effect already created by petroleum-
Grades Nine Through Twelve consuming countries.
Land use, pollution, energy use, and application of
technology all involve ethical considerations for Given the rate of deforestation in Third World
individuals and society. Conservation is not simply an countries to obtain lumber and food, the forests
ethical question; it is in the vested self-interest of in the southern hemisphere could all but disap-
humAns to conserve and respect nature. Un.lerstand- pear within the next few decades. In a study of
ing life cycles, predator-prey relationships, metabo-
the effects of deforestation on species diversity,
lism of organisms, and other biotiCand abiotic
interactions makes it possible for humans to contrib- coordinated by former President Jimmy Carter,
ute to the well-being of species in natural ecosystems. scientists predicted that 20 to 30 percent of the
The control or eradication of populations of destruc- world's species were in jeopardy. In Colombia
tive or disease-causing organisms is also made devegetation rendered a hydroelectric generating
possible. Such activity always has some effects on the plant completely useless because its reservoir
rest of the ecosystem. (See further discussion in
filled with debris. To slow these disturbing trends
Chapter 1, The Nature of Sciente.)
HuMans are unique among the earth's organisms in of erosion, forest devastation, and species annihi-
their intelligence and adaptability. Humans can lation, American corporations have purchased
chooce to change their behavior and plan to provide acreage in the threatened forests of the Amazon
for the needs of future generations. These considera- basin and elsewhere. But additional intervention
tions extend beyond those of energy sources, miner- is vdally needed to prevent what might be an
als, and agriculture to areas of natural beauty and imminent global disaster.
recreation and diverse floras and faunas of the world.
[Systems and Interactions, Evolution)

142 Part IIThe Content of Science .154

Part III

Achieving the Desired

Science Curriculum

143
 Chapter 6

Science Processes
and the Teaching
of Science

MO chapter explains the processes of science that tions D and E consider hands-on science learning and
fonn the core of science pedagogy: observing, the role of ethics and values in science classes.
communicating, comparing, ordering, categorizing, Section E treats the need for showing the interrela-
relating, inferring, and applying. As scientists use tionships of science and technology to society.
these processes in their everyday work, so science This chapter is oriented toward helping students
teaching should center instruction, particularly hands- build their understanding of the natural world and
on instruction, on these fundamental processes. helping them understand its connection to our techno-
Expository instructional materials should show how logically advanced society. It also advocates a
scientists actually use these processes in their work.
student-centered science program created by teachers
This chapter also considers the values and ethics of who are free to design the types of experience that
science that should be taught to students, the role of best fit their students.
science and technology in society, and guidelines for
constructing the best possible science curricula in
elementary, middle, and secondary schools. Of Section. A Scientific Thinking
particular importance are the efforts necessary to
reach the historically underrepresented or disenfran-
Processes
chised students, including those for whom considera-
tions of gender, ethnic and cultural backgrounds, and SCIENCE is an active enterprise, made so by our
physical disabilities are of primary importance. human capacity to think. Scientific knowledge grows
This chapter opens with a recapitulation and elabo- as scientists think about the natural world, act on that
ration of the thinking processes formalized in the knowledge in planned ways, and then develop
1984 Science Framework Addendum. These mental thoughtful explanations of the results. The knowledge
functions are referred to as processes, not skills. This of science is its content. There is continual dynamic
convention helps to avoid the educational connotation interaction between the content of science and the
that skills imply routine, low-level procedures. The thinking processes that characterize the scientific
term thinking skills has unfortunately become an enterprise.
oxymoron; however, the term processes suggests the The content of science consists of a highly struc-
dynamic, higher-level effort required in thinking tured, complex set of facts, hypotheses, and theories
scientifically. in a context where many observations have meaning.
Much of Section A is devoted to building thinking Theory development is progressive; theory suggests
processes based on prior experience; SPetion C tells further observations that often make possible further
how to develop science concepts for students. Sec- elaboration and testing of the ther)ry.

144 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

56
 Scientists use their senses and extensions of their and listening to them. These senses enable the child
senses to see, touch, and otherwise view the world, to construct a view of the world and how it works. In
observing its characteristics and behaviors as objec- a similar but more structured manner, adults place a
tively as possible. Scientists describe and picture space probe on the surface of Mars to measure and
what they observe in various ways, thus communicat- record data. A mechanical hand touches the surface
ing their ideas to others so that they can exchange and crumbles the soil. Automated chemical "laborato-
views and interpretations and pass along information. ries" analyze the material. Sensors "smell" the atmos-
They test what they know against what they do not phere. With each of these actionsthe youngster's
yet know, comparing features and behaviors for firsthand, sensory experiences and the adult's in-
similarities and differences. Scientists organize their formed, inventive extensions of the senseshumans
understandings, ordering and categorizing them into gather information as raw material for constructing
broader, more general groupings and classifications. fundamental knowledge.
They study the interactions among objects and Sometimes when we observe, we do not see very
describe the events, relating factors that reveal deeper much. If we do not know how to look, we will not see
insights into causes and effects. Scientists hypothe- anything of importance. Knowledge from prior
size and predict what will happen based on accumu- observations enables us to extract more useful infor-
lated knowledge and on the events they expect to take mation from a new situation. For example, we might
place, inferring something that they have not seen hear the songs of birds and recognize only that some
because it has not yet happened or because it cannot
be observed directly. And as knowledge grows
thmugh the use of these scientific thinking processes, The capacity for deriving patterns is more highly
scientists develop expertise, applying both knowledge
and processes for useful purposes, to make still developed in humans than in any other animal
further extensions of the explanatory power of theory that we know about. Most organisms exist in a
and to perceive fresh possibilities. stimulus-response relationship with their envi-
ronment. Birds respond to danger by acting in
OBSERVING ways that have a high probability of helping them
The scientific thinking process from which escape. Frogs sit motionless and unseeing until
fundamental patterns of the world are an insect passes by; then the frog thrusts its
constructed tongue toward the insect to take it in as food.
The most fundamental of the scientific thinking Plant growth is stimulated by sunlight or inhib-
processes is that of observing. Only through this ited by the lack of it. Humans learn about envi-
process can we acquire infomiation from our environ- ronments by realizing patterns within them and
ment. Given objects to play with, the young child then act on the environment to adjust or change it
observes them by looking, touching, tasting, smelling, to suit their purposes. They are playful pattern
seekers when they daydream, doodle, or just
enjoy an observation; and sometimes they are
Teachers statements and questions that facilitate the purposeful pattern seekers as when they try to
process of observing:
complete a puzzle, make sense out of something,
"Tell us what you see." or resolve problems. Because of this pattern-
"What does this feel like?"
seeking capability, humans can live successfully
"Give us information about its shape and size."
"What do you hear?" in virtually any environment on earth. No other
"Point out the properties that you observe." species is able to do so. Although all of us by
"What characteristics seem to be predominantr nature are pattern seekers, the scientist is an
"What properties can you find?" expert, well-practiced pattern seeker.

.1 5 "i'
Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 145
 "The whole thinking process is still rather mysterious to us, but I believe that the attempt to make a
thinking machine will help us greatly in finding out how we think ourselves."
Alan Turing

birds are singing. Knowing more about the character- students may be influenced by what they feel are the
istics of bird sounds, another person might recognize expectations of their peer group. Being objective is
three different types of birds singinga sparrow, a difficult, yet scientists try to observe as objectively as
robin, and a blue jay. Even without seeing the birds, is humanly possible.
this person has a richer view of the event. Still Science activities that involve students in thr;
another person might recognize that one bird is giving process of observing provide them with a repertoire
a warning signal and another is giving an aggressive of concepts about size, shape, color, texture, and
territorial call. This expert, using both hearing and other observable properties of objects. As it grows,
prior knowledge, "observes" something much deeper this repertoire enriches the student's ability to ob-
about the event than other two listeners. serve and apply concepts. This development is
The scientist, as observer, systematically gathers essential for the understanding of more complex and
information of the world through direct and creative mom abstract ideas in the sciences.
indirect use of the human senses. With an initial body
of data, the scientist refines information by using COMMUNICATING
other scientific thinking processes such as comparing,
The scientific thinldng process that conveys
categorizing, and inferring, all in an attempt to
understand and explain what was observed.
ideas through social interchanges
As much as possible, the scientist adds a practical, Most animals are able to communicate in some way
trained objectivity to the process of observing. A with other members of their own species, but humans,
fallen leaf is described in terms of its observable, more than any other organism, are unique in the
verifiable propertiessize, shape, tip, base, venation, ability to create and use language and symbols that
serration, and so on. It is not described as diseased convey ideas in the present and preserve those ideas
unless there is some evidential basis for doing so. in order to communicate with others in Cie future.
Because of the importance of objectivity in the Scientists communicate through published works,
sciences, there has arisen, over the years, a myth that lectures, and conferences. The community of scien-
scientists are completely objective individuals who tists in a given field, redding and studying each
can remain independent of the information being other's works, provides a check on the objectivity and
gathered. The scientist is every bit as human as other accuracy of a scientist's work. Published research is
people and is influenced by factors similar to those replicated or extended by others interested in the
that influence anyone's objectivity. But prior experi-
ence and training are crucial factors. As noted,
Teacher's statements and questions that facilitate the
knowledge gained from prior experience can enable a process of communicating:
person to "see" more in a situation. In schools,
students bring with them a variety of previous experi- "What do you see?"
ences. Teachers can expect students to exhibit a wide "Draw a picture of what you see through the
range of observing behaviors, depending on the microscope."
cultural background and values that each brings to, "Plot the data you gathered on a graph."
and imposes on, the objects and events that they are "Make a histogram of the number of raisins in slices
asked to observe. Teachers should encourage students of raisin bread."
to share their differing perspectives and welcome the "Write up your experiment so it can be replicated
diversity of the students' background. by someone else."
Some students are highly influenced by what they "Summarize your findings and plesent them to the
anticipate the teacher wants them to observe. Other clasS."

146 Pad IliAchieving the Desired Curriculum

topic. Inaccuracy or error in the work is quickly
discovered. Teacher's statements and questions that facilitate the
A histogram, for example, communicates a distri- process of comparing:
bution along a continuum, as in tallying the heights of
youngsters in a classroom. A Cartesian graph com- "How are these alike?"
"How are these different?"
municates information that relates one factor to
another, as in using the height of a burning candle as "Compare these on the basis of similarities and
a function of time. differences."
Language arts activities and mathematics, with their "Which is larger/smaller (softer/louder, smoother/
ways of depicting data, should not be separated from rougher, wetter/drier)?"
science instruction. The communication skills of one
content area enhance the skills of the other.
broad, sweeping comparisons, scientists attempt to be
COMPARING exact in their comparisons. The reason is that theories
The scientific thinking process that deals and experiments have reached high levels of preci-
with concepts of similarities and differences sion, and old standards of measures may be inade-
quate. For this reason the standard meter bar, kept in
The process of comparing builds on the process of a temperature-controlled room in France and used
observing. Unfortunately, some people confuse the until 1983 to calibrate secondary standards all over
two: "Observe the similarities and differences be- the world, was replaced by a combination of the exact
tween these two animals." What they mean to say is: known speed of light in vacuum and a very precise
"Compare the similarities and differences." atomic clock. Today, one meter is the distance that a
We can learnabout the shape (or color, sin, pulse of light travels (in a vacuum) in a specified time
texture) of an object by comparing its shape to those interval. Secondary standard bars are calibrated in
of other objects. Objects are separated or put together terms of this fundamental distance. According to the
on the basis of comparable differences or similarities. theory of relativity, the speed of light in a vacuum is
When we do this, we develop more complex concepts known to be exactly the same for all observers. Time
than with simple observations of these objects. For is now measured by atoms rather than by the less
example, youngsters can conceptualize two distinct uniform revolution of the earth.
types of measurement involving length: (1) length as
a property of an object; and (2) length as a linear ORDERING -
distance between two objects or points. The scientific thinking process that deals
To find out more about an unfamiliar natural with patterns of sequence and seriation
phenomenon, scientists often compare it to something
they know well. They learn more about the un- Ordering is the process of putting objects or events
knownthe ways in which it is similar and the ways in a linear format. As such, there are two kinds of
in which it is differentfrom the known. All scien- ordering: sedation and sequencing.
tific measures (length, using rulers; mass, using When scientists use sedate objects or phenomena,
balances; temperature, using thermometers; volume, they place them in order along a continuumfrom
using containers; time, using a stopwatch; and so small to large, rough to smooth, soft to loud, light to
forth) rely on the process of comparing an unknown heavy, sharp to dull, dim to bright, and so on. The
to a known. Thus, when scientists use a ruler to extremes are determined and ranges are established.
measure an object, they are comparing the known Examining frequencies within ranges often reveals
length of the ruler to the unknown dimensions of the patterns that could not be seen by casual observa-
object. When they are finished, they know something tions. For example, counting the number of peas in
about the object that was not known before (e.g., its each pod in a sampling of pods is a way of determin-
length and width). ing the range of the number of seeds produced by pea
The scientist adds a dimension of objectivity to this plants. With a range established and appropriate units
process of comparing. While people often make placed between them on a histogram, tallies for all the

)
Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 147
 CATEGORIZING
Teacher's statements and questions that facilitate the The scientific thinking process that deals
process of ordering: with patterns of groups and classes
"Which came first, second, last?"
"What is the range in the data you gathered?" Categorizing is the process of putting objects or
"In what order did these events take place?" events together using a logical rationale. There are
"Where in the order would you place these (for two kinds of categorizing: grouping and classifying.
inserting in a range)?" When scientists categorize objects or ideas, they do
"Give evidence e when the pattern repeats so in order to compare and communicate information
itself." about them. Leaves, for example, can be grouped
together on the basis of some commonality, such as
type of venation, serration, tip, base, and so forth. A
useful grouping is one that increases understanding of
sample pods provide a frequency distribution within the individual items by recognizing a common
the range of the seeds produced. Looking at the
characteristic among different items. Yellow flowers
distribution reveals information that could not be with five petals, for example, can be placed with all
known by simply looking at peas in pods (e.g., the
yellow flowers, regardless of the number of petals on
natural distribution curve indicates the most and least them; they can be placed with different coloted
likely number of peas in pea pods).
flowers that have only five petals, or they can be
Seriating objects can involve an almost limitless classified only with other yellow, five-petaled flow-
number of properties. Many are evident in scientific ers. Through comparing different systems of classifi-
scales: windspeed scales (e.g., Beaufort's windspeed
cations, scientists can recognize those that are most
scale); temperature scales (Celsius, kelvin, Fahren-
logically consistent, best reflect the history and
heit); elevation scales (below or above sea level); pattern of nature, or best explain natural properties
brightness scales (star magnitudes); tensile strength and relationships.
scales; decibel scales; and the electromagneVe spec-
Conceptualization of principles and laws almost
trum. All of these scales were derived by serially
always follows a systematic compiling, ordering, and
ordering information along a continuum.
categorizing of data. Bodies of knowledge grow from
When events are ordered, they provide a sequence
long-term organizing processes. The botanist, for
that tells a logical story. When scientists sequence
example, works with identified characteristics that
events, they order them along a continuum of time have been corapiled by many botanists for more than
from earliest action to latest action, from the first mo-
a century. By observing many different leaves,
ment to the latt moment. Sequences often tell stories,
comparing them, and describing their characteristics,
usually of two typeseither linear or cyclical. botanists have identified groupings useful in the
Linear stories tell us about the growth and decay of identification and study of leaves.
a plant or animal, the motion of an object, or the
cause and effect of an event. The ordered layers of
sediments containing fossils tell a story of the history Teacher's statements and questions that facditate the
and evolution of life on earth. The order through process of classifying:
which an insect passes through stages tells the story
of the life cycle of an insect. "On what basis would you group these objects?"
"Put together all those that you think belong to-
Cyclical stories tell us about recurring events. The
gether."
water cycle is the story of how water comes to the
earth as rain, snow, and so forth; rises into the atmos- "What is another way in which these minerals can
be categorized?"
phere; and is returned again to the earth. A descrip-
tion of the seasons and the changes which occur "Identify several characteristics you used to classify
these rocks."
through them is a cyclical story. The motions of the
planets around the sun are repeating cyclical se- "What grouping best reflects the evolutionary
quences. history of these animals?"

148 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

1C0
 Scientists in aI fieldsfrom chemistry, to physics,
to astronomy, and so forthuse the categorizing Teachers statements and questions that facilitate the
process to group and classify the objects in their process of relating:
domain of work. "What factors caused the event to take place?"
Young children generally develop in their ability to "Explain why this is a good or inadequate experi-
categorize by first sorting and grouping; that is, by mental design."
putting items together on the basis of a single "State a hypothesis so that it is testable."
property (e.g., color blues in one pile, reds in an- "What is the relationship between the coloration of
other, and yellows in a third pile). Experience is an animal, its environment, and its predators?"
necessary for them to be able to put objects together "Using this line graph, tell the relationship between
on any given characteristic (e.g., the leaves pictured distance and time."
can be grouped on any one of the listed characteris- "Design a study to compare the evaporation rates
tics). As they grow older, gain experience, and of different liquids (e.g., alcohol and water)."
develop more'advanced cognitive capacities, young-
sters begin to classify items, by putting them together
on the basis of more than a single property at a time zebras). The zoologist wonders, "Is there a relation-
(e.g., rocks that contain iron and are volcanic might ship between the coloration and its configuration and
be grouped together on these two common character- the behavior of traveling in herds?" To bring down a
istics and separated from rocks that contain iron but zebra, the lioness must pounce on its back near the
3re sedimentary in origin, and rocks that arc volcanic shoulders, sink her fangs into its neck, then roll off,
but do not contain iron). snapping the neck as she falls (a characteristic
behavior of the lioness). The zoologist finds that the
RELATING lioness accomplishes her task about once in every
The scientific thinking process that deals five tries. If she does not land properly near the
with principles concerning interactions shoulders, she is thrown from the zebra. The zoolo-
gist wonders, "Is there a relationship between her
Seeing relationships between and among things in success rate and the behavior and coloration pattern
our environment is quite different from comparing or of the zebras?" Clearly, the principles derived from
categorizing objects on the basis of their characteris- this setting come about by using one's ability to
tics. Relationships involve interactions, dependencies, recognize and comprehend relationships among
and cause-and-effect events. several thingsin this case, the behaviors and
A zoologist might study lions and learn something coloration of the pmdator and prey, and factors
about the characteristics of the animal, the environ- inherent in the environment. Scientists look for
ment in which it lives, and the animals it cats. But relationships among characteristics and behaviors in
zoologists go beyond the characteristics by determin- order to understand events that take place.
ing relationships among them. The lioness is the main A physics student has a metal ball and a long,
food gatherer in a pride of lions (a characteristic of a inclined grooved track. Having a way to measure the
pride). She sees only shades of gray, no colors (a speed with which the ball reaches the bottom end of
characteristic of the carnivorous mammals). She sits the track, the student wants to investigate the factors
in the tall grasses of the savannah, and through the that influence the speed. First, fixing the angle of
grasses she watches her prey, the zebra, and decides incline of the track and varying the starting point of
when to make her move (a characteristic behavior of the ball, the student fixes the starting point and varies
stalking carnivores). Zebras have black and white the incline angle. The speed is measured each time.
stdpes (a characteristic of the zebra). The zoologist The student finds that the speed depends on both the
asks, "Is there a relationship between what the lioness starting point and the incline angle. But then the
sees through tall grasses and the zebra's coloration student discovers that a long roll along a gentle slope
and stripe configuration?" The zebras travel in herds, gives the same terminal speed as a shorter roll along a
placing sentinels at appropriate places in the herd to steeper slope, as long as the starting point has the
give warning of danger (characteristic behaviors of same height in both cases. What really counts, then, is

Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 149

 is.=xlmiammill11=1111

INFERRING
We cannot experiment directly with galaxies, The scientific thinking process that deals
black holes, quasars, or quarks, but we still know with Ideas that are remote In time and space
a great deal about them. Scientific descriptions of
relationships are always based on the logical Inferences deal with matters that an.: often beyond
the here and now. They are not experienced directly.
arguments that encompass all the data on hand. The events of interest are distant in either time (such
as the inferences paleontologists make about life on
earth in the Paleozoic era), or space (such as are the
thc height of the starting point. Thc direct dependence inferences astronomers make about the origin of the
of speed on height and the less direct relationship universe), or scale (such how electrons behave in
between starting point or incline angle and speed atomic systems). They are established through
establish a basis for understanding conservation of inferential reasoninglogical conclusions made from
energy. a chain of reasoning or answers derived through
In the sciences, information about relationships can reasoning from evidence and premises.
be descriptive (as in the lioness/zebra example) or Long before we sent a probe to Mars, scientists
experimental (as in the inclined plane example). made inferences about the planet. A century ago, the
Many ideas in astronomy are based on description. only data from which inferences could be made came
We cannot experiment directly with galaxies, black from telescopic observations. Mars was described as
holes, quasars, or quarks, but we still know a great the red planet with markings mat some observers
deal about them. Scientific descriptions of relation- thought lookal like canals. Because of the perceived
ships are always based on the logical arguments that canals, some inferences were made about life on
encompass all the data on hand. Mars. More recent technology led to the detection of
Knowledge derived from experimentation requires an atmosphere and the presence of water. And,
that the scientist use the relating process through among other things, it was inferred that Mars has or
Pypothesizing and controlling and manipulating oncc had life on it. Today, our descriptions of Mars
variables. For example, a scientist might determine have become more complex and still more extensive
the factors that influence the rate of swing of a inferences about the planet have been made. The
pendulum by isolating possible factors and testing inference about life on Mars has not yet been con-
them one at a time while holding all others constant. firmed or rejected.
The dentist might consider only the variables of. (I) The establishment of preliminary inferences in a
the weight attached to the pendulum, heavy and light, new context (e.g., Mars) from knowledge already
and (2) the length of the pendulum, long and short. obtained in another context (e.g., Earth), is one of the
The scientist might then set out the four combinations basic reasoning patterns humans Ube to understand
of possible variables: (1) heavy and long; (2) light remote places and events.
and long; (3) heavy and short; and (4) light and short.
The ability to separate variables by exclusion (the
systematic testing of each variable individually while
Teacher's statements and questions that facilitate the
all others are held constant in order to determine
process of Inferring:
which are relevant and which have no effect) is very
powerful. Instead of being closely bound to the "What can you infer from these data?"
immediate experience, the scientist thinks, "Maybe if "What arguments can you give to support your
I changed this, such and such would happen," and prediction?"
then performs the necessary actions to confirm or "Explain how we know about quasars."
reject the supposition. What the scientist tests is a "Under what conditions are we able to extrapolate
hypothesisa reasoned description of relationships, or ioterpolate from data?"
stated so that it can be tested. The test is the "How would you determine how many frogs live in
scientist's deliberate and systematic manipulation of a pond?"
variables.

150 Part lllAchieving the Desired Curriculum

e ... ...
s
. -- . .` r .

Grade
level Science processes Descriptions of content Principles/Examples

K-3 1. Observing Focuses on one-word Static-organizational principles

2. Communicating descriptions, discreet Sea water is salty. Water in most lakes and
3. Comparing ideas rivers is not salty (def-mition by class).
4, Ordering Flowers produce seeds that grow into new
5. Categorizing plants (definition by function).
Machines are devices that make some tasks
easier (definition by function).

3-6 1-5 above, plus Focuses on principles, Active-relational, interactive principles

6. Relating generalizations, laws A force is a push or pull (relational).
Poikilothermic (cold-blooded) animals have
body tempetatures that vary with surrounding
temperatures (relational).
Heat changes water from liquid into gas
(interactive).

6-9 1-6 above, plus Focuses on ideas that Explanatory-predictive, theoretical principles
7. Inferring are not directly observ- Matter is composed of tiny particles that are in
able constant motion. In many substances these are
called molecules (inference).
The characteristics of mineral crystals are the
result of the way their atoms are bonded to-
gether in geometric patterns (inference).
When male and female sex cells combine in
sexual reproduction, equal numbers of chromo-
somes from each parent determine the charac-
teristics, irzluding the sex, of the offspring
(prediction).

9-12 1-7 above, plus Focuses on inventions Usable-applicational principles

8. Applying and technology; con- Selective breeding of plants and animals with
cepts, generalizarions, desirable characteristics results in offspring
principles, laws re- which display these characteristics more
- phrased to suggest use frequently (application).
and application Use of the oceans and ocean resources is a
focus of international conflict as well as
international cooperation (application).
The development and use of more efficient
lighting sourcesfluorescent instead of
incandescent, for exampleis one way of
conserving energy (invention; use).

Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 151

e
 Through evidence and rcasoning, we can make
inferences about the movement of continents. With
those inferences and other inferences from observed Teacher's statements ano questions that facilitate the
process of applying:
phenomena, such as magnetic anomalies, we can
develop a theory of plate tectonics. From inference4 "See who can invent a glider that will stay aloft the
about events in the universe comes a big bang theory. longest time."
We cannake inferences about the shared characteris- "Design a way to keep an ice cube on your desk all
tics of animals and plants and establish a hierarchical day without melting."
classification scheme that gives evidence of evolu- "What political points of view must be considered it
tionary relationshipsa classification scheme of a we are to protect the migration flight paths of birds
higher conceptual order than one created only from over several countries?"
observation. But inferences, no matter how orderly in "What factors must be weighed if experimentation
their derivation, are never final; they must be tested to on animals is to take place?"
determine whether they are true. A valid test involves "How did different lines of evidence confirm a
observations independent of those used to generate theory of continental drift?"
the inference.
Educators must be concerned with implications and
valid inferences in science because inferences involve Applying is a process that puts extensive scientific
knowledge to use. Sometimes that knowledge is used
orderly, connected thinking. Using the inferring
in a practical sc:-,se as in the building of a bridge.
process, studeills learn that the conclusion of an
Sometimes it is used :a tie together very complex
argument is an explicit statement of something that is data into a comprehensive framework or theory. And
implicit in the premises. Its validity, or consistency
sometimes, the goal is to elaborate and extend the
can be certified by logical considerations alone. To
theory.
think well, students need experience in tracing their
Each scientific field of endeavor produces new
thoughts to the sources and then determining the truth
of the source in order to judge its validity. knowledge and understanding. Darwin organiud
many observations and formulated a theory that
APPLYING explained how living organisms change through time.
Einstein showed how the physical world could be
The scientific thinking process by which we understood on the basis of relativity theory. Men-
use knowledge deleev logically ordered the more than 50 different
elements known in his day. His first Periodic Table of
The building of the Golden Gate Bridge in the San the Elements clearly implied the existence of ele-
Francisco Bay Area was a spectacular accomplish- ments not yet identified, and he predicted their atomic
ment. It required hundreds of experts working coop- weights and other important properties.
eratively to put the bridge in place. Structural engi-
neers who knew about expansion and contraction of
metals planned how to construct components so that
they would not warp during the heat of the day nor
buckle during the cold of the night; the bridge needed
to move by expansion and contraction without p. -
disrupting the movement of travelers. Geologists who
knew about the local land formations and the place-
ment of bedrock planned where and how to place the ALL the scientific thinking processes can be used to
pilings on which the weight of the bridge was sup- some extent by individuals of all ages. However,
ported. Meteorologists who knew about the extremes there are periods in child development in which
of local weather conditions contributed the data
particular processes have a higher payoff for learning,
needed to accommodate the sway of the bridge from and there are periods when some processes seem to
winds in any direction. Building the bridge was a contribute little. For example, elementary school
cooperative effort among experts who applied their youngsters are superb at observing, communicating,
knowledge to the task. comparing, ordering, and categorizing. However,

152 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum l-$

although they can make simple inferences (If the Examples of content derived by using the processes
ground is wet everywhere, it must have rained I st for grades three through six:
night), major inferential ideas (structure of atoms, Some plants have been naturally selected and
movements of planets and stars) and comprehensive retain camouflagic characteristics.
theories (evolution, relativity) elude many of*hem.
Heat causes solids to expand.
The major inferential ideas are best taught at the
onset of adolescence or beyond. In view of these The motion of a particle is in a straight line unless
developmental stages, the parts of the scientific acted on by external forces.
thinking processes are best introduced in a particular Light can be diffracted or refracted.
sequence, as Table 1 illustrates. Current electricity travels through some materials
better than others.
Kindergarten Through Grade Three
Physical weathering can break rocks into smaller
The most valuable processes for these grades are pieces.
observing, communicating, comparing, ordering, and
categorizing. Young students are still buildin3 a basic Grades Six Through Nine
mental picture of the world in which they live, and
As youngsters move into adolescence, they become
they arc quite adept at identifying the characteristics
more able to make inferences. They think more about
of objectC-determining similarities and differences
the future and understand more about the past. They
among objects and events, grouping items together
can comprehend concepts that are not represented by
that belong together on some rationale, and communi-
objects and materials. If their earlier activities have
cating to others about what they have done. Students
provided them with appropriate experiences, they can
readily recognize characteristics inherent in objects.
This fimdamental content matter becomes the basis hypothesize, design experiments, predict, and concep-
tualize the laws of science.
for more advanced ideas. In general, the characteris-
tics of objects in any scientific field of endeavor can
Examples of content derived by using the processes
for grades six through nine:
be learned quickly and easily by youngsters at this
agc. Thus, the curriculum in kindergarten and grades Evolution has been going on so long that it has
one through three should emphasize the development produced all the groups and kinds of plants and
of descriptive language through the first four scien- animals now living, as well as others that have
tific thinking processes across all fields of science. become extinct.
Examples of content derived by using the processes Momentum is directly proportional to both mass
for kindergarten throug.i grade three: and speed.
Insects hay e three body parts and six legs as adults. Sound energy is thought of as vibrations Ciat trans
Leaves h ve identifiable characteristics: tips, fer energy in wavelike patterns through molecules.
bases, margins, veins, and shapes. All matter is made up of atoms containing tiny
particles that carry electric charge.
Sounds can be classified on the basis of their char-
acteristics: volume, pitch, quality.
Grades Nine Through Twelve
Light travels in all directions from a source.
Motion can be a source of electricity. As students reach the end of their basic schooling,
the knowledge they have gained can be applied in
various ways. They are able to read about and under-
Gra des Three Through Six
stand new development in the sciences; they compre-
In addition to the processes at which they are so hend the essence of theories, such as evolution,
ept in the earlier grades, youngsters begin to relativity, kinetic/molecular theory, and so on, they
develop the process of relating. Using this process understand the issues related to scientific decision
and building on the facts teamed earlier, youngsters making, and they appreciate the value of scientific
will derive many principles of science. and technological endeavors and, depending on the

1e5 Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 153

endeavors, can build a reasoned case for supporting agement, and pollution control), but it is an essen-
or not supporting them. As adults they can vote tial component of any such resolutions.
wisely on scientific issues, and they are flexible Worldwide dialogue is needed concerning preser-
enough to adapt to new technologies and new ideas vation of resources, wildlife, and so forth for the
that take place in their lifetime. As future voters and welfare of all humankind.
members of an informed, literate public, they can
apply their knowledge in making wise decisions. With the scientific thinking processes in place,
Examples of content derived by using the processes appropriate content can follow. This arrangement
for grades nine through twelve: provides an important way for content to progres.
through the grades. Repetitious instructiontopics
Decision making about scientific endeavors (e.g., taught in essentially the same way with the same
animal experimentation, expensive research en- purpose and content every few yearscan be elimi-
deavors, DNA alterations, genetic engineering) nated, and a foundation for advanced knowledge built
must be viewed from several perspectives at the which, in turn, provides the basis for still more
same time (e.g., economic, political, ethical, advanced knowledge. The progressive introduction of
environmental). processes and content through the grades moves
Science alone cannot resolve the problems inherent students toward adult understanding of the important
in modem society (e.g., conservation, waste man- themes and content inherent in the sciences.

'Example Of a theme progressing through the grades:

Opt
,Kindergarterrihrough Grade-Three
Th-'000ejsres!..00miting,,CommUnicating, CoMparing, Ordering, Categorizing
SA Mpli:Coritent:Liiiing things have identifiable characteristics; thereis great diversity among living
thiOgt
Gia001.1hree Ibrough six
The rrocetwONetving, Communicating, Comparing, Ordering, Categorizing,,plus Relating
SO* Conter44.4vinithings are adapted to their environment forsurvival; various structures of living
things:Operatein Ways Oiat keep them alive and,growing.
Grades:SIX ThroiiihltIline,
TI*EtOcessf*:0110Miti:Cominunicatirig, domparing, Ordering, Categorizing, Relating, plus Inferring
SamPle'foift*:TOktioninchides-g process.*herebY.living things Are naturally selected frongeneration
glierittajiotkplOduiingdeteendints-Wiih different characteristics;.,through geologic time, evolutionary
:proceisOhaveshaPecOhe forms -and glaptations of all the species of plantt arid animals now living, as
,WeltatothekslhathavebeCopeextinet.
A04084110-
, through tvielye,

Iying. .
Thi,Prpcotick:Obserirink;:Cornmunicating, Comparing, Ordering,-Categorizing, Relating, Inferring, plus

Saimle *id; Worldwide- Ogreernents must be made for the preservation of resources and species. The
eharacieristicsofliving things can be altered through manipulation of the DNA structure.

154 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

166
 earth is round, some will have observed that the
_rth is flat with occasional hills, and some will
not have thought too much about the character of
the planet's shape at all. For a teacher to reach all
the students in the class, a unit on the shape and
CHILDREN create meaning for themselves; conceptu- structure of planet earth might be started with an
alization is promoted and made more useful when activity that brings all the students to a concep-
presented in the context of an appropriate theoretical tual understanding of planetary shape. For ex-
structure. Students construct representations of many ample, students could be shown NASA's video
types of knowledge, but these mental maps are clips of the earth from space twice: before
especially powerful in the ways students learn (or fail leaming about the observations and competing
to learn) science concepts. Teachers should consider hypotheses of sixteenth-century seamen and
what concepts students hold about science for at least astronomers, and again afterwards. In the long
three major reasons: (1) to ensure that all students run, grounding students' conceptions through
learn science, they must have conceptually rich ideas activity-based science lessons will work well for
with which to build new knowledge; (2) conceptions all children, including the historically underrepre-
(and misconceptions) about the natural world are sented.
resistant to casual challenges unless new models are
built; and (3) ultimately, students will be using 3. Employ a variety of instructional
Whatever conceptual models they have to make sense techniques to help students achieve
of the world around them. The following recommen- conceptual understanding.
dations will help teachers use students' background
The resistance of students' subtle misconceptions
information as a springboard for leaming new con-
or naive theory, as some have referred to it, about
cepts:
the natural world to educational intervention is
i. Pose questions to determine what iaeas becoming better documented and understood.
students hold about a topic before Generally, students' misconceptions need to be
beginning instruction. challenged through direct experience with situ-
ations that the existing misconception cannot
As a first priority, teachers are encouraged to readily accommodate. Students who do not think
elicit from students their prior knowledge about deeply about the evidence before them often
the subject of study. This procedure will give ignore or discount results that do not conform to
valuable information about students' readiness their existing model.
for a given idea, and it will also reveal what con-
Small-group work, direct-leaming activities, and
ceptions they have about the way things are or
sophisticated questioning strategies are shown to
how things work. It is important for teachers to
be effective tools for replacing the misconcep-
probe deeply for students' understandings, as
tion; traditional science classes consisting of
well as misconceptions, as their first responses
lectures and reading are likely to be ineffective,
are usually intended to get the answer right.
especially for the historically underserved student
2. Be sensitive to and capitalize on populations. For example, students with an
students' conceptions about science. incomplete view of how gases behave under
certain conditions are likely to maintain those
In all science classes, but especially in those at misconceptions if the only instruction they
the elementary grades, teachers can count on receive is reading several pages about the ten-
students to hold diverse world views about dency of hot air to rise. On the other hand, if
nature. Students from a variety of cultural back- students raise questions they have about air and
grounds will bring different experiences and ex- help design and perform investigations that
planations for natural phenomena to the class- address the relationship of temperature and
room. Their ideas should be elicited, discussed, pressure, the teacher can use this opportunity to
and respected. Some students will think that the ensure that all students not only learn more about

Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 155

_TT,
 air as a gas but also learn something about textbook. These reasons underscore the educational
meteorology and space science. maxim that learning by doing is the most effective
4. Include all students in discussions and instructional paradigm. However, our best science
cooperative learning situations. teachers know that experiential lessons must be
planned more carefully than passive modes of in-
Because there are many ways to represent the struction.
workings of the natural world, the teacher must
see that all students are free to express their con- 1. Engage students in science activities by
ceptions in different ways. Discussions among placing them In a position of responsibil-
small groups should be closely monitored so that ity for the learning task.
a dominant voice does not take the opportunity of Many teachers describe their best hands-on
another student to express a similar (correct) activities as "minds-on." Minds-on lessons grip
understanding in another manner. Students students in a way that makes them truly engaged
should be encouraged to challenge and reformu- in the action. Students actively process the infor-
late observations and statements that are made mation revealed to them in direct experiences,
about the subject at hand. The open, honest and they demonstrate their new understandingiin
exchange of ideas must be as readily acceptable discussions with other students. The most directly
to the teacher as to the students (and their par- observable clue that students are engaged in the
ents).
task is that they control the learning episode.
Whether the minds-on activity is hands-on or a
simulation presented through electronic (or some
Section II The Role othire-Ct other medium of) learning, the engaged soldent
.6 Experience in Science has the power to manipulate some aspect of what
Learning' is happening. The test for an engaging hands-on
experience is whether the student is controlling
the situation or vice versa.
For example, upper elementary grade students
MUCH has been written about the need for students might be asked to build a model house from
to conduct hands-on investigations in learning paper, including windows madeof clear cello-
science. The reasons are many, but they essentially phane. With some of the windows covered and
fall into three major categories: (1) many students others open, students place their houses in direct
will not truly understand the science they are sup- sunlight to determine which students' houses heat
posed to learn if the exposure is solely verbal; most rapidly. The task itself requires manipula-
(2) students learn the processes and techniques of tion of scientific instruments (thermometers),
science through the replication of experiments; and control of variables, data collection and interpre-
(3) students will enjoy and retain the science they tation, and small-group discussion. Students'
learn front a laboratory activity iiore than from a engagement in the task can be assessed by
providing one or more open-ended investigations
'Two excellent references arc available to help teachers involve all into the effect of other variables. Students can be
students in activity-based science. The California Department of
Education publishes an Enrichment Opportunities Guide: Resource for
asked to identify those variables, then given the
Teachers of Students in Math and Science (1988). This guide lists opportunity to design and conduct independent
activides for studenti(and teachers) interested in participatory science investigations to test the various factors involved
learning. 03pies of the guide are available from the Bureau of Publica-
dens, Sales Unit, California Department of Education, P.O. Box 271,
in the process of passive solar energy.
Sacramento, CA 95802-0271. The National Science Resource Center, a
collaborative effort of the Smithsonian Institution, and the National 2. Provide students with experimental prob-
Academy nf Science have recently published Science for Children. lem solving when the result has direct
Resources for Teachers. This anthology of curriculum materials, meaning for them.
supplemmtary resources, and information sources is available through
National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washmgton, Along with the issue of student activity comes the
DC 20418.
necessity for students to care about the hands-on

156 Part 111Achieving the Desired Curriculum Ih

 activity in which they participate. Students who assist students to develop their abilities to communi-
are working to solve problenis in which they have cate effectively as they accumulate knowledge and
some Mvestmenr are more likely to learn and reach conclusions.
retain important concepts. Science education has For these beliefs and actions to be developed,
an enormous opportunity to invite students to
values and ethics must be an integral part of the sci-
learn about their world so that students can come ence curriculum. Science teachers should be sup-
tonnderstand what is important for them to learn ported with instructional Materials and curriculum
and why. that help students:
1. Idently.theoommonly shared values of
Seciton E Values and Ethics2 the scIrtlfIC}communIty.
The dis9iplinekaf=science constitute a community
As a human endeavor, science has a profound of indiyiduals Sharing a general set of common
impact on society. Values and ethics are important values:The research geneticist, the chemist, and
components of science teaching and must be consid- the oceanographer all practice science, using the
ered by teachers, textbook authors, and curriculum same generally shared scientific values. The set
writers. Students can become scientifically literate of shared values is likely to include the scientific
citizens responsible for themselves and the world's values Of curiosity, open-mindedness, objectivity,
future only if they are well prepared to assume that and s Jcepticism.
responsibility. In a scientific and technological For example, the value of objectivity often arises
context; their ethical judgments will result in respon- when immature students (regardless of grde
sible decisions using sound values and scientific 1ey4),fmd.it easier to ignore data they have
knowledge to make those decisions. In a personal and 'collected if they conflict with those collected by
societal context, their ethical judgments will follow the majority of other students, especially if, in so
the search for knowledge demonstrated repeatedly ignoring, they are able to arrive at the "correct"
through the history of science. The State Board of answer to a problem. If students are expected to
Education avers in Moral and Civic Education and roll marbles down an inclined plane covered with
Teaching About Religion: different materials, one can expect a certain
Telling the truth and expecting to be told the truth are regularity in reported results. One student,
essential to the development of (1) personal self- however, might observe and record discrepant
esteem and basic friendships; and (2) genuine data. If the student misrepresents the data (or
understanding of our society, its history, and the igpores them in reporting) in order to conform
democratic process. A commitment to telling the wi1iclassmates, hot only has that student missed
truth embraces the conscientious pursuit and scrutiny the: int of honest scientific reporting, but
of evidence. Students must learn to respect the Perlidps the entire class has missed the opportu-
processes involved in the search for truth. They niryito investigate the effect of differing angles of
should learn to identify and assess facts; distinguish inClinktion, differing effects of applied force, or
substantial from insubstantial evidence; separate the
*.iateVer other variable might account for the
process of searching for truth from the acceptance of
propaganda; and examine in a constructive and AfierepasLesults. Students must be encouraged
unbiased manner controversial subjects such as poli- , to report all data they collect in an activity and to
tics, ethics, and religion. School personnel should explain them inian honest and ethical manner
7c(eyen if it means admitting to procedural error).
2In dealing vnth issues of values and ethics in the saence classroom, Proiiidtd iclentlflc values In the class-
teachers and other readers are referred to the State Board of Education's
publication Moral and Civic Education and Teaching About Religion. This
document examines the legal and educational responsibilities for address 'Students best understand a scientific value and
ing moral values (and ttlated topics) in the classroom and is available
from the Bureau of Publications, Sales Unit, Califomia Department of
how it is applied when they recognize and apply
Educat ice, P.O. Box 271, Sacramento, CA 95802-0271. it themselves. For example, it would be hypocriti-

Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 157

 economic and societal constraints in caring for
Students must learn to respect the processes patients. The central issue could be h mi an
involved in the search for truth. They should individual and society make decisions about
learn to identify and assess facts; distinguish going forward with heart transplants.
substantial from insubstantial evidence; separate
the process of searching for truth from the accep-
tance of propaganda; and examine in a construc-
tive and unbiased manner controversial subjects
such as politics, ethics, and religion.
SCIENCE is directed toward a progressively greater
understanding of the natural world. Technology is
cal for teachers to laud efforts to protect native related to science as a human endeavor, but the
habitats and then use rare wild specimens in the direction is toward using accumulated human knowl-
classrooms. Science teachers should not create a edge from science and other fields in order to control
market for animals that are collected from the and alter the way things work. Technology is a means
wild; rather, they should insist that supply houses by which society develops and advances. Teaching
certify that dissection specimens are raised with a Science, Technology, and Society (STS)
explicitly for that purpose. In class, teachers approach is invariably interdisciplinary, with strong
should take time to present their position on this connections to historysocial science, mathematics,
issue and other sensitive issues related to the literature, and the arts.
humane-treatment of all living things. Just as the thematic approach (see Chapter 2)
brings together disciplines within the sciences, an
3. Develop rational decision-making skills STS approach unites larger fields of study. Students
applicable to major issues of personal who learn with peers and teachers about the inextri-
and public concern. cable connections among science, technology, and
Any thorough learning experience regarding society have a very different experience from those
values and ethical considerations makes use of who learn out of context. Imagine the English class
rational decision-making skills. Students need to that teaches rules of syntax and never sees them
analyze issues by resolving ambiguities, taking applied in literature or joumalism; a mathematics
into account the most relevant values of the class where algorithms are drilled outside meaningful
decision makers, balancing the advantages and problem-solving situations; or a history class filled
drawbacks of alternative solutions, and project- with events, but without the cultures and characters
ing the likely consequences of a particular that make them come alive. These subjects would be
choice. By combining such a decision-making little more than skill-driven shells of the rich disci-
procedure with pertinent scientific and techno- plines that arc their heritage. Teaching science in the
logical information, students move toward context of STS helps reveal the situations in which
achieving scientific literacy. science has meaning. Science teachers should:
A major purpose of experiences in decision 1. Demonstrate how the enterprise of sci-
making is to stimulate students to become not ence operates in the United States and
only lifelong learners but also scientifically elsewhere in the world.
literate citizens, seriously concerned with the
The scientific enterprise embodies societal con-
interrelationships of science, technology, and
cern for advances in understanding the natural
society. For example, the topic of heart trans-
world. Highly technological nations, like Japan,
plants could challenge students to research a
place a high priority on scientific and technologi-
variety of issues, including the latest surgical
cal advancement. This priority is evident in both
techniques, host rejection and other technical the private and public sectors, where huge invest-
complications, trends in patient prognosis, and
ments are made to ensure the expansion and

158 PartinAchieving the Desired Curriculum i 70

 refinement of scientific and techrllogical devel- California's science and technology economy
opments. Much can be learned about the values ensures a range of opportunities for students who
of a society by investigating the relative priorities graduate with the interest and appropriate back-
and tradeoffs in these large-scale investments. ground. In fact, for California it is imperative that
all students be given an opportunity to compete
Students can experience how society makes deci-
for the types of jobs that are and will be available.
sions among competing alternatives by simulat-
In addition, there are many hobbies, avocations,
ing complex decisions involving space explora-
and interests that relate to studies in science and
tion. Students can form groups representing
technology. Regardless of our students' back-
diverse constituencies for and against expanding
grounds, there is likely to be some outlet for
funding for the development of space technolo-
creativity, aesthetics, and enjoyment that appeals
gies. By rehearsing their group's own point of
to each of them. Such interests should be high-
view, as well as those of competing groups, they
lighted and nurtured as part of the comprehensive
can learn the interrelationships and tradeoffs for
science curriculum.
future investments in space exploration.
Using civil engineering as an activity base,
2. Examine the array of job prospects and students could form design teams that would
interest areas within the science and simulate the planning of some large (or signifi-
technology arena. cant) construction project. It could be construc-
tion of a local dam (where they would do an
Science and technology will have an increasingly environmental impact study); a bridge (where
significant impact on careers and avocations in they would investigate span designs); or a multi-
science-related fields. Every major projection of purpose sports stadium (where they would
employment markets predicts the need for scien- consider seating options, traffic patterns, and so
tifically literate job seekers. The Department of forth).
Labor estimates that 50 to 60 percent of the new
job opportunities will be in information and 3. Describe how the products of science
science/technology (sci/tech) fields. and technology change society.
Because California has about 12 percent of the The products of scientific endeavors are readily
U.S. population and employs over 20 percent of available to people in our culture, and students
the science and technology labor force, well over should understand the origins and implications of
60 percent of our students need to be educated to these products. Developments in agriculture,
participate in that job market. The diversity of transportation, allied health fields, and design and

"Science and technology spring from two different but equally important activities. One Ls the searchfor
knowledge and understanding, the second is the application of knowledge to satisfy human needs."
Albert Baez

"Aviation and space technologies have unlimited potential, not only for meeting industrial, commercial,
and leisure needs, but also for offering insights and solutions to scientific problems and challenges. By
expanding our knowledge and understanding, aerospace and aviation education can extend our reach
and inspire our young people, the builders and inventors of the future."
President Ronald Reagan, July 8, 1983,
in a statement to the Third Biennial World Congress on Aerospace Education

; 'al1 ...
1
.r. Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 159
 The waterproof properties of the sap extracted from the rubber tree
Quechua Indians of South America. While heating the was known for centuries by the
sap, the Indians added sulphur to make the
rubber stronger and more resilient and remove its stickiness
and foul odor. This same process of vul-
canization was accidentally rediscovered by Charles Goodyear
in 1839, and a multiplicity of new
inventions and practical applications followed.

manufacturing are all part of the sci/tech land- 3. Reinforce conceptual understanding
scape. The benefits and costs of these fields are rather than rote learning.
important areas of investigation for the science
student. The standard of living we currently enjoy Conceptual understanding requires higher-level
is a direct product of science and technology. The thinking processes than lower-level recall and
tradeoffs for such a highly consumption-oriented thus requires more in-depth experience and
culture must be understood and appreciated for reinforcement in the classroom. Larger science
all those who live in this society. Failure to concepts can be embedded in longer-term instruc-
understand science results in the type of illiteracy tional events (two- and three-week units) where
that leads to educational, economic, and political daily lessons include experiential Icar.l.g and
disenfranchisement. continually reinforce the overarching theme(s)
and related science concept(s). Conceptual
Section G 'Elementary School Science understanding is strengthened when students
draw connections from concepts being studied to
daily experience, novel situations, and previously
THE elementary school science curriculum holds learned ideas.
great potential for exploring natural phenomena and 4. Organize an articulated scope and se-
technological applications in science. At a time when quence at the school level.
children are most curious about the world, teachers
can capitalize on this joy of learning in ways that Principals, other school site leaders, teachers, and
make science enjoyable, interesting, and meaningful. parents should jointly plan a sequence of science
Elementary science programs, as far as possible, must: units according to which each grade level treats
some significant portion of the total science
1. Provide a balanced curriculum in the curriculum for kindergarten through grade six.
physical, earth, and life sciences. Once the curriculum has been divided among
All three disciplines should have laboratory grade levels, and teachers are clear on their
activities that involve students in "doing science." curricular expectations, adequate planning
Each subject should receive roughly one-third of ensures that teachers have the professional
the total class time for any given year. development, instructional materials, and class
time to teach the agreed-on science curriculum.
2. Show students that science is enjoyable. Of the total time spent learning science, at least
40 percent should be involved in activity-based
If the joy of learning permeates science classes, lessons.
students will be eager to learn. The motivation
process begins with teachers modeling a fascina- 5. Arrange the classroom setting and stu-
tion with scienc_ and its dynamic presence in our dent grouping to optimize positive atti-
daily lives. The motivation process continues and tudes for learning science.
expands as students are given more and more op-
There are many accommodations that can trans-
portunities to explore the natural and technologi- form the usual classroom setting into one that en-
cal world.
courages curiosity and motivates students to learn

160 Part illAchieving the Desired Curriculum

 more science. Classroom tables can be arranged encouraged to ask volunteers questions that
to facilitate small-group work on dnect science build on what the students already know or have
experiences. Science equipment and materials, as learned in classroom science activities. Califor-
well as reference books and periodicals, should nia offers an array of science museums and
be visible and within easy reach of the students. other informal science education settings where
Bulletin boards can display the results of the most students can revel in the many areas of inquiry
current unit of study, from student work to related and examination. Outdoor schools offer a won-
articles, including science careers and technol- derful resource for science instruction; all upper
ogy. A number of study areas in the room can be elementary students should have the opportunity
devoted to,science learning, making it clearly to spend a week in these outdoor settings.
evident that this is an environment that encour-
ages questioning and inquiry. Students should
have opportunities to work in cooperative groups, Section H Middle School Science
perform investigations, manipulate science
equipment, and follow safety precautions. These
groups can be organized to assume responsibility THE most effective middle school science program is
for their learning. composed of five semesters of science coursework
(during grades six through eight). There should also
6. Integrate science with other subjects. be another semester of health and other important
Scientific literacy could receive a considerable adolescent topics as well as electives for interested
boost if science were used as a vehicle to students. According to the most common middle-
enhance reading, mathematics, and the arts. The school configurations now in use, them should be:
use of sciencc to teach other fields has been (1) four semesters in traditional seventh and eighth
shown to be quite successful in many exemplary grade junior high schools; (2) six semesters in a sixth,
elementary science programs. Science reading seventh, and eighth grade pattern; and (3) six semes-
should be encouraged and integrated in the ters for schools using a seventh, eighth, and ninth
overall cuniculum. During these integrated grade pattern. In short, all middle grades students
lessons featuring two or more subjects, it is should be taking science each year.
essential that science maintain its rigor and In most curricular areas, middle school programs
uniqueness as a field of study. For example, are seen as transitions from a sound basis provided
students who sketch for the dual purposes of during elementary grades to the specialization of the
refining their artistic skills and furthering their high school years. Articulation through regular
botanical knowledge need to observe (and discussions among staff and administrators from
perhaps classify) several types of leaves care- elementary and middle schools is strongly recom-
fully before rendering them in an aesthetic man- mended. Middle school science programs, as far as
ner that is also botanically correct. possible, must:
7. Make full use of community resources. 1. Introduce students to the connections
Community resources should be enlisted to par-
among the disciplines of the physical,
ticipate in elementary sciencelessons. Students
earth, and life sciences.
who may have less outside experience to draw During the middle school years, students should
on are enriched by community resource agen- have the cognitive ability to understand that de-
cies and their personnel. The local grocer, fire velopments in one field can have major implica-
fighter, florist, or farmer can add a real-world tions for another. Nowhere is this more true than
dimension to a science experience. Field trips to in the natural sciences. For example, if a local
local parks, gardens, streams, or other science business causes a toxic spill in a nearby creek,
related settings can illustrate concepts or ideas students can examine what effects toxic chemi-
introduced in science lessons. As with other cals will have on the soil, plants, and animals of
types of science study, students should be the area.

7r; Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 161

 Often, the physical sciences are not well devel-
oped in middle school science programs. It is es- able out-of-class work. Science projects increase
the possibility that students will take responsibil-
pecially timely to introduce basic concepts in
ity for what they learn. As they develop this
chemistry and physics to these students. Instruc-
growing sense of responsibility for learning, they
tional materials can provide helpful hints to the
middle school science teacher on how to address should be encouraged to seek assistance from
a more integrated science program in both lecture peers, parents, teachers, and others in the commu-
and laboratory activities. nity. Whether schools adopt a project orientation
to their science program or not, at least 40
2. Expand the role of the science processes. percent of the class time should be spent on
activity-based lessons.
As students mature during this period of adoles-
cence, they become ready to tackle mom sophisti- 5. Make full use of community resources.
cated thinking prwesses than was possible earlier
Middle grade students are also capable of creat-
in their education. Activities should raise stu-
ing their own field trips. From the physics of
dents' expectations for the level of thinking of
skateboarding to the design and manufacture of
which they are capable. Students should be able
new devices or inventions or to the study of local
to appreciate the connections among disciplines
fauna in a natural environment, these students can
and to apply higher-level thinking processes in
and should be challenged to learn what they want
their study of science.
on their own, as extensions of material leamed in
3. Motivate students to take and learn more class. They should be encouraged to visit the high
science. school they will attend and sit in on laboratory
A major goal of middle school science is to activities to get a sense of what type of science
maximize students' exposure to high-interest study lies ahead. And, of course, these students
science topics so that they will be eager to enroll should be given responsibility for selecting and
in a variety of science classes in high school. inviting guest lecturers on topics of interest.
These students, more than those in any other age Many community agencies are open to participat-
group, need to see a direct relationship between ing in classes where adolescents care about what
science educaticn and their daily life. Courses they learn. As students take initiative in learning
designed to help students leam about themselves science, they will learn more about their commu-
(adolescence in human biology) and their world nity and possible future vocations.
(environmental/earth science) are highly motivat- 6. Establish the relevance of science les-
ing to these students. Science lessons should be sons outside the school context.
highly experiential, manipulative, and laboratory
oriented. Students should be working in small Middle grade students often challenge teachers
groups, cooperating on peer-group projects, and about the relevance of a particular topic or
solving laboratory-oriented problems. concept. These challenges ought to be seen as re-
quests for the relevancy of science to students'
4. Create long-term projects with students. daily lives, and students should not be put off
Consistent with the recommendations from with an answer like, "You will need to know this
Caught in the Middle,' students in the middle in order to do well in high school."
grades are ready to assume responsibility for a If students are to take responsibility for their
larger share of their learning. Middle grade leaming, they ought to be given reasonable
science teachers can offer students the opportu- justification for what they are learning. Fortu-
nity to select projects that are consistent with the nately, the middle school science curriculum
curriculum for the course and involve consider- abounds with material of high interest. It may
Me California Department of Education published Caught in the Middle,
)rove useful to entreat these students to develop
a description of the middle grades reform initiative. It is available from the the rationale themselves. In this way, they can
Bureau of Publications, Sales Unit, California Department of Education, begin to model the self-sufficiency towards
P.O. Box 271, Sacramento, CA 95802-0271. leaming they will use throughout their adult lives.

162 .1,''1I ,i
-'* 1

Part IllAchieving the Desired Curriculum

 the elementary schools. At the higher grade
Sedon I High School Science levels, a much greater degree of understanding,
performance, and descriptive ability is expected,
as well as a far greater emphasis on quantitative
THE secondary science curriculum is less subject to reasoning. For example, secondary students study
mandate than that of the elementary school. Many the melting of ice, which they saw first in the
students take a minimum of science courses in high early grades, by investigating how water purity
school, and no textbook adoption process, beyond affects the freezing point, how energy changes
legal compliance criteria, is used beyond the grade may be measured, how different forms of ice may
eight. Strong traditions exist regarding what high exist at different temperatures, and what effects
school biology, chemistry, and physics courses are caused by trapped gases.
should be like. Regardless, many excellent options
for teachers and students have been developed. 2. Lead In a coherent fashion to greater
Science teachers, with support from administrators, opportunities for all students.
must reexamine all portions of the program in the All science coursos should encourage students to
light of modem trends, and needs. understand that there are yet more exciting things
An effective science program is more than a to discover and important concepts to learn. Both
curriculum or a textbook or a set of laboratory college- and employment-bound students should
exercises. It is science as experienced and understood take courses beyond the state-mandated two years
by the students and taken by them beyond the class- because all courses have been designed to en-
room. The science department should be concerned, courage students to become involved in more ad-
of course, with the curriculum offerings and the vanced science. Technology-based programs are
pathways that individual students follow through part of the advanced curriculum and have been
secondary school, but also with the effectiveness of designed to reinforce basic science understanding
the instruction and the degree to which attempts to as well as to explore specific technological areas.
integrate within and beyond the discipline of science
The science department should work closely with
become part of the student's life and experience.
those responsible for special groups of students to
The process of science as an aesthetic pursuit and
be sure that all students have the opportunity to
an effective tool with the power to both create and
experience a challenging and developmentally
solve problems must be apparent to graduates from
significant science curriculum. Possible organiza-
high school. At each school, science teachers (and
tion plans for science programs in high school are
other faculty) must ask for the leadership, time, and
presented in the chart that follows. Courses in the
budgetary resources to perform ongoing review and
high school science program should be designed
improvement of the program. A secondary school
specifically to allow students to shift from one
science program will accomplish the following:
sequence to another. For this to happen, science
1. Build on a solid foundation of science in- departments must be more detailed in the rela-
struction in kindergarten through grade tionship of one course to another. For too long
eight. only students in the four-year mathematics
sequence met prerequisites for physics enroll-
In an exemplary school, science teachers work
ment. As a consequence, physics enrollment in
together within the department with school ad-
California in the 1987-88 school year lagged
ministrators and with district curriculum commit-
behind the national physics enrollment pattern by
tees and administrators, to create articulated
about 33 percent. Nationally, about 20 percent of
science programs. Secondary science instruction
graduating seniors have taken physics, while in
and what precedes it are seen to be working in
California only 13 percent have taken physics.
harmony to create a steady accumulation of
science knowledge,science processes, and Science departments are encouraged to develop
conceptual understanding. Such a curriculum is pathways for all students to be able to take
designed to revisit all the concepts and provide physics and chemistry, even if the pathways are
further experience with processes introduced in nonquantitative. In fact, many science educators

Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 163

175
 at the secondary and college levels prefer concep-
biology and chemistry and more than three times
tual physics and chemistry courses over the more as much time studying physics as his or her
quantitative courses. The following chart demon- American counterpart. Notice that the ratios are
stratcs connections among pathways for students even higher when you compare years spent on
with diffeting entry points. (Of course, there are each subject:
many other possible combinations within and
beyond thc current tradition of single-subject,
Time Spent on Etiology, Chemistry, and Physics
five-hours-per-week science classes.)
US USSR PRC
General Ouantitative Conceptual
Grads sequence sequence sequence Biology 180 hrs.321 hrs. 256 hrs.
year 6.years 4 yarn
9 Physical Earth science Earth science
science or elective* or elective* Chemistry 180 hrs. 323 hrs. 372 his.
1 yea 4 years 4 years
10 Life science Biology Conceptual
Physics 180 hrs: 492 hrs. 500 hrs.
physics
1 year 5 years 5 years
11 Conceptual Quantitative Conceptual
chemistry chemistry chemistry
12 Conceptual Quantitative In accordance with the NSTA proposal, a pos-
Biology
physics physics sible scenario for redesigning the California
sccondary school scicncc cuniculum is illustrated
in thc table on the following page. This table
*Science electives might include oceanography, astronomy,
ecology, and so fOrth.
outlines just one of many possible designs for
changing secondary school science. Coordination
is essential if thcsc components are to bc learned
An even broader xeform of thc high school cur- properly. And, of course, any such broad changes
riculum has been proposed by the National in curricula would pose significant staffing,
Science Teachers Association. In "Essential scheduling, and other problems. But change can
Changes in Secondary School Science: Scope,
come only from exploring what is ideal and pos-
Sequence, and Coordination," NSTA Executive sible and working from there to what is practi-
Director Bill Aldridge writes: cable.
The fundamental problem with high school Science faculty should integrate the science
biology, chemistry, and physics courses is that curriculum so that students fully understand thc
they are not coordinated, are highly abstract and
theoretical, do not spend enough time on each
interconnectedness and interdependence of the
subject, and do not use correct pedagogy. In traditional disciplines. Less discipline-oriented
short, we never give students the chance to courses help students to understand that basic
understand science.... principles of physics, chcmistry, and biology
By contrast, consider the secondary school level
have a common foundation, and that applications
of these principles constitute most of modern-day
science courses offered in the USSR and the
People's Republic of China. In both countries, science and technology. For example, a biology
allyes all students take several years of class examines the physics of motion and the
biology, chemistry, and physics. And essentially concept of work and machines when discussing
all children learn these subjects successfully.... bones and muscles; a chemistry class reviews
As you can see in [the accompanying table], the digestion and biood chemistry when discussing
average student in the USSR and China [PRCI acids and bases; a physics class investigates the
spends almost twice as much time studying structure of the human and other animal eycs
whcn discussing refraction, light, and color theory.

164 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

3. Help students understand the nature of limitations of science in addressing societal
scienceIn particular, its experimental, issues as they learn how to use their scientific
nondogmatic nature and the methods by knowledge and skills to make decisions and
which progress Is made. judgments about important matters for present
society and the future of the planet earth.
Students should practice an ethical understanding
of the responsibilities of science in their own Science and social science teachers work together
laboratory and other investigations. Honest and to make science relevant for students by consider-
clear observation and reporting are rewarded. ing the social impacts of science and technology
Inadequate.recording, misrepresentations, or clear and the need for all citizens to be responsible
dishonesty are actively discouraged and are world inhabitants. Major issues, such as the
considered unacceptable in science. Dilemmas impact of human population growth on other
existing in modem science are examined and species and on world resources and environ-
debated in the classroom. Students understand the mental deterioration, are to be discussed in an
limitations of measurements and observations and open manner by all students, not just those
learn how to communicate clearly the true choosing science careers.
meaning and limits of investigatory activities. The science curriculum in all science courses,
without exception, provides opportunities for
4. Develop in students a strong sense of the interaction; students participate in model debates
interrelationship between science and and forums on such public issues as water use, air
technology and an understanding of the pollution, gene splicing, and biological species
responsibility of scientists and scientifi- conservation. These exercises employ proper
cally literate individuals to both present data, gathering from both science experiments
and future societies. and surveys. Teachers from valious disciplines
In the exemplary school, teachers assist students work together to help students learn valid meth-
and
to appreciate the implications of the power ods for data acquisition, analysis, and reporting.

A Proposed Science Curriculum

for Grades Seven Through Twelve In California
.
Hours per week,.by gracle level
0
Total hours spent
7 8 9 10 11 12 on science
Subject

Biology 2 2 1 1 1 1 288

Chemistry 1 1 2 2 1 1 288

Physics 1 1 1 1 2 2 288

Eatth science 1 1 1 1 1 1 216

_.
Total hOuts per. week 5 5 5 5 5 5

Emphasis Descriptive, Empirical, Theoretical,

phenomeno- semi- abstract f
logical quantitative

177 Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 165

 5. Foster each student's ability to act as an the lack of specific mathematical power is not
independent investigator and thinker seen as an excuse or barrier to avoid exploring
rather than a "recipe follower."
science concepts.
High school students should be responsible for
their own science education. Students should Computers are used in a variety of ways in the
leave class with questions as often as with an- exemplary science classroom. Mainly, they are
perceived as a useful tool for students in expand-
swers and learn to optain answers from a variety
ing their ability to gather and organize informa-
of sourceslibrary books and journals, video-
tion. Simulations and modeling programs are used
tapes, computer data bases, parents, community
just as they are in science investigations. Science
members, and other students. They should learn
to work effectively alone and as members of co- classrooms have access to data bases by computer
operative learning groups, where they have had network and a laser disk system that allows
students to observe experiments that cannot be
opportunities to play different roles. In the labora- done in the classroom.
tory they can organize work in groups, arc moti-
vated to complete experiments, create profes- 7. Provide an expanded view of science-
sional-looking records of what happens, and are related careers.
responsible for their own safety, understanding
the need for personal protection and mature Students should understand what science-related
behavior. Students should spend at least 40 careers are available to them and what courses
they need to prepare for these careers. Science,
percent of their time on practical activities
English, and mathematics teachers, as well as
designed to foster manipulative skill development
as well as higher-order thinking. counselors, necd to work together to inform and
place students in science classes and to see that
6. Reinforce basic tools of language and female and minority students are equitably repre-
mathematical communication. sented, especially in more advanced science
Science faculty within schools must work closely classes. The importance of education beyond high
with their colleagues in other disciplines to help school is emphasized for all students, whether at a
community college, technical college, or four-year
students see the overall plan in the high school
university. Students recognize that being a teacher
curriculum. Communication tools should be of science is a worthwhile and rewarding experi-
emphasized by having English teachers read and
grade science reports for grammar and style, ence. To show students the wide range of opportu-
while science teachers suggest topics for English nities in science, teachers have found ways to visit
businesses, industries, and research laboratories
class assignments. Science and language arts
teachers could create avenues for students to read and to arrange for visits to the classroom by
scientists from academia, government, medicine,
and discuss literature relevant to science. Drama
business, and industry. Students experience the
classes offer opportunities for students to explore
enthusiasm of males and females of all ethnic
historical figums in science: Galileo or Marie
Curie, for example. In this way students learn backgrounds working in careers at all levels, from
the technician to the laboratory director.
about the importance of environment and person-
ality in science as well as the brilliance of discov- Teachers should recognize that reading about
ery. scientists in books in itself may not generate much
interest or connection. Hearing only about science
Lessors in algebra and science can be co-taught
superstars may give too unrealistic a picture and
so students see mathematics in action; at the ad-
imply that all persons working in science are
vanced levels, probability, statistics, trigonome-
geniuses. Teachers can emphasize that many
try, and calculus am presented in the context of
science experiments. No student is expected to individuals, now and in the future, will make their
living in science or science-related employment.
use mathematics beyond his or her level of under-
Students in all science classes should have such
standing, but science is uso' to motivate the
presentation of more advanced mathematics, and opportunities explained to them, not just those
who major in science.

166 Pait illAchieving the Desired Curriculum

 Teaching Science to the Historically
-teaching All 8ti.jdents75
Underrepresented
By all reports and analyses, females, minority
THE demographic trend of the California school groups (with the exception of some Asian ethnic
population is on a collision course with the scientific groups), ar.i persons with disabilities are under-
illiteracy rate. The populations of minority and at-risk represented in undergraduate and graduate study,
youth are increasing, along with the number of research, industry, and other scientific enterprises.
dmpouts and graduates without soli(' backgrounds in The many reports addressing this situation document
science and technology. This state cannot afford a the shortcomings of the system but do little to treat
citizenry or woik force composed of individuals the problem or its causes. Fortunately, there are
lacking the scientific literacy to compete in a techno- individuals and pilot programs working to help
logically sophisticated economy. While the economic youngsters overcome barriers that keep them from
incentives for scientific literacy are compelling, they succeeding. The successes of dedicated professionals
arc not the only force driving public schools toward 3 who believe and regularly demonstrate that all chil-
greater emphasis on science learning. More than ever, dren can achieve lead to the recommendation that
voters are asked to make difficult choices between teachers should:
development and environmental issues. Consumers
arr, besieged by advertisements and counterclaims 1. Model positive attitudes about all stu-
about energy efficiency, competing technologies, and dents' successes in mathematics and
other aspects of OX process of product selection. science.
In a technologically advanced culture, the scientifi-
cally illiterate are disallowed entry into educational, The most powerful force in helping the under-
economic, and political arenas. As women and represented to achieve is the consistent belief that
minorities become larger segments of the California they can succeed. Teachers are especially effec-
work force, they are less well repiesented in the fields tive in promoting positive attitudes about stu-
of science and technology. Science teachers are now dents' abilities and achievements. From the start,
assuming greater responsibility for helping females teachers must demonstrate that every child in the
and minorities learn to succeed in these fields (as well classroom can make a significant contribution to
as in mathematics). With co.,eems of domestic equity a lesson, and the conscientious classroom teacher
and international competitiveness, science educators draws out students who may be reticent. Mean-
must help ensure that all students have an equal ingful recognition from a caring teacher can spark
opportunity to succeed in science-related endeavors. interest and enthusiasm and reveal students'
The two sections that follow show how science natural abilities.
teachers can help overcome societal and cultural
Th,', use of role models in science instruction
factors that mitigate against success of the historically
cannot be underestimated. While teachek and in-
underrepresented. In the first section, there are
class speakers provide the most impact on
general strategies for working with femaleb art1
students, videotapes and other supplemental
minorities (especially Olacks, Hispanics, and Ameri-
learning materials can readily demonstrate the
can Indians). The second section presents strategies
expanding presence of females, minorities, and
for working with linguistic minorities.
persons with disabilities in science careers and
avocations. Role models who speak of their early
motivation and preparation are very effective in
With concerns of domestic equity and interna- translating personal experience into touchstones
tional competitiveness, science educators must for students with interest in science and technol-
help ensure that all students have an equal oppor- ogy. Above all, role models prove that histori-
tunity to succeed in science-related endeavors cally underrepresented studerns can succeed in
highly technological fields.

Chapter 6Ccience Processes and Teaching 167

1 79
 2. Prepare students well in the mathematics 4. Build parent involvement and peer recog-
and language arts. nition programs.
Comprehensive programs in English-language The same sociocultural forces that create barricrs
arts and mathematics are much broader and
to the interest in science of females, minorities,
deeper than reading and computation tools, but at
and studcnts with disabilities can be turned
some level students need to manipulate text and
around to help them succeed in scientific and
numeric symbol systems in order for them to
technical fields. Perhaps the most persuasive in-
succeed in science. The development of such
fluences for and against learning science are the
tools should not be seen as prerequisite to sci-
normative mores and values about science and
ence, any more than they are prerequisite to
technology. Homes and neighborhoods that are
literary appreciation or problem solving. Learn-
ing science can occur simultaneously with such disenfranchised from the world of science and
technology pass along this indifference and
tool development. And, in fact, science is often a
ignorance to children. This trap is especially
source for this development because it capitalizes
destructive to the opportunities of females who, if
on students' innate curiosity about the natural there were no cultural stereotypes about science-
world and how things work. Females, minority
related fields, might follow their own interests
students, and students with disabilities should be
and abilities and pursue more science education.
given frequent opportunities to learn science in
the context of developirg other skills. When parents and peers show an interest in and
acceptance of science endeavors, there is more
Historysocial science and the arts bring special
room for these students to participate and suc-
skills and understandings that further these
ceed. Local PTAs and PT0s, othcr community
students' general and science education.
action groups, university incentive programs, and
3. Provide enrichment opportunities in afterschool clubs and enrichment programs all
mathematics and science for females, work to build more healthy attitudes about accept-
minority students, and students with ance and success in scientific and technical fields.
disabilities. 5. Capitalize on students' prior knowledge.
Often, students who could benefit the most from In the section on concept learning, we saw that
extracurricular activities do not gct a chance to students learn more effectively in all areas (but
participate. And, often they are not aware of or especially mathcmatics and science) if ncw
are precluded from participating in the extra pro- material is incorporated within the existing
grams available to others. Some special programs knowledge base. For the historically underrepre-
like science fairs, Invent America!, and thc sented populations, this presents two challenges:
Science 01.npiad allow students to dcmonstratc (1) the prior experience students bring to school
thcir creativity and interest in science-related may be fundamentally different from the main-
areas during tegular school hours. Opportunities tream culture; and (2) thc prior knowledge
such as the Mathematics, Engineering, and students have may be incomplete, especially in
Science Achievement (MESA) program provide the physical and earth sciences. The first chal-
extended assistance for students who demonstrate lenge can be mitigated through large-group
an early interest in and motivation for technical discussions or background information for all
careers. Other programs require some involve- children in thc classroom. To do so is more
ment from home or community in order for difficult than might be thought because discuss-
students to participate fully. Before students can ing or passively viewing and listening (in the case
actualize thcir interest in science enrichment ac- of video background information) alone may not
tivities, they must be made aware of the opportu- develop rich experiences for all students. Here
nities, they must be encouraged to participate, again, direct experience with concrete materials
and they need to achieve success. No student may bc needed to further cnrich students' world
succeeds without awareness and participation. view. Thc sccond challengl is best overcome by
working in smaller, heterogeneous groups.

168 Part IllAchieving the Desired Curriculum

lao
 Teaching Science to Limited-English-
All students with limited-English proficiency, Proficient Students
regardless of their primary language, should The rapid changes in California's populag ,n are
have rigorous English-as-a-second-language directly reflected in our schools. More and more stu-
(ESL) lessons. A strong ESL component is neces- dents come to class with primary languages other
sary to build a foundation in English for access than English. Limited-English-proficient (LEP) stu-
and success in content instruction that will later dents lack the English language skills to benefit from
instruction which is designed for native English
be taught solely in English. ESL classes,
speakers.
especially for intermediate level speakers of While providing comprehensible science instruc-
English, might integrate science vocabulary and tion for students who are not fluent in English has
science concepts as part of language develop- imdlications for instruction, so does the amount of
ment activities. prior schooling these children have had. Some of the
same students new to English have never been to
school in their homeland, coming from rural back-
Cooperative learning offers the possibility that grounds in countries with educational systems that
direct experience of workhtg with others allows are less developed than ours. Many of these young-
all students to develop an understanding of the sters come to our schools preliterate. Other children,
concepts of science. Care must be taken in these while not proficient in English, have had schooling in
situations to ensure that historically underrepre- advanced educational systems and are highly literate
sented students are not dominated in discussions in their own language. Students proficient in lan-
by students who claim to know more or have guages other than English can learn the science
broader experience. The diversity of experiences content applopriate for their grade level as outlined in
that students bring to the classroom should be this framework. The problem is not one of cognitive
accepted and respected; teachers should make capability; it is a problem of delivery.
every effort to encourage students to share their All students with limited-English proficiency,
perspectives. Both these challenges require close regardless of their primary language, should have
observation by the classroom teacher and other rigorous English-as-a-second-language (ESL) les-
instructional staff; both the process and substance sons. A strong ESL component is necessary to build a
of learning need to be watched closely to ensure foundation in English for access and success in
that all students have similar cognitive constructs content instruction that will later be conducted solely
before new concepts are introduced. in English. ESL classes, especially for intermediate
6. Maintain the same standards for all level speakers of English, might integrate science
students. vocabulary and science concepts as part of languagt,
development activities. The critical variable here is
Learning any subject deeply requires hard work. second-language acquisition (English) and not
In fact, the root of the word tuition comes from science per se. Experiences in advanced-level ESL
the effort (not the money) required to learn. It is classes may also include readings from the basic
essential that females, minorities, and students science program textbook.
with disabilities experience the challenge and When the ESL teacher and science teacher work
hard work it takes to master mathematics, sci- together to develop vocabulary and assign readings in
ence, and technology. With positive attitudes science, students come to science classes with enough
about their abilities to succeed, they can and will. English language skills to make science instruction
It does no good (and may do irreparable harm) to successful. This is not to say that students must be as
inflate the grades or successes of one group fluent in English as they are in their primary lan-
relative to others. The standards for success must guage. In addition to providing support in the primary
be equivalent so that a common metric is under- language for limited-English-proficient (LEP) stu-
stood and appreciated by all students. dents, science instruction can be meaningful for LEP

Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 169

 students if appropriate techniques are used to make
that instruction comprehensibletechniques which domonstrate how to grind leaves in preparation
for extracting chlorophyll. Make frequent visual
are based on good teaching in general and good
and word associations. Show students the fin-
science teaching in particular.
All children in California, including those whose ished product when possible.
primary language is other than English, should have 3. Draw on prior background.
access to high-level science instruction. These
students who are limited-English proficient can have Have students brainstorm, list things they already
know about the topic at hand, and be prepared for
immediate access into science via their primary
and accept single word or limited responses.
language while acquiring English. As snidents reach
Categorize their responses to show associations
intermediate fluency, they depend less on primary
language support. Intermediate speakers ought to be and relationships. Use graphic organizers, mich as
able to string sentences together, even though their chapter or concept maps. Provide multisensory
sentences may be grammatically incorrect. These activities and ask open-ended questions to elicit a
students can gain comprehension skills when the variety of responses and record the students'
responses when possible.
content is delivered orally with context clues. Context
clues help to lower the lirguistic barriers to high-level 4. Work to ensure understanding.
science instruction.
Repeat ideas or concepts frequently. Expand,
The important task of modifying science instruction
to remove barriers comprehension will have to be restate, and reinforce important points. Do regu-
met by all teachers of science, not only those trained lar comprehension checks to confirm that stu-
for ESL or bilingual programs. These teachers have dents really understand the concept under investi-
gation. Frequent interaction between teachers and
within their teaching repertoire strategies that can be
used to lower the linguistic barriers preventing access students and among students are strategies, along
with others, for formative evaluation.
to their disciplines. The following strategies are not to
imply a simplification of science; rather, they are 5. Make sure instruction is content-driven.
used with the same content as for English-proficient
Identify a few key concepts. Attempt to ensure
students. We are not to create two science curricula.
Perhaps the most powerful teaching tool is the understanding of fewer, larger ideas rather than
expectation that all students can and will succeed. many factoids, those isolated facts and definitions
that have long dominated science instruction.
Using techniques founded in sound teaching prac-
tices, teachers should: Make sure those few concepts are learned well
rather than many ideas developed superficially.
1. Simplify the input. Select essential vocabulary, about five to seven
Use a slower but natural speech rate with clear words, but certainly not 20 or 30 per chapter.
Teach the selected vocabulary through a variety
enunciation. A modified, controlled vocabulary
of interactive ways (avoid simply assigning them
may be appropriate. Science teachers should
to be defined). Explain textual features such ;IF
resist the temptation to make science a vocabu-
lary development course. Use proper science bold print, italics, and chapter summaries in order
to build comprehension. Show students how to
terms when necessary, but avoid obfuscation. Do
make attempts to restate, redefine, provide use context clues in the text, such as pictures,
graphs, taLles, flow charts, and similar graphic
familiar examples, and draw on students' prior materials.
backgrounds. Define words with multiple mean-
ings and avoid the use of idiomatic speech. 6. Ensure that instruction Is student-
2. Provide context clues. centered.
Use a variety of grouping strategies, such as
Be animated, use gestures, and when possible act
out the meaning. Use props, graphs, visuals, and small-group, large-group, and cooperative
learning. Provide instruction with direct experi-
real objects. Hold up the mortar and pestle and
encesabout 40 percent of instructional time-

VW.' Part HIAchieving the Desired Curriculum 2

 which are appropriate to various learning modes. variety of interactive and contextual ways that
As much as possible, put material§, in students' capitalize on prior experience. Begin a chapter
hands; demonstrations are not as.effective as ma- with an activity; try starting with the first labora-
nipulation. Provide opportunities for-students to tory activity even if it is located three or four
use concepts rather than merely reiterate the pages into the chapter.
concept label and definition.
All students in California deserve access to high-
7. Use science text effectively. quality science instruction. Using techniques to
When using text materials, begin by establishing reduce linguistic barriers will ensure access for stu-
students' prior background and be prepared to dents with limited-English proficiency. Rather than
add background when necessary. Select the uying merely to cover the content, we should uncover
essential vocabulary and teachit through a science content.

183 Chapter 6Science Processes and Teaching 171

 Chapter 7

Implementing a
Strong Science
Program

THis chapter deals with the implementation of strong

Implementation entails more than the dissemination
science programs at the school district and site levels.
of information, materials, and programs. If an
It includes considerations of organization, selection,
adopted science curriculum is to result in knowledge,
and administration of curricula; the use of educational
experience, and understanding for students, the
technology in science classrooms; the physical
program must be challenging, stimulating, and useful.
resources of the school and the community resources
Students should be doing science in their classrooms,
of the district; and guidelines for staff development,
not merely reading about it. Teachers need opportuni-
using resources available from state agencies and
ties to increase their understandingof science by
other sources.
trying out the activities or lessons they will use in
instruction. In order to be in a position to support
I teachers, administrators need to gain experience by
attending staff development workshops with high-
A WELL-FORMULATED districtwide plan for science quality science instruction, and the community needs
to know enough about the science curriculum so that
education provides the basic design for the establish- its many members can contribute their expertise and
ment of an effective science program. The most support.
effective programs result when administrators and The design of a district science implementation
specialists provide leadership and support to teachers plan is a process that should involve all of the people
with a collaborative spirit; and teachers who will be
identified above over a sustained period of time. To
implementing the plan need to.be involved at every
begin, planners need to have a broad view of the
step of the process. One goal of an implementation entire implementation process in order to understand
plan must be the development of expertise among
how all the parts fit together. Once the process is
teachers at WI levels; only then will the planned understood as a whole, planners can concentrate on
curriculum be taught. The definition of programs and key elements of implementationplanning, staff de-
the adoption of textbooks provide some of the ele-
velopment, assessment, and resources (including
ments needed to put that plan into practice. However,
learning environment, technology, and community).
unless 1;;arners experience conceptual, sequential, and
Planners need to be aware of the relationship between
integrated science in the classroom, all the best made
this framework and those in other subject areas in
policies, plans, and intentions become poor substi-
order to facilitate the integration among subject areas
tutes for success. Proof of the establishment of a good that are increasingly seen as essential. The material in
science program lies in student growth in understand- this chapter follows the sequence described for
ing and enthusiasm for science. planners.

172 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

3_ S
 Section Implementation Planning People for Implementation
a
Effective implementation involves administrators,
school faculty at all grade levels and students, par-
TIME, people, and resources are the main factors to ents, and other members of the community in a
be considered when planning the implementation of continuous, cyclical process that has evaluation
the curriculum. elements throughout. The steps in this process are
detailed in Figure-8. A comprehensive needs assess-
Time for Implementation ment, as outlined in the first column, enables the
It is not enough to focus on science for the one development of a detailed plan, characterized in the
adoption year out of every seven. The adoption of second column, with a high potential for successful
materials should be preceded by extensive planning implementation, described in the third column.
and staff development and followed by more staff Effective implementation incorporates both a
development and assessment. The changes suggested districtwide plan and plans for individual schools. A
by this framework build on the preceding Science communication plan must ensure articulation among
Framework and Science Framework Addendum and various levels (e.g., state, county, board, district
strengthen the position that students should actively office, school site, and classroom); within and among
experience science rather than passively read about it. elementary, middle, and high schools; and between
The changes in practice that are required to imple- and among teachers at different grade levels within
ment this framework faithfiilly, however, are more schools. A comprehensive communication structure,
radicalthe shift from instruction that emphasizes with teachers representing each school in planning
accumulation of knowledge to a program that devel- and implementing committees, is a prerequisite to
ops concepts and the understanding of the connec- integration and articulatioit across grade levels within
tions among them. Teachers and administrators need the district. Such a structure should also identify
to experience the changes themselves and have the locally available resourcesilogether with their
time to plan, to experiment, to revise their plans, and appropriate contribution to the total program. These
to implement the changes at a pace that allows for resources include mentor teachers and science
adequate reflection and internalization. education specialists; educators trained in technologi-
The California Department of Education issues each cal applications; local college or university scientists
year a new framework in a different discipline, a sched- and science educators; community experts in science,
ule which may present districts, and elementary grade medicine, and technology; and parents.
teachers especially, with an overwhelming task: im- A whole range of people should participate
proving three or four curricula at once without pause. throughout the implementation processprincipals,
The changes called for in the various frameworks, as governing boards, district and county personnel, and
profound as they are, are harmonic with one another. local college and university representatives. They
For example, the move to use cooperative groups to should be familiar with the goals of the framework
develop the ability to communicate mathematical and with implementation strategies so that they can
thinking has made ready the way for the same kind of lead and assist the process effectively, build enthusi-
group wolk called for in this framework. The need to asm in the staff, and model informed, committed
focus on the connections between ideas, rather than support. Knowledgeable administrators arc effective
on isolated facts, is emphasized in the HistorySocial managers of time, money, and supplies. They should
Science Framework. An important benefit of this be selected in part for their ability to offer creative
inteftlisciplinary harmony in the frameworks is that suggestions for the use of existing funds, but they
teachers and districts can, to a significant extent, should also be well informed about special grants and
accomplish critical improvements in several curricu- moneys that might become available. They should
lar areas at the same time. A later section of this enhance their effectiveness by identifying individuals
chapter delineates the relationships between this with science leadership itsponsibility and by piovid-
framework and each of the other subject areas. ing necessary support to them.

Chapter 7Implementing a Strong Science Program 173

 Plan revisions and'i-epeat the procegs.

'1***
Resources for Implementation Provide appropriate science content and scien-
tific thinking and illustrate that scientific knowl-
Resources are" available to assist the implementa-
edge is a praluct of the scientific process.
tioh planning process. See, for example:
Provide opportunities to practice new activi-
Science Educat.lon for the 1980s (includes adv ice tieshands-on, laboratory, investigative, and
and an extensive checklist for conducting a self- field activitiesin low-risk environments.
evaluation at the local level) (California De- Provide formal and infonnal opportunities for
partment of Education, 1982) peer coaching and feedback.
Quality Criteria for elementary schools, middle Allocate additional released time for teachers to
grades, and high schools (California Department reflect, discuss, solve problems, and exchange
of Education, revised annually to reflect new ideas.
frameworks)
While generic workshops on teaching techniques
Recommendations of the California Science
and classroom management strategies are of benefit
Teachers Association (Lawrence Hall of Science,
to science teachers, it is important that substantial
Berkeley, CA 94720), the National Science
time and resources be devoted to strategies for incor-
Teachers Association (1972 Connecticut Ave.,
porating these techniques most effectively in the
Washington, DC 20009), and other professional
teaching of science. Cooperative learning is a tech-
organizations
nique of great value to science teachers; cooperation
in laboratory work and student projects needs to be
emphasized to achieve the most from this technique.
To encourage an articulated program, those respon-
sible for staff development must ensure that some
portion of the training of district and school level take
AN effective science program depends primarily on place across the grade levels. It is important for
teachers who are enthusiastic, informed, and provided elementary teachers to anticipate where the curricu-
with adequate resources. We hope that teacher lum is going and for secondary teachers to gain
preparation programs will be able to educate new firsthand knowledge of where the students have been.
teachers in the kind of science education called for by In a collegial setting, the elementary teachers' exper-
this framework. Yet, teaching is a profession that tise in a variety of teaching methods is as instructive
requires ongoing professional development, and to secondary teachers as the secondary teachers'
teachers need the opportunity ti experience the kind subject matter expertise and enthusiasm are to the
of instruction they are being asked to provide. A good elementary teachers. As the content is specified by
staff development pmgram should: grade level, differentiated experiences are necessary
Be ongoing, comprehensive, and based on the at some point for teachers at different grade levels to
implementation plan. receive enough specificity to carry out the program at
Involve teachers in planning, conducting, and their level. At every point, however, participants
evaluating workshops. should have an active role, experiencing the processes

A favorite problem for workshops is the following. "You have two glasses of liquid, one white and one
red, each initially containing the same amount. You take a teaspoon of white liquid out of the white glass
and put it into the glass of red liquid. After stirring thoroughly, you take a teaspoon of slightly diluted
red liquid from the red glass and put it into the glass of white liquid. After you stir it again, which glass
is more contaminated, the red with the white or the white with the red? Or, are they equal?" This is a
favorite problem because it elicits heated discussion and because it is easier to solve with a real model
than with an algebraic one.

188
Chapter 7Implementing a Strong Science Program 175
If an evaluator comes into a science classroom to observe and finds that all of the students are working
in groups on projects of their own design and decides to return when the teacher is teaching, he or she
devalues this mode of instruction and discourages teachers from using it. Certain features of the clinical
supervision paradigm, particularly a conference before the observation to discuss the teacher' s goals
and a conference after the observation to compare the observer' s and the teacher' s perceptions of the
success of achieving those goals, are valuable features that should be part ofany assessment of
instruction. Other features, such as the requirement that all lessons should include considerable time for
practice, as if complex new ideas can be mastered through practice, are at odds with the idea of
students' constructing their knowledge through investigation.

of science, as leaders model better ways to teach for teacher behavior as adequate assessment of student
conceptual understanding. outcomes reflects the wide range of desired student
outcomes. There is a temptation to limit assessment
of teachers to what can be most easily observed:
,.SetiorLD Assesthnent direct instruction. This is as much to be avoided a:
limiting student assessment to wnat can be most
easily measured: factual recall. While direct instruc-
A TRUISM in education is, "What you test is what tionthe teacher addressing the whole class from the
you get." Students will focus their attention on the ac- front of the classroomhas a role in science instruc-
tivities that determine their grades, placement, and tion and has a well-described paradigm for assess-
career opportunities. Similarly, teachers will guide ment, its effectiveness is limited as a mechanism for
their instructional decision making toward the criteria giving students direct experience with doing science.
by which they and their students are evaluated. Prin- The assessment of instruction must meet the chal-
cipals will provide instructionaLleadership that is lenge of the wide range of instructional strategies
consistent with the basis on which their schools are proposed in this framework in the same way as the
judged. The superintendent will emphasize the school teacher meets these challenges in making decisions
board's and stai.e's criteria for success in his or her about instruction.
interactions with the principals and the district's Administrators should begin the process of teacher
curricular leaders. Of course, each level must be ac- assessment by asking teachers to assess themselves,
countable to the next, yet it is essential that each level using the following questions. At the same time,
be held accountable for the right things. In this con- administrators need to ask themselves whether they
text, the right things are the agreed-on goals for the have provided the teachers with opportunities to
science program. If the goals of the science program develop positive responses to each question.
ait scientific literacy and the ability to make sense of Am I using a variety of teaching methods? Are
the world, then tests of vocabulary and factual they appropriate for the subject and the learners?
knowledge will not measure their attainment. The Am I moving toward hands-on, active learning
design of an assessment program requires as much of science and away from passive, text-only
care and consideration as the design of the instruc- learning?
tional program itself. Have I made adjustments in addressing the
Before an administrator can design and implement needs, strengths, and interests of my students
an effective assessment of science teaching at a given when direct observation and evaluation indicate
school, he or she must be familiar with the goals and that particular methods are not succeeding?
methods of the science cuniculum. Adequate assess- Am I acquainted with and employing specific
ment of teaching must reflect the same range of instructional strategies designed for students in

176 Part IllAchieving the Desired Curriculum

 categorical programs such as bilingual education, schools). All major concepts and processes in the
compensatory education, special education, and framework should be assessed. Local variations
gifted education? in curriculum should be intentional and explicit;
Am I aware of each student's perception of what they should be reflected in local assessments.
is being taught? Am I using a range of assess- Modeling good instroction. Assessment criteria
ment techniques to determine student under- that reward poor or unimaginative instroctional
standing, including performance assessment, methods should not be used. Because instroction
portfolio review, and the safe manipulation of is greatly influenced by the methods and criteria
scientific apparatus? of its assessment, only assessment criteria that
How do I handle controversial issues, and do I model good classroom practices should be used
model positive attitudes toward important issues at each level of assessment. In particular, assess-
in science and society? ment should be perfonnance-based wherever
Does my classroom promote inquiry, ethical possible; students should demonstrate under-
values, and respect for others' opinions? standing and skill in situations that parallel prior
Do my classroom and school provide a variety of classroom experience.
materials supplemental to the core program, Design and administration of assessment by
resources for independent student work, and an practicing teachers who have been given special
emphasis on safety and humane treatment of preparation to do so. Teacher involvement gives
animals? teachers a sense of ownership, improves teaching
Am I involved in the school's and district's methods, and helps to ensure the practicality of
..overall science program? In addition to serving the assessments. Knowing what to obrerve and
on committees, do I take advantage of the oppor- the various strategies for administering perfor-
tunity to work on program development will' mance tasks will require special preparation, par
teachers at other schools and with teachers of ticularly to ensure consistency among assessors.
different courses at my own school? Coordination with the assessment of other disci-
Am I continuing my professional development plines as appropriate. Skills and concepts in
through participation in professional organiza- mathematics, Englishlanguage arts, history
tions, attendance at conferences, and active par- social science, and the visual and perfonniag arts
ticipation in staff development activities? should be included in science performance tasks
if they are integral parts of the tasks.
Assessment of school science programs at the Consistency with the developmental levels of
disuict, county, and state levels should incorporate children.
the following additional considerations: Inclusion of periodic surveys of students' atti-
Alignment with the framework and other cur- tudes towards science.
riculum documents such as the Science Model Provision of timely feedback to teachers. Results
Curriculum Guide, K-8, the Model Curriculum of assessment programs should be available soon
Standards, Grades 9-12, the Statement on after thc assessment is conducted so that teachers
Preparation in Natural Science Expected of can make appropriate adjustments in the program.
Entering Freshmen, and the Quality Criteria (for Provision of well-explained qualitative and
elementary schools, middle grades, and high quantitative information to the public.

-11011.

If an evaluator comes into a science classroom to observe and finds that all of the students are working
on hands-on activities, he or she should not assume that everything is fine. Questions that the evaluator
should ask include, "Are students following a recipe or investigating?" "Do they know why they are
following the procedures they are using, what they are looking for, what the data mean?"

Chapter 7Implemnting a Strong Science Program 177

 Section E Re to be able to use chemistry equipment. A substantial
yearly science budget must be available to teachers so
that they can replenish the consumables and purchase
the essential additions that encourage the expansion
THE preceding sections have emphasized the human
of an effective program and experimentation with
resources of implementationstaff development and new ways to present concepts.
assessment effortsyet their success depends on
adequate investment in physical resources that When adopting instructional materials, disnict staff
must consider the cost of equipment and consumable
support excellence in science teaching. Instructional
materials along with the cost of textbooks, software,
materials play a key role in defining and supporting
videotapes, videodisks, and so forth. Evaluators at the
the science curriculum and are explicitly described in
local level should decide what program is best for
Chapter 8, "Instmctior,al Materials Criteria." The
their students, determine the cost of implementing
classroom environment, the availability of equipment that program, and present their recommendations to
(particularly new technologies), considerations of the administration or governing board. While it may
safety, and the incorpratiou of community resources,
not be possible to purchase and ,:quip the optimal
including parents, arc discusF,ed in this section.
program, decision makers need to know what is
considered best, next best, and so forth.
The Classroom Environment
Safety is a particularly important component of the
The physical resources of the entire school plant learning environment in science. A safety policy must
and the community should be taken into considera- delineate the roles and responsibilities of students,
tion in planning the science instructional program. teachers, site administrators, and district administra-
Optimal school facilities for science will provide tors. The Education Code places responsibility for
flexibility to accommodate large- and small-group certain safety practices, such as the provision of eye-
instruction, laboratory activities, outdoor experiences, protection devices, on the local governing board and
demonstrations, audiovisual presentations, activities responsibility for the implementation of these prac-
enhanced by educational technology, seminars, and tices on teachers. Districts need to develop proce-
individual or small-group projects. Teaching a dures so that each person is aware of his or her
laboratory or activity-oriented program in the elemen- responsibility and is given the resources needed to
tary school does not necessarily require sophisticated enact it. The California Department of Education has
laboratory facilities, but it requires at least tables and developed a handbook, Science Safety Handbook for
sinks. Adequate floor and storage space, lighting, California High Schools, to assist districts in carrying
ventilation, and chalkboard space must be provided. out this aspect of the implementation of an effective
The availability of bulletin boards to permit display science program. Safety concerns should be ad-
of colorful posters and examples of student work dressed directly and not used as a rationale for the
enhances the classroom. Secondary science programs elimination of activity-based scier.ce.
generally require more elaborate facilities, including
laboratory stations equipped with runni-4, water, gas, Teaching Technologies
electricity, and storage space for student equipment. As indicated in the preceding section, equipment
Safe storage for volatile, flammable, or corrosive and materhils are essential components of science
chemicals is mandatory. The number of students in programs at all levels. Traditional equipment, such as
the laboratory classroom should be determined by test tubes, scales, meter sticks, and microscopes, have
factors such as safety, number of stations, and total always had a prominent role in effective seience
classroom square footage, rather than school schedul- programs. As newer technological devices, such as
ing needs.
scientific calculators, computers, videotapes, and
Equipment and materials must be made available to videodisks, become less expensive and more signifi-
all teacherselementary and secondary. It is as cant as mechanisms for teaching and learning, their
important for a first grader to be able to manipulate a role should be constantly evaluated for their contribu-
hand lens, a magnet, or other materials through tion to an effective science program. These technolo-
hands-on activities as it is for the high school student gies can support teachers in administrative tasks and

178 Part IllAchieving the Desired Curriculum

 can be used in obtaining new information and ideas. person who designs it. Therefore, as far as possible,
The effectiveness of the newer technological devices, students shoz.:ld be involved in the control of this
of course, depends on teachers receiving adequate experience. They can be involved in selecting the
preparation in their use and time to incorporate them technology for the instructional purpose, previewing
in their work. This section considers the rationale for it, explaining it to other students, predicting what will
using newer technologies in teaching, the mecha- happen next, forming generalizations, and summariz-
nisms for incorporating them in the curriculum, and ing the experience. This mode of using technologies
some criteria for evaluating the use of technology in is analogous to the use of laboratory experiences; it
the science curriculum. must be thoroughly integrated in the instructional
Technology can provide conduits to new informa- environment in order to contribute to it. Passive uses,
tion, new experiences, and an opportunity to experi- such as watching an hour-long video, should be made
ment and fail in a supportive environment. The active threugb preparation, discussion during,Fatch-
storage and computational capacities of computers ing, and expectations for follow-up acti ities. ,

can help to eliminate the misconception that science A likely msult of the incmased use of technology in
is merely a collection of facts to be memorized and the classroom is the evolution of the role of the
data to be manipulated. Used properly, they serve as a teacher from disseminator of information to facilitator
bridge that permits students to concentrate their of the students' learning. As individual students go in
attention on making connections among the facts and different directions with a wide array of information
making sense of the results or numerical computa- and resources, it is not possible, nor desirable, for the
tions. While computers can be deployed as electronic teacher to anticipate every path taken by every
textbooks and programmed to provide drill and student. Teachers need to gain sufficient experience
practice, their most important contributions are to with this style of learning themselves that they feel
.., simulate simple and complex systems, assist in the comfortable with the perceived lack of disciplined
collecting and interpreting of laboratory data, and control. They will soon discover that the technology
serve as adaptable reference stations. Computers can frees them from the management of information and
also be used as part of a telecommunications network allows them to devote mom time to one-on-one
in which students and teachers sham data and ideas interactions with the students. From these discus-
with one another, comparing the pH of rain across the sions, the student acquires an understanding and
nation, for example, or the results of a classroom appreciation for the fact that science results from
survey of genetic traits. For the teacher, they are also making sense of information rather than from the
an invaluable relief from administrative burdens, such information itself.
as maintaining student records and preparing exams. Mechanisms for changing the way teachers teach
Videotapes and videodisks extend the range of will have to incorporate this view of technology's
experiences available to students and teachers. role in instruction. Just as mechanics must learn how
Experiments that are too dangerous or costly to to use a tool in the context of their work, teachers
conduct in the classroom, historical or one-time must learn to how to use technology as a pedagogical
events, and activities at a distance can all come into tool in the context of their classroom. The appiication
the classroom environment. Use of a video camera is of technology to teaching is more than a skill, it is an
also a way for students and teachers to bring their art that requims practice. The introduction and
own projects and experiences outside the classroom continued use of technology requires:
into the arena for discussion. The ability to preview,
review, and stop and discuss that is offered by a Support for people at all levels of the educational
videocassette recorder increases the range of this structum, from the teacher through the academic
teaching technology; the ability to program the inter- administration, including opportunities for sus-
face with a videodisk offers even greater potential for tained experience
the individualization of materials to the teacher who Support from the administration and the commu-
has the time to take advantage of this technology. nity for long-term investments in staff develop-
In each of these casescomputer and video--the ment and acquisition and maintenance of equip-
person who benefits most from the experience is the ment and instructional materials

..,

1 92Chapter 7holementing a Strong Science Program 179

 Reevaluation of educational goals and methods The community also provides a rich resource for
as teachers evolve new teaching strategies using extending the science program. In addition to visits to
technology facilities where science is practiced and exemplified,
Consideration of technology-based educational the people in the community who work in science-
materials in the curriculum planning, adoption, related occupations are frequently interested in public
education and willing to visit classrooms to discuss
and implementation cycles
their work with students. Role models motivate
Criteria for evaluating materials in science have student interest in science careers. It is especially
been presented in the Technology in the Curriculum: important that such role models include representa-
Science Resource Guide, distributed by the California tives of groups Taditionally underrepresented in
Department of Education to all public schools in science, such as women and minorities. Scientists and
California in 1986. Instructional technology programs others who use science in their jobs should be encour-
should be used to (1) provide experiences that cannot aged to bring slides, photographs, and the tools they
be provided better through other means; (2) promote use so that students can better envision the experience
active involvement by relating content to approprian:. and excitement of being a scientist.
science processes; (3) contribute to the development
of a positive attitude toward science; (4) overcome
bias and singular points of view; and (5) support and
I
be integrated into the science curriculum.

Other Valuable Resources

THE California Science Implementation Network has
Parents and the community offer tremendous
developed a school-based model that many teachers
potential for supporting and enhancing the school's
and principals have found useful. The planning
science program. Parents should be regularly in-
process, which involves the entire school staff, has
formed about the science program, teachers' expecta-
three steps: (1) complete a matrix for program
tions, homework policies, and the student's progress.
elements and one for content; (2) conduct indicated
Active parent involvement can be encouraged as a
staff development; and (3) monitor individual teacher
means of supplementing classroom science instruc-
progress.
tion. The teacher can:
Encourage parents to visit the classroom to Program Elements Matrix
observe and discuss the student's interest,
assignments, and skills in science. Filling in the program elements matrix is a whole-
Provide a listing to encourage family visits to staff activity. The staff should decide what elements
science resources in the communitymuseums, are important to put in the first column of the matrix;
planetariums, libraries, research labs, zoos, and the list in Table 2 is simply a starting point. The other
other loeadons with interesting ecological columns represent steps in the continuum from where
features. the staff is to where they would like to be.
Provide information regarding science-related The columns in Table 2 are to be filled in with a
television programs, books, magazines, and three-year perspective. The bare minimum of science
newspaper articles. Encourage parents to view or instruction in grade one might be 60 minutes per
read and discuss the content with the student. week, and the goal might be 120 minutes per week,
Invite parents to become volunteers in the with entries in the first and third columns. The mid-
classroom or resource persons to share informa- point, a reasonabde transition goal, would be 90
tion regarding their science-related careers or minutes per week. Similarly, the values for grade five
hobbies. might range from a starting point of 120 minutes per
Extend the science classroom to the home by week, transition of 150 minutes per week, and a goal
designing homework involving experiments or of 200 minutes per week. The amount of content
surveys to be carried out with family involve- covered might range from three units per year at the
ment. start to five units per year as the goal. The way in

180 Part illAchieving the Desired Curriculum

A .) 3
TZA )q0r1Yroitram: fit*InScieticeNapation.

Element Starting point Transition Attainable goal

Time
Content
Instructional strategies
Integration
Materials
Resources
Assemblies
Science fairs
Family science

which teachers present information might range from process uses known t.ontent to build discipline-
teacher demonstrations to teacher-led activities to specific strands that are organized around unifying
student investigations. Once the entries are agreed on, concepts. The content of the strands is then analyzed
teachers can locat t. thcir current programs on thc for themes that emerge as commonalties in thc disd
chart and set personal goals for moving over one plincs. This method is presented in detail in this
column each year. Thus, if a teacher is already scction.
tcaching science 90 minutes per wcck, hc or she Onc mat remember that building a content matrix
would aim for 120 minutes per week the following is like playing with a Rubik's Cubc. All of the pieces
year and 150 minutcs per wcck the third ycar, ecn eventually fit togcthcr, but they may need to bc
though it is off the chart. juggled or fine-tuned to create thc best fit of ideas.
The fluidity of thc matrix allows for many different
Content Matrix examples to be developed using the same contcnt.
A goal in dcsigning a schoolwide articulated Thc amount of variety depends on the emphasis of
contcnt matrix following the mandatcs of this frame- the componcnt parts of the matrix (Lc., unifying
work is to balance the three science disciplines concepts, grade level concepts, subconcepts, themes).
(physical, earth, and life) so that the curriculum Planners are encouraged to design their own planning
spirals through the grades and is united through the model. (Two examples arc presented later in this
use of the themes of science. section [tables 4 and 7). Thcy are not mandates for
There are many approaches for developing such a how a curriculum should look, but rather a process by
matrix; somc are more effective than others in which a curriculum is designed.)
reaching thc goals of thc framework. Themes might
be included in the curriculum on an awareness level.
General Structure of the Matrix
Although this is better thaii no attempt at conceptuali- Table 3 represents a pattern for a content matrix
zation, it does not incorporate the thrust of thc that is to bc filled in with conceptual and thematic
framework. Themes can also be introduced in thc idoas. It is used by the staff to design thc scope and
curriculum. This is a more sophisticated goal toward sequence of the curriculum ()Nes a thm year period.
which the matrix might be directed. A third approach Implementation of the matrix can thcn bc done in
to building the matrix involves theme induction. This "little steps":

Chapter 7Implementing a Strong Science Program 181

 3 units x7 grade levels = 21 units for year one 1. Brainstorm about the most important things for a
4 units x 7 grade levels = 28 units for year two student to know and experience in a given disci-
5 units x 7 grade levels = 35 units for year three pline. A resource for doing this is the content
Schools that include grades seven and eight would section of the Framework, which is arranged by
expand the matrix to include the additional grades. central organizing principles and organizing
The matrix in Table 3 consists of five columns and questions.
seven rows (for grade levels kindergarten through 2. From the brainstorm session, cluster topics of
grade six). Grade-level themes are to be inserted in ideas and activities that seem to fit into bigger
the second column. The third, fourth, and fifth col- idels. It is very likely that traditional topics can
umns represent the traditional disciplines of science be categorized several ways. For example, rocks
and might be considered by some districts as the core can be included as pmducts of the changing earth
science curriculum. The next two columns take into or can be discussed from the perspective of the
consideration the diversity found in California's structure of the earth; body systems can be
school system and are purposely left open for deci- included in a structure/function relationship, but
sion making at the district and school site levels. We also to explain the diversity of life; and matter
suggest that these columns be filled with units of can be described from the energy required to
study that either complete the core curriculum or change it or from the relationship of microscopic
enrich it and that they be organized to be consistent to macroscopic interactions.
with the themes driving the other units found in that 3. From the cluster, select a unifying concept or
row (grade level). Columns are organized through concepts broad enough to be developed for kin-
unifying concepts that are discipline-specific and tie dergarten through grade eight by the use of
the grade levels together. The rows of the matrix grade-level concepts.
represent curricula at successive grade levels, kinder- 4. Express the unifying concept in a sentence to
garten through grade six. Units in a row are united by clarify its meaning. Here are some examples:
the themes of science and inten-elated content. The earth, within its universe, is changing.
Life is diverse.
Building the Vertical Columns of the Matrix Matter and energy can be changed but cannot
Unifying concept(s) and grade-level concepts and be created or destroyed.
subconcepts are developed for each discipline: Grade-level concepts. The grade-level concepts are
physical, earth, and life science. (Subconcepts are il- characterized as:
lustrated in more detail in tables 5, 6, 8, and 9.) Steps
Supporting the unifying concepts (similar to
for defining and identifying these components in each
developing a topic sentence and its supporting
discipline follow:
details).
Unibing concepts. The unifying concepts help Describing content from a conceptual basis,
teachers answer the question: "What do you want rather than presenting isolated facts. For ex-
your students to know after they leave grade six ample, if the unifying concept is that the earth is
(grade eight) in science?" These concepts: changing, then the traditional subject of ocean-
Are broad enough that students at each grade ography would be addressed from the standpoint
level can learn from them. of how oceans affect or arc affected by the
Are discipline-specific; i.e., they explain the changing earth, rather than presented as unre-
nature of the discipline and help to organize and lated bits and pieces.
understand it. Being arranged in a developmentally appropriate
Provide a framework for the developmental se- sequence.
quence of traditional content.
Process for selecting grade-level concepts. We
Process for identifying umfying concepts. The suggest two methods for developing and selecting
process for ident;fying unifying concepts includes grade-level concepts: (1) brainstorm supporting
four steps: concepts for unifying concepts, or use content de-

182 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

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scribed in the appropriate grade-level span of the Building the Horizontal Rows of the Matrix
Framework, or (2) brainstorm the content that is The goal in constructing a horizontal row is to
currently taught at each grade level and rephrase it in make the subconcepts of the units match and relate to
the focus of the un!fying concept. For example, each other and be unified by the themes of science.
traditional content for grade two might include the This can be done using the following steps:
ideas that plants have roots, stems, and leaves and
animals have body systems. If the unifying concept is 1. Analyze the subconcepts of each column to
that life is diverse, then this content can be refocused identify which themes seem to be expressed.
as a grade-level concept to read: Living things have 2. Identify commonalities of themes across a row
similar needs but diverse structure to meet their needs. (some literally pop out at you).
If the content that is brainstormed does not seem 3. Correct for mismatches of themes by making
, appropriate to the unifying concept, set it aside for alterations, including slight rephrasing of subcon-
consideration in ..ither areas. cepts, modification of focus, movement of grade-
After completing method (1) or (2) for selecting level concepts to another row, or identification of
grade-level concepts, place the sentence describing additional themes.
each grade-level concept in sequence so that the 4. Review the entire matrix to ensure that all themes
sequence is developmentally appropriate. have been presented in the curriculum for kinder-
Subconcepts. Subconcepts exhibit the following garten through grade six or eight. We recommend
characteristics: two to three themes per year and that the themes
They support the grade-level concepts by identi- be repeated.
fying the content to be taught at each grade level. Sample Matrices
They describe the how and why as well as the
what of the content. For example, if the unifying Tables 4 and 7 illustrate two models of matrices
concept for earth science has been identified as that have been developed using the aforementioned
"The earth, within its universe, is changing," and processes. Each of the models is different in the sense
the concept for grade five has been identified as that each develops a proposed curriculum at one
"Forces that work on the earth are responsible grade level and for one discipline: Example A (Table
for the changes that we observe," then traditional 4) for grade four in the earth sciences; Example B
topics such as erosion deposition, rocks, tectonics, (Table 7) for grade one in the physical sciences. The
layers of the earth, and so forth can be organized grade-level choices are a slice of what the curriculum
by three subconcepts: (1) forces change the earth; might look like for primary and upper elementary
(2) products result from these changes; and grades. The matrices are also different in the selection
(3) change occurs over time. of imifying concepts and the emphasis on different
themes. Both, however, use traditional content
Process for selecting subconcepts. (Treatment of sub- knowledge as a basis for the matrix.
concepts in the process is illustrated in tables 5, 6, 8, Note that two units, grade one "Water in the
and 9.) World" and grade four "Energy Transformations,"
1. Brainstorm the stuff that is taught. Sources include are presented in both models. These units are orga-
the Framework's content section, previous experi- nized under different unifying concepts in the two
ence, textbooks, and other reference materials. models so that planners can see how the same topics
2. Combine similar subconcepts, eliminate those that can be approached from different points of view.
do not address the grade-level concept, and select When referring to the matrix, notice that the grade-
three to five that meet the above characteristics-for level concepts (which were identified using the
subconcepts. aforementioned process) are listed, follOwed by a unit
After completing the process for identifying the uni- title in italics. In order to avoid repetition, the grade-
fying concepts for physical science, repeat the process level concepts are referenced in this section by the
for earth science and life science. We suggest building unit title. The themes are italicized in the narrative.
each strand with reference to the other strands. In this Example A. Explication. This example (Table 4)
way, one can start to look for thematic connections looks at the earth science strand and the grade-four
from the subconcepts across a grade level. slice of a curriculum. Consider first the earth science

dr -If)
184 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum 1 ,-)C.)
column. In the development of this strand, it is heat transfer interacts with and affects atmospheric
desired that students first experience and describe the pressure, wind patterns, and precipitation. The effect
world immediately around them, expand their hori- of weather and climate on ecosystems can also be
zons to talk about the larger world, and then consider studied. [Systems and Interactions]
their place within the universe. They will do so within In grade five, students return to a study of "Chang-
the context of the unifying concept "The earth, within ing Earth," but at a more sophisticated level. They are
its universe, is changing." prepared to begin a deeper investigation of geologic
Kindergarten students need to explore the immedi- time and the changes it has brought. [Evolution] They
ate. They can talk about observable changes in ',heir are ready to look at the various patterns of change
world (day and night, seasons, the weather, and so that can be observed in river systems, crystals, and
forth), the landforms with which they are familiar, rock formations. They might also examine the effect
and the world of their community (which integrates those changes have had on both landforms and
nicely with the History-Social Science Framework). organisms. [Systems and Interactions]
In "Water in the World," students in grade one arc Having concentrated on the earth, students are
prepared to take on slightly more challenging investi- prepared in grade six to look at the universe from the
gations. This unit addresses several themes that perspective of the earth. In "Astronomy," they can
appear in all grade-one units in this matrix. Students investigate the changes wrought by the sun and moon
can be introduced to several related concepts: (1) that and examine the earth's place in the solar system.
there is stability in the forms and content of the [Systems and Interactions] They can also begin to
earth's water by looking at oceans and other bodies of understand the clues provided by the stars of the
water, (2) that energy from the sun warms the earth evolution of the universe. This study, in turn, prepares
and its water, driving the water cycle; (3) that water students for a more sophisticated look at similar
changes its statc; (4) that clouds arc a part of the topics in the middle school years. For a more detailed
water cycle; and (5) that this water cycle is a major look at the subconcepts that make up each of these
factor in the creation of local weather. Patterns of grade-level units, see Table 5.
change in the local weather can be experienced as Table 6 is the grade-four row of this matrix. It is
students collect and report daily weather data. detailed to show the relationships among the unifying
In "Changing Earth," students in grade two can concepts, grade-level concepts, subconcepts, and
investigate the macroscopic products that come from themes. Analysis of the subconcepts reveals the
the earth (rocks and soils, for example). They can content of each unit, suggests connections among tha
also come to an understanding that certain forms of three disciplines, and forms the basis for the identifi-
energy are at work in the earth, creating and reshap- cation of the themes. Notice that the themes arc keyed
ing those products. Patterns of change in the earth to the subconcepts.
involve processes that occur over long periods of time. Two optional units for grade four arc "Food and
A broader background with geologic processes Nutrition" and "California Landforms." (Seelable
enables grade three students to examine "Changes in 4.) They arc presented as possible choices to coin-
the Ocean." Landforms and ocean basins can bc plete the thematic approach. In the first unit, focus
described and defined and shown to have changed should be directed toward clarifying the energy needs
over geologic time. [Evolution] The energy of wave of the human body and how adequate diet, caloric
patterns can be investigated, and their relation to intake, and balanced nutrition meet those needs.
changing landforms studied. The mechanics of wave Students can also investigate the role of humans ;r1
motion itself can be introduced or reinforced at this the food chain. The second unit might fulfill a "local
level. Connections to other disciplines can also be options" need and provide an integration with the
made as students examine the influence of oceans on topics of California history and geography that is
weather and cHmate and the effect these have on mandated by the History-Social Science Framework
living organisms and ecosystems. [Systems and for grade four. This unit might be a multidisciplinary
Interactions] study that looks at the interrelationships among
These discoveries prepare students to revisit energy transformation, meteorology, and geology on
"Meteorology" in grade four. A review of the water the specific landforms in our state and the ecosystems
cycle prepares them to understand how the energy of that have de tieloped as a result of that interaction.

Chapter 7Implementing a Strong Science Program 185

199
'MMUS.
2

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it
Unifying concepts

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Unifying.Concept: The earth; within its universe, is comstantly changing.

Grade Theme(S) Grade-level concepts and subconcepts

Me in My World There are observable changesbil.the earth.

.I see changesin the world around me.
,Weather
--Day and night
K
Seasons
I see different landforrns (mountains, valleys, plains, hills, deserts,
oceans, and so forth).
The world of my community is oade of different things (living and
nonliving; integrated.with hisitirysocial science).

.
Stability Water is an important element of change on the earth.
Energy Most of the earth's water is found in the ctleans and is salty. Fresh
Patterns of Change water is found in lakes, river systems, streams, creeks, and other
drainage systems.
Water undergoes changes.
1 The sun warms the earth and the sea and drives the water cycle. Clouds
can be observed and arc part of the water cycle.
The.water cycle, in conjunction with other factors, creates the earth's
weather.
Weather data can be collected and reported, zed the patterns can be
described.

Patterns of Change Different forms of energy reshape products of the earth.

2 Scale and Structure Forces at work in the earth create and reshape it.
The earth (and its forces) work change over long periods of time

Energy Oceans affect or are affected by the changing earth.

Evolution Landforms and ocean basins can be described and defined.
Systems and Interactions The energy of wave patterns in the ocean changes landforms. Wave
3 patterns can be studied as mechanical motions.
The oceans have a profound influence on weather and climate, which,
in turn, affect living organisms.
Diverse life forms are found in the ocean habitat.

Systems and Mteractions Changes in the atmosphere affect and are affectcd by changes in the
Energy earth.
The sun warms the earth, sea, and air and drives the
water cycle.
Uneven heating of the earth affects air pressure and gives rise to wind
4
patterns that move locally and around the globe.
Moving air masses of different temperature and different moisture
content come in contact, resulting in precipitation and other identifiable
weather phenomena.
Weather data can be collected and reported.
Weather has profound effects on climate and life forms.

Chapter 7Implementing a Strong Science Program 187

 tgble'5' (eOntinued)

Grade Theme(s) Grade-level concepts and subconcepts

Evolution Forces that work on the earth cause the changes we observe.
Patterns of Change The earth is very old and has changed over geologic time.
5 Systems and Interactions Forces arising from heat flow in the earth have caused it to change.
The changing earth has had a profound effect on landfor ns and living
organisms

Evolution The changing earth is part of a changing universe.

Systems and Interactiom Both the sun and the moon, bodies within our solar system, have ob-
servable and identifiable effects on the earth:
The sun is the source of all energy.
6 The moon and the sun are responsible for tidal movement.
Seasons are related to the earth's orientation the sun.
The earth is a part of the solar system; it is both like and unlike other
planets.
Stars provide information about the history of the universe. The earth is
but a small part of the universe.

188 Pan IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

r:
 _

'Tbe ultimate source-of niost cir.the- * The stinwarms the earth ar4 air and - There are Strucninis of and identifiable
energy we use the &Wei are water cycle. relitienshiPS__Within_zi ecosystem-
Thes:Elnr:lotic/abiotic, niche/
*8 Energy can be &inverted from one Uneven, heating of the earth affects _ _
coriunialiOtsbitits, producer/
form to onothei; the= axe Many forini pressure andternperature, creating corsmTleildeOrnPosei-
of enety. wind patterns that mcive locally and
around-the globe. *5 Energy is transferred through an coo-
In food chains the sun's radiant energy syst= from the nonliving to the living
is converted throughihotosynthesis to **Moving air masses of differeactem- (food chains, food webs, and food pyra-
chemit=i enagy which, 3r1I non, is perature and differm moisture mids).
trarisfonnectbuo Mechanical energy. cont..= come in contact, resulting in
Some of this energy is kit as heat precipitation and other forms of Components of ecosystems interact
energy. weather phenomena; weatt,:r data and are interdependent.
czn be collected and used to make
* In physical systems energy from a predictions. Human beings (people) affect the eco-
number 9f sources is used to do work. system.
Heat energy is often a by-product of Different kinds of weather have
this transformation. profound effects on climate and on
living organisms and contribute to the
Heat energy moves through the envi- structure of ecosystems.
ronment from warmer to cooler
regions by processes calledeo-nduc-
don, cohiection, and radiation. This
movement has an effect on meteor-
ologic and geologic procsses and on
ecosystems.

204
I t.)
 Example B. Explication. In this example (Table 7), to move them through a distance, and they can con-
the physical science strand is organized around the struct simple machines to do work and tocreatc change
unifying concept, "Matter and energy can be changed in their environments. [Systems and Interactions]
but not created or destroyed." In the development of These simple energy transformations form the basis
this strand, it is desired that students first experience for understanding the concepts of mechanical energy.
and describe the world immediately around them. The grade-four unit, "Energy Transformation," is
Doing so will allow them to explore the macroscopic organized around the major themes of systems and
properties of matter, energy, and motion. Understand- interactions,and energy. Students will investigate a
ing these observable properties prepares students to variety of conversions from one form of energy to
begin investigations into ever more discrete concepts another, recognizing that the total energy in the
related to energy transfer and the structure of matter system is conserved. They will expand their studies
itself. of mechanical energy in an understanding that energy
Kindergarten students need to explore the immedi- conversions from a number of sources are used to do
ate. In "Matter Around Me," they can observe and mechanical work, often with heat energy as a by-
discuss the properties of the stuff around them (color, product of the transformagon. Processes that transfer
size, texture, shape; whether it sinks or floats in this hcat energy will conclude the unit of study.
water, the state in which it is found; and so forth). "Waves, Light, and Sound" provides grade five
They can also examine things to observe that every- students with a look at some of the microscopic
thing is made of smaller structures. The things that properties of matter and energy transfer. [Scale c.hd
they observe can, in part, be drawn from materials in Structure] They can investigate the similarities and
the other two core units of this grade level. differences between electromagnetic and mechanical
In "Kinds of Energy," grade one students observe, waves. They can also explore the unique poperties of
classify, and describe the unique properties of differ- light and sound energy. This unit has a variety of
ent forms of energy as observed at differing levels of topics suitable for integration with other science
observation. [Scale and Structure] Students investi- disciplines, as well: infrared radiation and heat
gate such important concepts as :ransmission, reflec- transfer (geology and meteorology), photosynthesis
tion, and absorption of energy. I . ..idition, they can (ecosystems and food chains), sight and hearing
explore the idea that energy can be used to do Wolk (anatomy and health), and the effect of concussive
and make changes in matter. [Systems and Interac- waves (earthquakes), to name a few.
tions] The grade-six unit, "Matter," looks at the scale and
"Matter," in grade two of this model, continues to structure of atoms and demonstrates how chemistry is
deal with the properties of macroscopic things, but devoted to understanding the properties and interac-
students can approach their study in a more formal- tions of atoms and groups of atoms. [Systems and
ized manner. They can review previous learnings Interactions] Students can investigate such concepts
about phase changes and sinking/floating and can be as mass, displacement, and density. They can explore
introduced to the concepts of matter occupying space physical changes in matter and chemical reactions.
and having weight and substance. In addition, grade They can also come to a fuller understanding of
two students can begin to use tools of measurement various energy transformations involved in chemical
and observation to examine the differing scale and reactions. As such, this is a Ping summarizing unit
structure of all matter. They can also conduct investi- for the learning that has gone before and a challeng-
gations into simple physical and chemical changes ing introduction to the concepts needed for a rich
[Systems and Interactions], with an emphasis on middle school experience.
understanding that changes in matter sometimes For a more detailed look at the subconcepts that
require energy and sometimes release energy. make up each of these grade-level units, sec Table 8.
In grade three, students examine forces that act on Table 9 is the grade one row of Example B. As with
matter and affect its motion. After investigating those Example A, the subconcepts for this row are detailed,
forces, students measure and observe the patterns of and the themes are keyed to the subconcepts.
change in moving objects in terms of distance, time, The fourth and fifth columns in the grade-one row
and weight. They can apply forcc to objects in order on Table 7 :dentify an outdoor education strand and a

190 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum ri

 , .

eii 10 .itoti: Sx
,.._

Local Options
Physical science Earth science! Life science Ecology,lechnology,,health
i .
.,:--..
iviation/space science -
.
.
:. Unifj:fing concepts
.

rilit.aer.iiid eiititZt_in be ' -gert Pike 1!). r hitiOet in -' !,ife. ii diverse. ' Respect for natMe. "The application of
changefibut nolcfreate4-or- cycliCal Piiterni develops*om under- scientific knowledge
destiOyed. standing how nature changes the world.
wOrks.
Giade Therne(s)- Grade-level concepts (with unit titles)

f Me in My World -Macan be observed

.
incf classified.
"Matter Around Me"
... ..

Systems and Interactions Energy comes in Water affects life on earth. There are similarities Human beings Resources arc limited;
Scale cad Structure ditferent forms. "Water in the World" and differences in living affect the environ- some can be recycled.
"Kinds of Energy" things. merit. "Recycling"
"Diversity of Life" "Conservation"
Scale and Structure Matter has properties
Energy and csat be changed.
...matter

Systems and Interactions Forces set on matter and

Patterns Of ehange cause motion.
"Changes in Motion;
SimpliMachines"
Energy Energy can be converted
Systems.and Interactions fiont one form to another.
Scale and Structure "Energy Trans fonnation"

Energy Mauer and energy interact

Scale and Interactions at tmicrescopic level.
Systems and Interactions "Waves, Light, Sound"
-

Energy The structure of matterat

Systems and Intee-actioni a Microscopic level affects
Scale and Structure chemical reactions.
"Matter"

2117 1
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t
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1
-. ... . . .

. . .,
,
.
..
,,,' .
.5, ..,_

Unifying Concept: Matter and energy can be changed but not created or destroyed.

Grade Theme(s) Grade-level concepts and subconcepts

Me in My World Matter can be observed and classified.

Everything around me is made of "stuff." The stuff can be described and
classified by many characteristics:
Color, texture, shape
K Hardness, flexibility
Taste, odor
Sound or light that might be emitted or reflected
State-(solid; liquid, or gas)
Tendency tofloat or sink in water
All things are made of similar structures.

Systems and Interactions Energy comes in different forms.

Scale and Structure At the macroscopic level, each of the various forms of energy has
unique characteristics. Observe and compare the properties of different
1 manifestations of energy (light, sound, static electricity, magnetism,
heat., wave motions, and so forth) in order to classify and describe.
Energy can be uansmitted, reflected, and absorbed.
Energy can be used to do work and to make changes in matter. Changes
in matter sometimes require energy and sometimes release energy.

Energy Mauer has properties and can be changed.

Scale and Structure Matter has definable properties that can be described and reported:
It occupies space.
It has weight and substance.
It sinks and floats.
It exists in three states.
2 Matter is made of smaller structures. We use tools to measure, perceive,
and better understand these structures when they exist at a scale too
small, too fast, or too far away for normal perception (telescopes,
microscopes, thermometers, scales, clocks, and so forth). The more we
understand the structure and function of matter, the better we understand
living organisms and how they intelact with their environment and the
better we understand the changing earth.
Matter undergoes physical and chemical changes.

Patterns of Change Forces act on matter and cause motion.

Systems and Interactions Forces act on matter. Forces include:
Pushes and pulls by direct contact
Gravity
3 Friction
Magnetism
These forces can affect the motion of matter.
Motion can be measured in terms of distance, time, and weight.
Speed is the distance covered divided by the elapsed time.

192 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

Ao.'
 ,.. .

Grade Theme(s) Grada4ev:11 concepts and subconcepts

Patterns of Change The weight of an object is related to the amount of force necessary to
3 Systems and Interactions change its motion.
(Continued)
Work is done when a force is applied to an object that moves it through a
distance.
Simple machines help people do work and change their environment.

Systems and Interactions Energy can be converted from one form to another.
Scale and Structure The ultimate source of most of the energy we use is the sun.
Energy can be converted from one form to another. In the process the
total energy in the system is conserved but not necessarily in the same
4 form. We use energy from a number of sources (the sun, water, heat
within the earth, nuclear reactions, and so forth) to do mechanival work.
Heat energy moves through the environment from warmer to cooler
regions by processes called conduction, convection, and radiation. This
movement affects meteorologic and geologic processes and ecosystems.

Scale and Structure Matter and energy interact at a microscopic level.

Energy Light and sound energy arc similar in many ways, but they are not the
Systems and Interactions same thing:
Both travel as waves and can be reflected, refracted, and absorbed.
Both have frequencies and wavelengths.
Light is an electromagnetic form of energy.
Sound is a mechanical wave arising from vibrating objects.
Infrared radiation is an electromagnetic form of energy. Light carries heat
in the form of infrared radiation. When infrared radiation is absorbed by
matter, it releases heat energy.
5 As a mechanical wave, energy can be a force that can do severe damage
(earthquakes).
Animals perceive their environment by means of light and sound energy:
Electrochemical impulses arise from light striking the retina and are
processed by the central nervous system.
Electromechanical impulses arise from sound in the middle ear and
are processed by the central nervous system.
Plants use electrochemical processes in photosynthesis to manufacture
food from sunlight.

Systems and Interactions The strecture of matter at a microscopic level affects chemical reactions.
Scale and Structure All matter has unique properties that can be observed and measured:
Energy It has weight and mass.
It occupies space and displaces other matter from the same space.
It has density.
6 The properties of matter depend very much on the scale at which we
look at them. Properties of matter at the large scale (macroscopic)
depend on its properties at the small scale (microscopic).
Chemistry is the study of the properties and interactions of atoms and
the study of groups of atoms as they combine to form compounds and
mixtures.

r Chapter 7Implementing a Strong Science Program 193

LC)
 '.Physical SciOrica

tnergyiranifocmnOnnt bring about Cycles'arese-peatable pasterns in nature. Diversity is the concept that represents
many changes in the physical %VOrld, the panoramic variability in the natural
but, overall, energy is Conserved. world.

Grade Theme(s) Grade-level concepts (vith unit titles)

Systems and Energy comes in different-forms, each The water cycle govems much of the The diversity of life arises from the
Interactions with its own.characteristics. environmental conditions on earth. intersection of evolutionary mecha-
Scale and' "Kinds of Energy" "Water in the World" nisms with environmental conditions.
Structure "Diversity of Life"

Subconcepts

At the macroscopic level each of the Water is essential for life on this Living things need food, water,
various forms of energy has unique planet. shelter, and space. Living things
characteristics that can be observed, Water undergoes changes when heat share characteristics, including
described, and classified. energy is added or removed. growth, reproduction, response to en-
Energy can be transmitted, reflected, The sun warms the earth and drives vironmental stimuli, and so forth.
and classified. the water cycle. Clouds can be There is utmendous diversity in
Energy can be used to do work and observed and are part of the water living organisms and between them.
to make changes in matter. Changes cycle. There is great diversity in the homes
in matter sometimes require energy The water cycle, in conjunction with and habitats of living things.
and sometimes release energy. other factors, creates the earth's Within diverse habitats, plant. and
weather. animals secure their needs in differ-
Weather affects the earth and living ent ways but often depend on one
organisms. another.
technology strand as optional topics to be developed. 1985, is "mathematical power, which involves the
In this row, the first unit is entitled "Conservation" ability to discern mathematical relationships, reason
and deals with the primary ideas of conserving things logically, and use mathematical techniques effec-
and littering. "Recycling" takes these ideas a step tively. . . ." It emphasizes teaching for understanding,
further, illustrates what we can do with the things we instead of teaching rules and procedures for their own
cannot conserve, and helps to awaken student concem sake. The consistent call to relate mathematical
over social issues. techniques to the solution of problems that are
meaningful and aexessible to students makes the
bridge t science instruction a natural alliance. The
Sect,fon 6 t RelAionshiRyvith Other' practice of computational, measurement, and graph-
ing skills makes obvious connections between
FrameTlrks
mathematics and science. Science educators should
be particularly conscious of the Mathematics
THE reforms in science education that are reflected Framework's emphasis on selection of the appropri-
'n this Framework are part of an overall reform ate method for achieving numerical resultsestima-
strategy to transform education for all students so that tion, mental arithmetic, paper-and-pencil, or calcula-
it promotes thinking and reasoning. As described by tordepending on the nature of the problem and the
Lauren Resnick in her monograph, Education and numerical information involved. Students should
Learning to Think, there is nothing new in a curricu- learn to select the method and the appropriate level of
lum that promotes thinking; there has always been the accuracy of the result. They should be making their
tradition of the academy in which students were own selections, both on class assignments and on
challenged to read demanding texts, to write critical tests, by the end of grade six. Use of scientific
essays, and to understand the basic tenets of scientific calculators, advocated in mathematics for secondary
and mathematical reasoning. What is new about the students, should also be incorporated in secondary
promotion of higher-order thinking skills in the science programs.
reform of the 1980s is the expectationAhat all stu- Beyond computation, however, the mathematics
dents can and must be involved in such a demanding curriculum also includes the important strands of
curriculum. As Resnick points out, the definition of statistics and probability, patterns and functions, and
"higher-order thinking skills" is elusive, but wc can logic. The statistics and probability strand includes
recognize it when it occurs. It is nonalgorithmic and the formulation of questions, collection and organiza-
complex, it involves multiple solutions and judgment, tion of data in a variety of representations, and com-
and it often involves uncertainty. The thinker must parison of empirical results with theoretical probabili-
examine his or her thinking and must impose mean- ties. The patterns and functions strand includes the
ing on the situation. Such thinking is required by all search for patterns in data and the representation of
of our citizens, not just the elite, and must be the these patterns in verbal, visual, numerical, graphical,
outcome of schooling. and algebraic forms. The logic strand includes the
The manifestation of the attempt to cultivate organization of ideas with an accurate use of terms
higher-order thinking takes different forms in differ- such as all, some, and, or, i f . . . then, and not, and
ent subject areas. Mathematics educators are inclined making valid inferences. These skills are both re-
to talk in terms of problem solving; history and social quired by and developed in the science curriculum, so
science educators speak of critical thinking; science coordination with the mathematics curriculum is
educators talk about the nature of science, as illus- essential for science and mathematics.
trated in Chapter 1. In each case, the details and The theme of scale and structure is particularly
mechanics of the discipline are being subordinated to well suited to integration of mathematics with sci-
the goal of a meaning-centered curriculum with the ence; developing the number sense for very large and
aim of increasing the thinking and reasoning in which and very small numbers and the scientific notation to
students are engaged. express them, ratio and proportion, and even the idea
The focus of the Mathematics Framewor:c, approved of scale itself are central concepts for both disci-
by the State Board of Education and published in plines. Patterns of change is another important

Chapter 7Implementing a Strong Science Program 195

The matufestation of the attempt to cultivate higher-order thinking takes different forms in different
subject areas. Mathematics educators are inclined to talk in terms of problem solving; history and
social science educators speak of critical thinking; science educators talk about the nature of science,
as illustrated in Chapter I .

bridge, as quantitative analysis is often the method HistorySocial Science Framework also makes clear
used to differentiate among cycles, trends, and that controversial topics and discussion of values are
rairdom changes. to be embraced rather than avoided. As discussed in
The EnglishLanguage Arts Framework was Chapter 1 of the Science Framework, "The Nature of
approved by the State Board of Education in 1986 Science," controversy and values are not the province
and published in 1987. Also centered on the construc- of historysocial science alone and must be handled
tion of meaning, its focus is an integrated curriculum as legitimate concerns of the science curriculum as
in which the language arts of reading, writing, well. Finally, the themes of evolution, which is
speaking, and listening are treated together in mean- directional change, and patterns of change, which
ingful contexts rather than treated separately, apart includes cyclical change, are important bridges
from context. With an emphasis on a literature base, between historysocial science and natural science.
it exposes students to significant literary works, rather The ideas of systems and interactions and stability are
than brief narratives constructed to teach skills. This further links between these fields.
approach is particularly well suited to coordination The Foreign Language Framework is the most
with science instruction, as science investigations recently developed framework, approved in 1988 and
provide meaningful contexts for reading, writing, published in 1989. Its emphasis is on communication,
speaking, and listening and help students to develop again subordinating skills to the meaning that is
their language arts skills related to nonfiction. Of necessary for the development of understanding.
course, science fiction and literature about science While particular connections with the science curricu-
themes are additional avenues for coordination of the lum are few, the general trend toward meaning and
science and Englishlanguage arts curricula. away from vocabulary fot its own sake is certainly as
The HistorySocial Science Framework was valid in science as it is in foreign language. It has
approved by the State Board of Education in 1987 been estimated that some high school science text-
and published in 1988. One of its themes is the books introduce more new vocabulary words than a
importance of "history as a story well told." It empha- typical first-year foreign language textbook. Such
sizes depth over breadth, using the opportunity to practices should be compared with exemplary prac-
examine in deput the connections among history, tice in foreign language instruction and abandoned.
geography, and culture, particularly the literature of The Visual and Performing Arts Framework,
and about a period. The notion that science is a aproved in 1981, published in 1982, and reissued in
human activity and that it takes place in certain places 1989, is constructed around four components of arts
and certaln times due to the conditions that have gone education: aesthetic perception, creative expression,
before as well as current circumstances is certainly in arts heritage, and aesthetic valuing. The relationship
accord with such study. In fact, the role of science between science and the arts should not be limited to
and technology in societal development is an impor- an "arts and crafts" approach but should extend to the
tant component of history, particularly as it relates to common intellectual processes and content of these
contemporary issues and events. Incorporating the fields. The critical-thinking processes ,ssociated with
achievements of people from diverse cultures in the science are paralleled in the arts, as students use all of
history of science, whether it be discussed in history their senses to observe, analyze, and synthesize the
or science or both, is a particularly appropriate sights, sounds, and movements in the world around
approach. Care should be taken to ensure the accu- them. The work of both scientists and artists includes
racy of the portrayals of historical figures. The communicating their impressions, evaluating their

196 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

214
own work and the work of others, and maldng choice and towards student-generated work, projects,
thoughtful and informed judgments. Certain scientific and portfoliosare also becoming increasingly
topics, such as light, sound, and perception, are prominent. These teaching and assessment strategies
particularly appropriate areas of integration between are required by the attention to higher-order thinking,
scienee and the arts. Certain arts skills, such as as it is necessary to develop one'a ideas by discussing
obseiving, drawing, and.acting, can also enhance the them with others and by writing abaut them, and it is
study of science. Most of the major themes of scienrx necessary to assess a student's progress by using
find their representation in the visual and performing conditions similar to the learning.
arts curriculum, but certainly scale and structure, When the curricula emphasized mastery of narrow
systems and interaction, and energy am likely ve- skills, such as long division, spelling, historical dates,
hicles for connecting the arts and the sciences. and science vocabulary, individual students practicing
Tile next framework to be revised, with &commit- isolated exercises in quiet rows of desks may have
tee established in 1989 and a product anticipated in been an efficient and effective strategy. The curricula
1990, is the Health Framework, the current edition of are moving toward attention to skills in order to make
which was approved by the State Board of Education more meaningful activiq possibledivision for the
in 1977 and published in 1978. The old document purpose of solving a complex problem, perhaps using
explicitly avoided any commentary about relation- a calculator; spelling for the puipose of publishing an
ships with other subject areas, defcrring to "the essay, possibly using a computer spell-checking
prerogative of local school districts." The new health program; dates for the purpose of a historical argu-
framework will reflect the thrust of the "Healthy ment, maybe using a reference book; and vocabulary
Kids, Healthy California" comprehensive health for the purpose of communicating about a scientific
education initiative in which the various aspects of investigation.
school life that promote healthincluding health These meaningful activities are characterized by
education, nutrition, health and psychological ser- communication about thinking with others, enriched
vices, and physical educationare coordinated with by intcraction with other students, and less likely to
each other and with the total school program. While proceed effectively in quiet rows of isolated students.
health education will maintain its distinctive role in The groups of four that are assembled for mathemati-
the curriculum, consistent with Educzdon Code cal problem solving become the peer response groups
requirements to offer health education at elementary for revising writing, the debate team for enacting a
and secondary levels, it is likely that connections with historical argument, and the research group for
other subject areas, including science, will be defined investigating a scientific question. This is not to say
and encouraged. that there am not some things that need to be learned
In addition to the conceptual connections among individually or quietly; merely that the movement
the frameworks, certain pedagogical techniques, such toward meaning-centered curriculum is coming in all
as cooperative learning and writing across the cur- subject areas and that somc of the changes in teaching
riculum, are appearing with increasing frequency. and assessment that support one subject will prove to
Broader notions of assessmentaway from multiple be valuable in others.

215 Chapter 7Implementing a Strong Science Program 197

 Chapter 8

Instructional
Materials Criteria

THIS chapter summarizes the criteria that California are listed on the adoption list (often called "the
will apply to thtadoption of science instmctional matrix") for the particular subject area, unless the
materials in 1992, bastd on the philosophy, content, district completes a waiver process demonstrating
and guidelines of the foregoing chapters. Of panicu- that different materials are necessary to meet the
lar importance are (1) the.shift of emphasis on con- district's needs. (The remaining 30% of the funds
tent, away fnim inclusion of topics and toward cover- may be spent on any materials that meet the state's
ing fewer topics in depth and thematically; (2) the legal compliance requirements. Districts ate also
'emphasis on representing science accurately and permitted to use their own funds to purchase any
honestly, particularly the nature of science, its philo- materials that they select.)
sophies and methods, and its language; and (3) the The purpose of state adoption is to ensure that state
fbrsaking of disconnected, vocabulary-driven chap- funds are used for materials that are consistent with
ters and units that merely pile facts on definitions, in the state's curriculum guidelines, as set out in the
favor of a considerate narrative prose that cares less frameworks for the subject areas. Critics have pointed
about readability formulas and more about readable out that some of the problems with current instmc-
text. tional materials can be traced to the adoption process.
The fact that 22 different states develop different
criteria for acceptance, including specifications of the
content to be covered, has forced publishers to
include ever-increasing numbers of topics and
CALIFORNIA is one of 22 states in the United States considerations. This has led to the pracdce of men-
tioning, mating many topics superficially rather than
that conducts state level review and adoption of
a smaller number of the most important topics in
educational materials. According to procedures set
depth, and has resulted in textbooks that are encyclo-
forth in the Education Code, the State Board of
Education selects from five to 15 programs for each pedic collections of vocabulary that correspond to the
subject area at each level, kindergarten thmugh grade content on every state's list. Local selection agencies
eight, that can be purchased with money in the have often exacerbated the situation by applying
Instructional Materials Fund (IMF). Each year, school readability formulas that judge the trading level of
the text by characteristics such as sentence length and
districts are fmanced from the IMF on the basis of the
number of students they serve. Currently,18% of the vocabulary used, regardless of the actual readability
of the material. The stress on readability formulas in
IMF funds for materials for students in kindergarten
through grade eight are restricted to programs' that content areas has favored choppy sentences and the
evasion of appropriate vocabulary, especially in
elementary science textbooks.
'By "program" is meant the sum of instructional materials purchued for
use in the classroom, including but not limited to textbooks, software,
Most educators, including authors and editors,
charts, maps, equipnent, and supplies. Also included in a good cuniculum agree that mentioning and the use of readability
are features such as field trips, extramural visits and speakers, and other formulas make it very cliff' ;ult to produce good
audiovhual aids.
educational materials. These practices, however, are

198 Part RIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

not inherent in the adoption process, and it may even With recent English-language arts and history-social
be possible to use the adoption process to discourage science instructional material criteria, the Board has
such practices. California's State Board of Education also taken a leaduship position; instead of selecting
has begun to use the adoption process as a way of the best of what has been available, the Board has
supporting the curriculum reform reflected in its asked for improvements in what the publishers have
receht frameworks and standards. In 1985 the Board offered.
required science textbooks before they were accepted These more stringent criteria place additional
to be strengthened in certain topics that had been P demands on publishers and teachers alike. In one
treated too superficially. In 1986 the Board required situation the materials requested will bo appropriate
more substantial rewriting of mathematics books to for the best prepaied teachers in the state but will
align them better with the Mathematics Framework. provide too great a challenge to the teachers who are

Content(50%)
1. Material discussed in Content sections is presen(5%).
2. Material is treated accurately and correcdy (15%).
3. Material is treated thematically115%).
4. Depth of treatmentis adequate.(10%).
5. Eniphasis is placed on how scientific knowledge is gained (5%).

Presentation (25%)
6. Language is made accessible to students (5%).
7. Prose is considerate and engaging; scientific language is respected
(10%).
8. Science is open to inquily and controversy and is presented non-
dogmatically (5%).
9. Science is shown as an enterprise connected to society (5%).

Pedagogy (25%)
10. Hands-on experience is emphasized; there is an explicit connection
with real experience and problem-solving; textbooks and other
materials are not the sole source of information (15%).
11. Instructional materials recognize cultural diversity (5%).
12. Assessment reflects experience, integration, and creativity (5%).

2t7 Chapter 8Instructional Materials Criteria 199

 not so familiar with the content and instnictional Following the criteria, which will be used to guide
strategies advocated in the new frameworks. Almost the adoption process for kindergarten through grade
everyone would agree that more staff development is eight materials at the state level, suggestions are
necessary and that we may never have adequate offered to guide the local selection process.
resources to do:the job. Clearly, staff development The following three sectionson content, presenta-
and instruclional materials are intimately related, and tion, and pedagogydevelop the 12 criteria listed in
staff development programs are essential to support Table 10.
the entire science program, as indicated in Chapter 7,
Section C. Yet we feel that fine instructional materi-
als can themselves instruct teachers while they a

support student learning. Further, improvement in

instructional materials cannot afford to wait until
such time as all of the teachers who will be using CONTENT refers to the subject matterhow well it
them are optimally prepared. With the view that represents what is currently known of science;
improvements in science education must proceed on whether it uses themes to integrate information;
all fronts, including both staff development and whether it provides deep discussion of topics, inte-
instnictional materials, we present the criteria in this grating ideas and facts, instead of shallow, éncyclope-
chapter. dic coverage of topics that become little more than
The instructional materials criteria that follow are defmed tenns; and whether it messes how we come
different from past criteria in a number of ways. As to know what we know in science and how scientists
Table 9 summarizes, the list is short and to the point. do their work.
Content is treated dynamically, including a the- In examining adopted materials for local selection,
matic approach that makes connections among ideas committees should assume that the state-adopted
and that values depth over breadth of coverage. These materials have satisfied minimal requirements for the
ideas are consistent with the national calls for change quality of content. This is not the same as assuming
in science education, exemplified by the American that the content is optimal and equally good in all
Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) adopted materials. Local selectors areurged to read
report, Science for All Americans, which suggests that and examine printed materials and directed activities
we should teach less material, teach it better, and with an eye toward seeing how well the material is
spend more time on it. The presentation of material treated. One good appmach is for an evaluator to
should be open and engaging, with vocabulary used choose a unit or several units with which he or she is
to facilitate understanding rather than as an end in most familiar and judge how well these materials
itself. Finally, students must expelience science as it meet the criteria explained here, as well as the needs
is connected with real experience and problem of the students in a given district.
solving, and the materials that support these expe..-
ences must be considered part of the basic program
(i.e., in the 70 percent category).
Many of the criteria that follow address the particu-
lar issues of text. To some this will imply a text-based The topics discussed in Part II of this
program. Although it is likely that many science framework are treated in the instructional
programs will have a variety of print materials,
materials under consideration.
including a basic textbook, this in no way is meant to
discourage the use of other media such as film, The three chapters on physical, earth, and life
videotape, and videodisk; software and other com- sciences g;ve the broad outlines of a content curricu-
puter tools; specimens, equipment, and other objects; lum in natural science. Not all possible topics are
reference books, readers, glossaries, and other print mentioned by name, nor does the vocabulary in these
material. In fact, criterion 10 expLitly calls for sections necessarily correspond to the vocabulary that
hands-on experiences to be integral (40 percent) to appears in instructional materials of the correspond-
the science program. ing grade level. However, the concepts given at

200 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

particular grade levels in this framework should be Second, there are errors in interpretation. For
treated at those levels in the instructional materials example, the principle of uniformitarianism in earth
under consideration. For example, the concept of science should not be presented as the "Law of
lithification (how rocks are formed) should be Uniform Change" and interpreted as a doctrine that
introduced in materials intended to discuss earth says that things now happen pretty much as rimy
science in grades six through nine, and not earlier cr always have. (Unifomritarianism is nothing more
later; but it is not necessary to use the term lithifica- than the operating principle that the laws of the
don in these grades. universe have not changed since the beginning of
Experienced educators and producers of instrue- time; but that differs from inferring constant rates of
tional materials will note our relarive deemphasis on erosion, sedimentation, and so forth.)
the presence of content (5 percent). This is because Third, there are failures to integrate obviously
we emphasize that it is more important to treat certain related concepts, such as continental drift, changes in
topics well and to integrate them with other concepts the fossil record of continents through time, and the
and ideas than it is to provide encyclopedic coverage. genetic mechanisms that underlie changes in species
Consequently, we strongly recommend deempha- through evolutionary history. It is as important to
sizing or eliminating checklists in selecting materials correct these kinds of errors as it is to correct the
for local use. Rather than enumerating whether every simplest error. The reason for this is explained in the
topic is covered, it is more important to consider next criterion.
whether what is included is considered well, in detail,
and accurately. We urge the use of qualitative rather
than quantitative criteria when considering instruc-
tional materials for local adoption. Instructional programs should be organized
around thejnes, not aroundfacts.
The big ideas of science are what hold it together as
a discipline, united in its methods and in the continu-
ity of its evidence. Science programs no longer can be
Content is treated accurately and correctly. compilations of disjointed trivia, even if such compi-
lations achieve high success in training students to
By accurately and correctly we mean that instruc-
pass standardized tests. Concepts and ideas should be
tional material should present what is currently
integrated, and their connections made explicit,
understood in science, not simply rehash traditionally
within and among chapters and units. Instructional
covered materials. Content should also be presented
programs should not be written or marketed as if the
as what is understood in science, not qualified with units in them could be presented in any order. That is
modifiers ("many scientists believe") when dealing unrealistic. Material in the later units of science
with robust scientific conclusions. programs should refer to material learned in previous
Considerable improvement is needed in the validity
units, because that is how science builds on itself
of scientific content presented in instructional materi- just as a person's education builds on itself. State-
al& In general, them are three classes of problems ments like "Remember this concept from Chapter 4?"
with the content in typical science materials. First, and "You will see how this fits into earth science in
there are simple errors of fact (such as "most muta-
Chapter 11" are to be encouraged.
tions are harmful," when it should state that the effect As one example, consider the parts of a flowec the
of most mutations on organisms is, in fact, neutral). sepals, petals, anthers, stamens, pistil, and so on.
These are generally easy to correct, but remain These can be taught in a perfectly straightforward and
nagging problems if not corrected. Local selection dry fashion, as a series of boldfaced terms to be
committees are encouraged to contact the Mathemat- memorized and labeled on a diagram. But in the
ics, Science, and Environmental Educatier. Unit of context of a theme such as structure and function, or
the Department of Education if they have questions evolution, the student is able to realize that the facts
about content presented in instructional materials fit into a larger picture; there is a reason for learning
under consideration.

201
219 Chapter 8Instructional Materials Criteria
 them, and the larger picture may even be interesting. is presented is important. In the physical sciences,
Sepals and petals, for instance, look very similar and energy must be taught before the concepts of electric-
may arise from the same kinds of tissues. But scpals ity, magnetism, and gravity are introduced. In the
often support the flower, whereas petals often attract biological sciences, evolution must be explained
vignally oriented pollinators such as bees and moths. before classification, because classification is based on
The larger picture of structure and function, of evolutionary relationships. Then the diversity of life
systems and interactions, integrates the facts and and its phylogenetic interrelationships can be-treated.
makes them relevant. It is stressed at several places in this framework,
As another example, consider the vital interrelation- notably in Chapter 2, that the themes suggested and
ship of genetics, evolutionary biology, and the fossil developed here are not to be regarded as rigid. There
record. Inmost science programs, there are separate are many other possible configurations of thematic
units on these three topics. And in many such pro- ideas besides those suggested here. What is important
grams, no connection is made among the three. But is that some thematic strands be selected and incorpo-
the genetic code determines the development of the rated in the presentation of science in all curricula.
individual, which must survive to reproduce its genes
in the next generation. As it does so, its genetic
material combines with the genes of its mate to
determine the composition of the next generation.
Natural selection plays a vital part in the differential
survival of these individuals, and it fosters the change
Instructional materials in science should
in composition of populations that is the raw material emphasize depth of understanding, not
of evolution. The track of evolution is seen not only encyclopedic breadth of coverage.
in the living world but also through more than 600
Textbooks should not be encyclopedic. No textbook
million years of the fossil record. The succession of
can cover the entire discipline and do it well. Instead,
rock beds that encase these fossils and the geochemi- instructional materials should take a major theme or
cal means of determining their ages bring physics and several major themes or strands and interweave them
chemistry back into the process of understanding the into a logical and coherent exposition of the disci-
history of life, just as physics and chemistry form the
pline under study. This criterion has some direct im-
basis of molecular biology of the gene. plications for the adoption of instructional materials
No instructional program can be acceptable if it and for the assessment of student performance.
fails to treat these, topics or fails to show their neces- It is dismaying that checklists are often the princi-
sary interrelationship. The theme of evolution links pal way in which content is assessed. The coverage of
all the disciplines necessary to the study of life. Even
concepts, terms, and subjects, when measured by
if genetics, evolutionary biology, and the fossil record checklists, produces instructional objectives con-
are accorded separate units; their connection must be nected in prose. Mentioning or defining a topic does
explicitly shown and cross-referenced in each sup- not cover it, and even covering it, regardless of the
porting unit.
length at which it is covered, does not ensure mean-
An important implication for the use of themes in ingful or readable prose. Often, it ensures only an
instructional materials and curricula is that the opportunity to insert more definitions and mentions.
component units of scientific curricula should be These counterproductive criteria of the adoption
taught in a meaningful order, and this criterion will be process drive the engine of mediocrity and make
of prime importance in evaluating instructional
dictionaries of textbooks. We urge local selection
materials:Interconnections among ideas and concepts agencies to eliminate quantitative criteria for the
that span several subfields mquire knowledge of
assessment of instructional materials and to focus on
some concrete facts and some abstract concepts qualitative evaluation of the coverage of key issues,
before others can be covered in a meaningful way. In
fundamental concepts, and integration of ideas.
designing curricula, attention must be paid to the- Clearly, a thematic orientation of textual material
matic development as facts and concepts are intro- requires shortening or eliminating some mater:al
duced, and this meanc that the order in which material currently found in most instructional programs if

202 Part InAchieving the Desired Curriculum

rl ri
4.A1
textbooks are not to grow excessively large. But Section C Presentation
educators can be confident that a great deal of mate-
rial in current curricula can be scrutinized and
abridged or eliminated without detriment to the PRESENTATION means how science is described,
science program. This is discussed fiirther in Chapter organized, written, and illustrated.
2, The Major Themes of Science. Submitted instruc-
tional Materials will not be penalized for omitting
breadth of coverage in favor of depth and good
integration of thematic lines.
Language must be made accessible to stu-
dents.

As discussed in Chapter 6, Section J, students with

limited proficiency in English must not be excluded
Explanations should embroider the accumu- from the study of science until such time as they are
lation of knowledge, with a detailed descrip- proficient in English. Teachers' editions and refer-
tion of how it is that we come to know these ence materials muSt suggest ways that instruction for
facts and why this information is important. limited-English-proficient (LEP) students can be
made comprehensible to them, age appropriate, and at
This approach is preferable to a recitation of trivia
a level commensurate with their academic ability and
that is not particularly worth knowing outside any training. Providing editions in the primary language
context. For exampl% in discussing the features of the
of the LEP students is one way of giving them access
seafloor, the author of a textbook might state:
to the curriculum. Providing glossaries and summa-
The land on the continents is primarily flat. There are ries of key concepts in the primary language of these
also mountains and valleys. These features provide students is another way. The five largest language
variability in the land. Similarly, the seafloor is like groups among LEP students in California, in rank
the surface of the land. Most of the seafloor is flat. order, are Spanish, Viemamese, Chinese, Cambodian,
Near the middle of the oceans, there are mountains and Pilipino.
and canyons. Here is where the seafloor is said to be
spreading.
The author could have presented the information
much better in this way:
After World War I, scientists developed sonar, so that The prose style of instructional materials
they could see objects under water by bouncing should be considerate and engaging, and the
sound waves off them and picking up the echo. It had language ancivocabulary of Science should
been assumed that the ocean bottom was largely flat, be respected.
but when sound waves were bounced off the floor in
the mid-Atlantic Ocean, they showed great mountains Too often, the selection of instructional materials is
and chasms. This is where the seafloor is spreading. subjugated to constricting, destructive readability
formulas, with no consideration for student interest or
The relief features of the surface of the continents, the liveliness of prose. Just as important, the way in
described in the first passage, should be fairly obvi- which scientific terms are used, particularly those that
ous to most students. Teachers are eminently capable relate to science as a method of inquiry, are distorted.
of filling in the context by contrasting the familiar Consequently, students never really learn what
(surface features on land) with the unfamiliar (surface science is, or how it differs from other kinds of
features of the ocean floor). It makes more sense to inquiry, and how its terminology reflects this.
use available space to tell them what they do not
already know and to motivate them by showing them (a) Lively, Engaging Style. Instructional materials
how discoveries are made. should be written in a lively, engaging style (referred

ft
Chapter 8Instructional Materials Criteria 203
221
 to as considerate text), rather than in choppy prose science and should respect the intelligence of stu-
driven by readability formulas, or in a passive voice
dents. Modifiers such as "Some scientists believe"
that talks down to the reader in a manner that creates and "Many scientists agree" present science as a
passivity and boredom. It is dismaying that readabil-
consensus activity. Rather, textbooks should empha-
ity indices, some of which use vocabulary lists size the fact that scientists base their conclusions on
outmoded decades ago, are still dominating determi- data, which are valid at a given Point. We have taken
nations of grade-level suitability. For many years it
up this issue in Section B of this chapter and in
was popular to argue that content-area materials
Chapter 1. We restate it here in a-form that applies to
should be written one or two grade levels below ordi- the construction of vocabulary in science materials.
nary reading levels to avoid frustration. This is partic-
ularly disabling in content subjects, because usually (c) Vocabulary. Vocabulary should not be a main
some number of new and unfamiliar words must be focus of text. Books that contain an inordinate
learned in order to manipulate concepts and ideas number of boldfaced or italicized words may be more
easily, and many of these words are polysyllabic. But intent on defining these words than on explaining and
if a readability computation on a typical issue of relating the concepts to which they are germane.
Spiderman Comics yields a twelfth grade reading More than likely, such textbooks emphasize the
level, are we to assume that the nine-year-old who memorization of terms at the experue of understand-
sits enthralled with the book is not understanding it? ing and integrating ideas. Textbooks should empha-
Readability formulas are injurious to publishers size vocabulary development only when the terms
and, by extension, to students. Formulas force pub- introduced add to the abilities of students to under-
lishers into what can be called a maximum-minimum stand concepts and communicate about the subject.
bind; that is, they are obliged to use technical terms Vocabulary loads should not occupy space better
and so must compensate for their effect on readability devoted to other, more meaningful scientific inquiry.
formulas by using only very simple words and short It is less important to know the names of the three
sentences in the rest of their prose. No one benefits kinds of rocks than it is to understand how rocks are
from this situation. Children, like adults, are mod- formed and how this came to be understood.
vated'to read what interests them. If the prose is Consider, for example, the following sample
sufficiently interesting and the illustrations effective passage on levers:
and appropriate, we need not underestimate the A bar that is used for a lever always turns on a
potential interest of students. An engaging narrative fixed point called a fulcrum. The fulcrum is the
prose style can overcome the stultifying effect of spot where the lever is held in place as it moves.
readability formulas. The fulcrum placement determines exactly how
If text does not read well, it will probably not the lever works. When a bar, used as a lever, has
engage its readers. Try this exercise: read pessages the fulcrum between the effort exerted and the
from a textbook aloud to yourself, to colleagues, and object to be moved, it is called a first-class
to students. You will know from their expressions lever. A second-class lever has the object
whether this book is effective in its prose style. If, as between the effort and the fulcrum. A nut-
in one recent junior high life science book, the cracker is a second-class lever. When the lever
authors require five sentences to convey to the action is between the resistance and the fulcrum,
student that trilobites, mammoths, and sabertooth cats it is referred to as a third-class lever. A shovel is
are extinct, the prose is probably not particularly considered a third-class lever.
engaging. Students who are old enough to be taught
science are old enough to appreciate good narrative The terms lever, fulcrum, effort, and object are
style and probably prefer Nancy Drew and the Hardy arguably necessary terms to communicating ideas
Boys to The Cat in the Hat. Therefore, textbooks about the transmission of force. But what is the
should be written as explanations of discovery, not as purpose of this passage other than to taxonomize
primers. various forms of a simple tool? When are various
classes of levers useful or necessary? Why arc some
(b) Respect for Language and Students. Instruc-
nutcrackers second-class levers while others are first-
tional materials should respect the language of class levers? Is a shovel always a third-class lever, or

204 Fart 111Achieving the Desired Curriculum

can it also be a first-class lever? Which class of lever anism, already mentioned as an example, is fre-
requires the most force, and why would anyone want quently garbled as "the law of uniformity" or, worse
to use a third-class lever, anyway? yet, "the law of uniform change," which is precisely
not what uniformitarianism is about. (Uniformitarian-
(d) Glossaries. The glossaries of instructional ism is a statement that the natural laws of the universe
materials often misuse scientific vocabulary. Often, have always been in effect, not that rates and pro-
nouns are defined as if they were verbs; and verbs, as cesses have always been the same.) In this example,
if they were adjectives; and the phonetic pronuncia- the cormptive euphemism distorts and confuses the
tions supplied are both incorrect and phonically science that it is supposed to present in the service of
inconsistent with the standairl practices of diction. inappropriate prescriptions of grade-level suitability.
These deficiencies are signs of a slipshod text. More Other corruptive euphemisms occur in the context
important, however, defmitions of terms given in of historically sensitive terms. For example, some
glossaries should not merely paraphrase the sentences textbooks use the term development, which refers
in the text in which these terms appear. (That is what specifically to an individual's growth from one-celled
an index is for.) A student will not be enlightened by stage to adult, as a false synonym for evolutIon in an
finding an unfamiliar term with an inadequate de- effort to avoid the social repercussions that the word
scription in the text, then by looking it up in the evolution evokes from some individuals. This prac-
glossary find the same words but rearranged: Those tice is reprehensible. The only way that publishers
'who selecti ,structional materials will find it instruc- will be fmed of this practice is for the correct terms to
tive to spend some time with the glossaries of materi- be specified in frameworks, and for the use of weak
als under review. or invalid alternative terms to be discouraged.
(e) SI Metric System. The metric system is used by A third kind of corruptive euphemism involves
scientists for units of measurement because of its what might be called special science. Frequently, one
simplicity in calculations and its international accep- encounters a passage in a textbook such as, "Desali-
tance. Traditional units of measure, however, may be nation of seawater is done with special equipment,"
more familiar io many students and thus easier for with no further explanation. What does the word
them to use and understand. Although students should special mean in that sentence? It means, perhaps, the
gradually become familiar with the metric system, it same as magic, a word that may as well have been
is more important for them to understand concepts of substituted for it. It means, perhaps, "You're not
measurement than to memorize unfamiliar terms smart enough to understand this," and so the intelli-
primarily because they are mom accepted in the gence of the student is insulted. Why, then, include
scientific community. Thus, instmctional materials the concept of desalination at all? Or perhaps the use
should reflect the use of measurement units that will of the term special in that sentence means that the
be likely to be understood by students. At the appro- author of the text could not find a way to explain it to
priite pedagogical levels, students should be intro- the audience, could not explain it with terms that
duced to scientific practices and conventions of would iit readability formulas, or did not have the
measurement as well as to the masons why these necessary space in the text to do so. The word special
practices and conventions are favored (e.g., ease of has no particular scientific meaning, and it should
calculating in a decimal system; international accep- nevei be used in a text to substitute for an explanation.
tance). Teachers and other selectors of instructional mate-
(f) Corruptive Euphemism. One of the most disturb- rials at the local level are encouraged to monitor
ing features of current instructional materials is the closely the materials submitted for their considera-
practice of what could be called corruptive euphe- tion. We have provided here only a sample of the
mism. This is the use of one word, usually a weaker faults of presentation frequently encountered in
pseudosynonym or a word with more neutral value in textbooks and other materials. We suggest that a
a social context, as a substitute for the genuine close critical reading of submitted materials, with
scientific tenn or concept. these ideas in mind, may help to discriminate among
Some corruptive euphemisms are used to accom- possible choices. We also suggest asking students
modate readability formulas. The law of uniformitari- themselves how the books read to them.

Chapter 8Instructional Materials Criteria 205

223
 presents not the resolution of controversy but the
supplanting of apparently archaic ideas. That is not
how science works.
The character of scienc. must be repre- Above all, in discussing scientific controversies,
sented faithfully. This means that It must be attention should be focused on the weight of evi-
shown as open to inquiry, open to contro- dence. There are nearly always certain facts and
versy, and nondogmatic by its nature. observations that can be interpreted in a light differ-
ent from prevailing theories. The evidence of our
These particulars are explained in the paragraphs human senses, for example, would suggest that the
that follow. simplest explanation of the patterns of night and day
is that the sun, like the moon, goes around the earth.
(a) The Nature of Science. Instructional materials
And indeed, it is difficult for the average person to
should explain and exemplify the nature of science as
a form of inquiry and understanding. For a full refute this inference. But the weight of evidence does
not accord with it, and undue significance should not
explanation and examples of what this means, see
be given to isolated facts or inferences in responsible
Chapter 1, The Nature of Science. We stress here that
this understanding iS not to be roped off in an intro- classroom instruction and instructional materials.
Specific examples of controversial issues in science
ductory chapter but is to be integrated thoroughly in
and how they should be treated arc given in Chapter
the narrative of the text. The scientific method is not
1, Section E, Social Issues in Science.
a monolithic formula that can be reduced to hypothe-
sis-materials-methods-observations-conclusions. (c) Understanding, Not Dogmatism. Instructional
Instead, examples of how scientists investigate materials should not be dogmatic or selectively dog-
problemsexamples that delineate the processes, matic. The thrust of the text should direct the student
successes, and limitations of scienceshould appear toward inquiry rather than conclusions. Science
in every chapter. should not be presented as a corpus of settled dogma
or authoritarian statements. It should be shown to be
(b) Controversy in Science. Instructional materials authoritative, but not authoritarian, and constantly
should encourage responsible, science-based discus- self-correcting (again, see Chapter 1, Section C,
sion of controversial or contentious issues. Science Teaching "What Science Is").
should be portrayed as a vital, changing endeavor
Moreover, sensitive issues in science, that is, those
with controversy and competing lines of intellectual with some social relevance or controversy, should not
discussionnot as a sterile, dogmatic discipline in be roped off as conjectural or as matters of opinion.
which facts arc known and approaches are agreed on. Certainly, some issues connected with science are
The historical growth of science should be reflected controversial, but that does not mean that the science
in controversy.
itself is controversial. The implications of issues on
This desideratum must be explained carefully. which science bears arc complex matters of public
History is usually written by the winners, but science policy and cultural interpretation, but this has no
that survives does so because ideas and findings have bearing on the science itself. Furthermore, no instruc-
withstood constant further inquiry. In science, it is not tional materials should ever convey the impression
the struggle of individuais against individuals that that science itself is a matter of guesswork, belief, or
matters, but of ideas and evidence against competing opinion.
ideas and evidence. Controversies in science should We repeat here the fundamental conviction of this
be presented as matters of evidence, not of personali-
framework: Education does not compel belief; it
ties. Historical figures are not to be trotted out simply seeks to encourage understanding. Nothing in sci-.
to suow the faults and quaintness of earlier workers. ence, or in any other field, should be taught dogmati-
An example of this is Lamarck, whose theory of cally. But teaching about something does not consti-
evolution predated and wag challenged by Darwin's. tute advancing it as truth. In science, there is no truth.
Students are often presented with simplified explana- There is only knowledge that tests itself and builds on
tions of Lamarck's ideas but arc seldom shown what itself constantly. This is the message that students
work was done to falsify them. This is a disservice. It should take away with them.

206 Part IIIAchieving the Desired Curriculum

224
 to other concepts. Assessment should also take a
variety of forms, including activities, journals,
recorded observations, problem solving, and portfo-
Science should not be presented as an lios of accomplished work.
enterprise operating In isolation from society
and technology or from other fields of
knowledge.
Instructional programs must be connected
Technological advances are based on fundamental
science, including a proper appreciation of the with experience.
philosophy and methods of science. Integration of There are four major features by which instruc-
science and technology, where appropriate, is part of tional materials should be evaluated in the context of
any good science program. this criterion.
As a corollary, emphasis on recent advances in
science should bc mandatory in every science pro- (a) Student Involvement. Instructional materials
should involve students in science through problem
gram. For example, discoveries of Mendel and
Darwin are important to explain, but the sciences of solving and decision making. Programs should
encourage active learning on the part of students in
genetics and evolution have made considerable
which they are actively-engaged in the doing of
prop= since the mid-1800s. Students should be
pmsented with these advances so that they can science, rather than treating students as passive
understand the intellectual vibrance of these fields learners, the empty vessels into which accumulated
knowledge is poutud. Part of this approach is to use
and the ways in which science progresses, always
testing and building on what has gone before with hands-on, manipulative experimental materials to
solve problems. This approach is canonical in most
new ideas, new techniques, and new evidence.
science curricula at the present time, so we do not
In the same way, science should be explicitly
integrated with other disciplines, especially the expect this criterion to be regarded as revolutionary.
linguistic, historical, and mathematical fields. It We do support the goal of increasing hands-on time
in science classes to at least 40 percent of the total
should not be seen as an isolated discipline estranged
from other fields of inquiry, such as the arts and devoted to teaching science, and instructional pro-
health. The etymology of scientific words, the grams should reflect this goal.
There is considerable pedagogical benefit in having
accounts made by scientists of their own discoveries
students repeat experiments or investigations that
and of their times, and the applications of mathemat-
ics and of numerical organization of information to have become part of the basic understanding of
scientific investigations are all examples of vitally sciencesuch as manipulating the conditions of
important features of a good science curriculum. water, soil, and light under which bean plants grow.
Most students could understand the conditions that
produce the best growth in plants simply by having
. o 9 -6 .6 66 them explained verbally. But actually performing the
manipulations validates and internalizes these ideas
and makes them vivid to the student.
PEDAGOGY refers to the instructional methods that Experiment can also stimulate further inquiry of a
are employed. We stress several goals here. First, more open-ended sort. (What happens if I plant mari-
hands-on experience should be emphasized, and both golds and beans together?) Instructional materials
printed materials and activities should be related to should suggest further investigations that can be
real experiences. Second, the textbooks and other carried lut in order to take the basic questions a step
instructional materials should not be the sole sources further, not just to perform variations on a theme. In
of information for the students. Third, assessment of addition, instructional materials can show students
learning should go beyond the level of recall and how the kinds of experiments they are carrying out
paraphrased mull to include assessment of how have led to advances in science and technology. (For
students can use the concepts learned and relate them example, farmers rotate certain crops so as not to

Chapter 8-1nstructional Materials Criteria 207

225
deplete minerals in the soil; some plants used in this aspects as the context of scientific discoveries, the wri-
way, such as clover, actually return vital nitrogenous ters of instructional materials can show students that
compounds to the soil.) Instructional materials should science is put to work for people, that research is stim-
encourage students to explore the "what if?" questions ulated because of real needs of real people, and that
that lead to creative, integrated, and applied learning. discoveries in science help us to make informed deci-
The teacher's edition of instructional materials is sions about the critical problems that face humanity.
often the best place to suggest open-ended, hands-on For example, many instructional prugrams on the
inquiries and activities that can motivate student environment have units in which conservation of
interest and learning. Districts should encourage natural resources is encouraged and waste is de-
science supervisors and curriculum developers to plored. These are commendiNe. However, to be
emphasize hands-on units and activities in working comprehensive with respect to the scientific side of
with classroom teachers. Administrators should conservation issues, instructional marials should
provide and encourage the use of release time for provide students with tables of estimates of represen-
teachers to attend in-service training designed to tative nonrenewable natural resources (coal, oil,
familiarize teachers with hands-on approaches to aluminum, and so forth), together with estimated
science teaching. Elementary and middle school rates of depletion. Students should also understand
teachers should be encouraged in this effort as much how long it takes typical waste materials, such as
as junior and senior high specialist teachers. glass, paper, styrofoam, and aluminum and steel cans,
(b) Interdisciplinary Approach. Scientific discover- to degrade in the environment. For a hands-on
ies should be presented in the social, political, and component, they should be encouraged to measure
historical contexts in which they took place, much as the use of nonrenewable resources and energy
they are treated in the History-Social Science Frame- sources by themselves, their families, and their
work. Vaccines and medical advances have histori- schools. They should calculate the amount of yearly
cally been developed in the context of a dire social use by their community or region and compare this to
need for them at a particular time and place. Darwin the use of such resources by other communities or
worked out his theory of natural selection because, cultures, and to the estimates of remaining stores of
although the fact of evolution was generally accepted these nonrenewable resources. Only then will stu-
by scientists of his time, a mechanism for change in dents be able to make informed decisions as adult
the species of organisms through time was still citizens about some of the scientifically based issues
needed. Kepler worked out an elliptical model of the that will face them in their daily lives. Instructional
orbits of the planets around the sun because he could materials should encourage and suggest to teachers
not make any circular model fit the observations the possibilities of including people from the commu-
available to him. The understanding of mechanics of nity to provide information, insight, and bases for
the solar system was central to the natural philosophy discuss;on of "real-world" problems connected with
of Renaissance knowledge on which so much intel- scientific knowledge.
lectual, political, and cultural philosophy depended. (c) Meaningful Activities. Activities must be mean-
The agricultural research that resulted in the Green ingful and integrative, not simply based on recall.
Revolution of the 1970s was stimulated by an im- Activities in science textbooks and supplemental
pending crisis in the world's supply of foodjust as materials frequently do not help teachers and students
a tragically misguided effort, headed by Lysenko in to internalize and manipulate the concepts and evi-
the USSR from the 1930s through the 1950s, was dence presented in the units. Role-playing games and
designed to meet increasingly ominous food short- arts and crafts projects may be fun and are intrinsic to
ages in the Soviet Union at that time. Nearly every some kinds of learning, but in the context of most of
technological tool has an important historical and the ideas in which they are commonly employed in
social context that was vital to its development. Even textbooks, they are irrelevant. "Make a model of the
the familiar microwave ovens of our kitchens today Grand Canyon," suggested one textbook to eighth
are the by-products of the need to develop better graders. And how many years would that take? More
radar facilities during World War II. significantly, what is a student supposed to learn from
By bringing out these historical, cultural, and social this exercise? The textbook provided no clue.

208 Part 111Achieving the Desired Curriculum

 Rather than have students make casts and molds of Great improvement is needed in the suggestions for
leaves and shells each year from the third through the further mading at the end of a chapter or unit in most
eighth grade, it would be mom useful to explore the current instructional p:ograms. Typical suggestions in
preservation of fossil remains by leaving chicken current instructionat materials frequently list out-
bones in different kinds of local environments and dated, nonauthoritative, or relatively inaccessible
checking on them every few days until differential sources. These features of instructional programs
deterioration becomes noticeable. Rather than have appear to promise much, but generally are not very
students imagine how many carnivores and herbi- helpful to teachers. Publishers and adoption commit-
vores can coexist in an imaginary ecosystem, teachers tees should work with content area experts to find
should bring well-done films on actual ecosystems better treatments that explain and expand topics in the
into class, thereby increasing motivation, experience, chapters and that are engaging in their prose style to
and basis for discussion. Such resources are readily students and (for teachers' editions) teachers alike.
available, and publishers need to find and 1" them in These would also be of great useto school librarians.
their teachers' resources, instead of the repetitious, Instructional materials could be greatly improved
unimaginative works that often constitute such by the inclusion of first-person accounts of scientific
recommendations. (For suggestions, contact the discoveries and the excitement of science. There are
Mathematics, Science, and Environmental Education many classic examples ranging from Beaumont's
Unit of the Department of Education.) study of the stomach processes of a wounded trapper,
As an underpinning to this recommendation, the to Darwin's account of his discoveries on board the
materials and supplies (apart from expendable H.M.S. Beagle; to Richard Feynman's stories of
materials that need periodic replacement) necessary building a crystal radio set as a child, picking the
to instructional programs should be considered part of locks at Los Alamos National Laboratories, and
the basic program eligible for expenditure under the discovering how a flaw in construction of the 0-rings
70 percent criterion of the State Board of Education. destroycd the Challenger spacecraft. Such acrounts
Basic instructional materials are those parts of a could be framed in a few paragraphs in a "box"
program without which the program could not be typical of features now present in all textbooks.
carried out effectively. In a program devoted in large Original source materials are vital to conveying the
part to hands-on activities, which is the goal of this understanding and excitement of science. And, as
criterion of the framework, such materials would noted in Eyeopeners! reading levels should not be
include experimental and other equipment and assumed to be a problem; good books are ageless.2
supplies used in student participation and teacher
demonstrations, in addition to print and electronic
media that am fundamental parts of the curriculum. If
a concept or unit cannot be taught in the program
under consideration without a given piece of equip- Instructional materials must recognize cul-
ment (whether printed, electronic, or macipulable), it tural diversity and reflect strategies that re-
is considered necessary to the instructional program search and practice have shown to be suc-
and should qualify for the 70 percent funds. cessful in meeting the needs of all students.
(d) Variety of Resources. Textbooks and other
provided instructional materials should not be the Many of the suggestions in Chapter 6 that are
sole sources of information for the student. As stated designed for all students are especially important for
above, instructional materials should not be encyclo- students from groups historically underrepresented in
pedic in their coverage, nor can they possibly be advanced science courses. Because it is imperative
expected to satisfy all of a student's curiosity. Part of that culturally different students succeed in science
good education is to teach and encourage students to education, this criterion emphasizes the pedagogical
seek supplementary msources. Instructional, programs techniques that enable them to be successful:
will be most useful when they do this conscientiously (a) Current Research. Instructional practices based
and effectively. This means that reading lists, activi- on current research on cultural learning styles should
ties, and chapter reviews should be more creative,
'Beverly Kobrin. Eyeoperters! New York. Pcnguin Books. 1988,
appropriate, and conscientiously constructed.

227 Chapter 8Instructional Materials Criteria 209

 be included in the content of teachers' manuals and textbooks that are little more than dictionaries; a real
integrated in the design of the students' materials. textbook with good narrative prose and true exposi-
(b) Learning Goals. The full range of learning tion of ideas and concepts should elicit much more
goals, including the processes of science and applied creative and intellectually fruitful exercises at the
problem solving, must be part of the program for conclusions of units. Questions at the ends of chap-
every student. ters should be less regurgitative and more integrative,
(c) Relevance. Connections with student experience pulling together the themes that should be woven into
are made in several ways. First, teachers must be the chapters. Thestandard response in a teachers'
given suggestions of ways to bring the students' edition, "Answers may vary," is not particularly
helpful for teachers.
environment and experience into the classroom so
that it connects in a meaningful way with the activi- There are many ways to assess student perform-
ties that take place there. Second, the program should ance. Objective tests measure recall and some inte-
provide activities in the classroom so that all students gration of facts, ideas, and concepts. In a largely
have a common experiential base. The more that the hands-on curriculum, other more creative tools of
knowledge and processes are relevant in the students' assessment are necessary. Problem solving, particu-
everyday life, the more likely they will be able to larly solving real-world problems, involve not only
learn them. recall but also integration of ideas and creativity of
solutions. These means may be more appropriate for
(d) Successful Instructional Practices. Successful activity-oriented curricula. For example, in learning
instructional practices are incorporated. Active the basic methods of designing scientific experi-
endeavors are more successful than passive ones. ments, students may want to test rival claims of
Thus, hands-on experiences are particularly important laundry detergent manufacturers. A real-world test
for students from diverse backgrounds. Heterogene- would have to take into consideration variables such
ous, cooperative groups are particularly effective with as type of clothing, amount of detergent, water
students of varied language backgrounds and achieve- temperature, and so forth. Organizing students in
ment levels who are working toward a common pairs or teams can add to the creativity and stimulate
instructional goakOther successful practices include much animated intergroup discussion.
an integrated curriculum that emphasizes depth over Written work, particularly when not limited by the
breadth and a multidimensional program that uses a time and response constraints of a classroom test
variety of teaching methods. situation, can provide deeper insights in the creative
(e) Reasoning, Not Drill. Certain practices have processes and integrated understanding of students.
been shown to discourage students and to distance Projects and essays integrate writing skills and
them from cchool. These include excessive drill and language arts concepts in the science curriculum and
practice and pressure to get one right answer. Pro- may be used to interface with those disciplines where
grams that allow for reflective thinking value a nonfiction literature is encouraged. Students should
student's reasoning more than a single and quick right be encouraged to assemble pertfolios of their work in
answer and provide for informal group work; such a science class, including class exercises, team work,
programs are to be encouraged. reports on activities, creative projects, designs for
experiments, and observational accounts of their
results. By varying the fommt of assessment, teachers
can assess and appreciate the varied abilities of all
students, and they can better plan how to help indi-
Assessment should be integrative and ori- vidual students improve their abilities in a variety of
ented toward solving problems, not simply contexts.
recall-based. It is dismaying that curricula in science are so
largely driven by student performance on standard-
Reviews of chapters should expand on the text's ized tests. Teachers are thus forced to teach to the
presentation, not just repeat its lessons and drill end-of-year evaluations or institutionalized examina-
students in its minutiae. These failings characterize tions. There is no doubt that these tests measure

210 Part IllAchieving the Desitod Curriculum

something, but what? Too often, the memorization of are meant to be interwoven and connected, not
minutiae can ensure at least above average perform- necessarily listed under conventional chapter
ance of a student population profile. It is arguable that headings. Vocabulary should be hard to find in
an ineffective teacher can remain undetected without boldfaced definitions, because it should be used
such monitors. But standardized tests can only poorly and defined in context. Indices to books make no
evaluate philosophical understanding, creativity, distinction between a mention and an in-depth
originality, and competence in approaching prob- treatment of a concept, so to check the number of
lemsto say nothing of theindividual's ability to entries is a misleading exercise. Finally, a check-
express himself or herself on subjects. Publishers are list is likely to penalize the authors who took a
forced by these criteria to cram into their textbooks genuinely thematic approach and to reward those
and other materials even more trivia, boldfaced terms, who presented material in a bulleted, point-by-
and jargon useful only for their own sake. We suggest point fashion.
that if standardized tests are to be used at all, that 3. Do not apply a readability formula to the text. As
their results be scrutinized with care and put into indicated in the introduction to this chapter, such
perspective against other indicators of learning and formulas reward choppy sentences and frustrate
teaching effectiveness. communication. If reading level is an issue in the
district or school, the suitability of the text should
be determined by reading it aloud, or having a
Section E. Coiisiderations student of the appropriate grade level read it
aloud or silently and answer questions. The
textbook should not be the sole source of instruc-
THE criteria in the preceding section will guide the
Instructional Materials Evaluation Panel (IMEP), a tion; students should have a variety of hands-on
and other experiences. Thus, the challenge posed
group of approximately 40 teachers, curriculum
specialists, and scientists who will review the materi- by the reading level of the text should be put in
als submitted for adoption and submit their recom- the context of the rest of the curriculum and the
proportion of time that students are actually
mendations to the Curriculum Development and
Supplemental Materials Commission (CDSMC), that expected to be rcading.
will in turn make recommendations to the State Board 4. Provide for students whose English is not yet
of Education. Once the State Board has adopted the proficient enough to understand instruction in
materials for science, local districts and schools arc English. This is a concern to an increasing number
faced with the challenge of making selections from of California school districts. Provision of glos-
that adopted list. Local reviewers should have the saries and summaries of key concepts for students
following things in mind as they evaluate materials: whose knowledge of English is limited should be
Be aware of the criteria used in and the results of given extra weight in the local adoption process.
the state-level adoption process. Reports from the
IMEP's review are displayed at the Instructional
Materials Display Centers (IMDC) in conjunction Section i 'COtIolusioPutting
with the adopted materials, and a report from the Criteria-info Oractice
CDSMC is sent to every district. Those reports
may allow reviewers to see the characteristics of
materials that were judged similar and the ones WE conclude with some examples of what is and is
that differed among programs. This will save not to be desired in science writing.
time for the local panel, which can focus its The first example is the type that might come from
attention on the reported differences. a passage that could appear at the end of a section on
Do not turn the content evaluation into a check- the "four main groups of reptiles." Crocodiles, turtles,
list. The thematic approach advocated in this lizards, and snakes would be presented, even though
framework should make the use of a checklist a snakes are, in a phylogenetic sense, merely special-
frustrating experience, because ideas and topics ized lizards. No indication of the relationships of

Chapter 8Instructional Materials Criteria 211

229
 these reptile groups is given, and another living This example, apart from the objectionable phrase,
group, the sphenodontids, is omitted: "Most geologists believe," is mainly deficient by
Most life scientists believe that many reptile virtue of its choppy sentence construction. Consider
groups existed long ago. Their fossil remains the following possible text:
indicate that these large dinosaurs that once Not all faults are found at the edges of crustal
existed were reptiles.'Other reptile groups could plates. But maybe this should not be surprising.
have included species that dwelt in the ocea is or If you put a frozen chocolate bar in a vise and
nevi. science has still left undetermined why squeezed it, the chocolate might snap at many
these organisms became extinct. places along its length. Crustal plates are a bit
Of course, there is no reasonable doubt among like that chocolate bar: they receive stress on
scientists that "many reptile groups existed long ago," their edges, but they often release the energy of
and fossil remains do more than "indicate" that that stress in faults well away from their edges.
dinosaurs were reptiles. Nor is it merely that other This rewritten version attempts to incorporate some
reptiles "could have" lived in the oceans or flown of the ideas given in criteria 6, 7, and 10.
through the air. Yet, weasel-wording aside, the sterile The third example describes the simultaneous
text above has just managed to maul one of the discovery by Darwin and Wallace of the theory of
scientific topics that excites children most: dinosaurs natural selection (often erroneously equated with the
and other fossil reptiles. That passage could be theory of evolution). Here is how one text sample
greatly improved in many ways, including this one: might explain the process of science:
The living groups of reptiles arc only a shadow Alfred Wallace, a British biologist, was doing
of the many groups of reptiles that have lived on research in Malaya in 1858. He sent Charles
the earth. Most of these am now extinct, but Darwin a scientific article he was planning to
they reached the climax of their evolutionary publish. Darwin was astonished to see his ideas
history during the Age of Dinosaurs, which represented in Wallace's article. Wallace arrived
began over 200 million years ago. But fossil at the identical conclusions as Darwin did. This
reptiles also include many swimming and flying occurs in science quite often where two scien-
species that were not dinosaurs. In fact, the tists, working alone, make similar conclusions
earliest members of the living groups of reptiles or discoveries.
arose at about the same time that the first Both scientists reached the conclusion that
dinosaurs appeared. What does that suggest to different species of plants and animals were
you about the extinction of the dinosaurs? related. They found new species appearing and
If the last two sentences arc omitted, the length of other species disappearing. New species came
the text is as long as the original passage. But the from old. However, new species exhibited
additional sentences could easily have fit on the different characteristics.
original page in question. The new text was written, Wallace and Darwin decided to present their
incorporating some of the ideas in criteria 2, 3, 4, 5, findings to the world. Neither man had to have
7, and 8 discused in this chapter. major credit. Both wanted to make their findings
A second example might appear in a junior high known everywhere. Their theory is referred to
general science textbook: as the theory of evolution by natural selection.
Fault zones can also be at a distance from the The theory demonstrates how slow, gradual
ends of crustal plates. Most geologists believe changes in organisms occur over a period of
that the fault formation is related to plate years. Changes result from selection of those
motion. Movement of plates places stress on the organisms best adapted to their surmundings.
rocks of the plate. When the stress has enough The following rewrite avoids some of the misrepre-
force, the rock breaks at the weakest spots. sentation of the case, as well as preserves the narra-
These cracks are considered faults. tive style of the original text:

212 Part HIAchieving the Desired Curriculum r('t.>

'1 0
 In 1858, Alfred Wallace, a British biologist, was incolporate some of the ideas described above in
studying the tropical fauna and flora of Malaya. criteria 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8.
Sick in his tent from malaria, Wallace thought These examples should not be considered in any
about the amazing diversity of plants and way exceptional. The rewrites should in no way be
animals he had seen. What processes could lead regarded as definitive. They merely point out how
to such a range of different forms and adapta- much room them is for improvement on any typical
tions? Wallace knew from his observations of page of any typical science textbook. Whether
tropical life that there was great variation in adoption agencies encourage publishers to make such
natural populations of plants and animals. He improvements is a matter of futuit history, but
also knew that many more organisms are born without such improvements science education can be
than can survive to give birth to the next genera- consigned to the oblivion of lists of trivia, memoriza-
tion. The ones that survive, he concluded, must tion, and disjointed facts with no common thread.
do so because they ait better adapted to their In summary, the most important points made in this
environments. Only they will live to pass on section ait:
their characteristics to the next generation. 1. The desirability of thematic orientation in science
Wallace wrote to Darwin about his discovery curricula
because he learned from a mutual friend that 2. The motivation and learning that can be gener-
Darwin was exploring the same ideas. Darwin ated by hands-on, experience-oriented activities
later reported in his autobiography how shocked and curricula
he was at seeing his own ideas, on which he had 3. The importance of considerate prose and the
been woridng for decades, presented to him by elimination of readability formulas as determiners
Wallace's distant hand. Darwin had been of grade-level appropriateness of curricular
deliberately waiting to bring his ideas to the materials
public until he could accumulate what he felt 4. The fundamental respect for scientific methods of
would be an undeniable mountain of evidence in inquiry and for the language and philosophy of
favor of them. But now, he decided that he must science that is absolutely necessary to any
publish his ideas immediately, and that the adequate science program
fairest thing to do would be to publish them Improvement in instructional materials, support for
together with Wallace. He did so, and their molt in-service training for teachers, and the reevalu-
theory came to be known as natural Lelection. ation znd change in criwria commonly used in the
The rewrite is a little longer, but it contains ap- adoption and selection of instructional materials are
proximately twice as much information and pitsents the principal meais by wh:ch the current system of
events as we now understand them to have happened. developing, adoptingkand using instructional materi-
There ait also some differences corrected with als can meet the challenges of educating students
respect to the facts of the case and the theory that was about what science really is and how it can matter to
actually developed. It was written attempting to their lives.

Chapter 8. Instructional Materials Criteria

231 213
Appendix A

Significant Court Decisions Regarding

Evolution/Creation Issues

1. Edwards v. Aguillad (1987) 482 U.S. 578, 55 statute aid not have a secular purpose. The court
U.S. Law Week 4860, 107 S. Ct. 2573, 96 L. Ed also found that the emphasis on origins of life as
2d 510. The U.S. Supreme Court invalidated as an aspect of the theory of evolution is peculiar
unconstitutional Louisiana's "Creationism Act," to creationist literature. Although the subject of
which prohibited the teaching of the theory of origins of life is within the province of biology,
evolution in a public school unless accompanied the scientific community does not consider
by instruction in the theory of "creation sci- origins of life part of evolutionary theory. The
ence." The Court found that the Act impermissi- theory of evolution assumes the existence of life
bly endorses religion by advancing the religious and is directed to an explanation of how life
belief that a supernatural being created human- evolved. Evolution does not presuppose the
kind. The term creation science embraces this absence of a creator or God.
religious teaching. Forbidding the teaching of
4. Segraves v. State of California (1981) Sacra-
evolution when creation science is not also
mento Superior Court #278978. In this case Mr.
taught undermines the provision of a compre-
Segraves contended that the California State
hensive scientific education.
Board of Education's Science Framework was
2. Epperson v. Arkansas (1968) 393 U.S. 97, 37 dogmatic in its discussion of evolution and thus
U.S. Law Week 4017, 89 S. Ct. 266, 21 L. Ed prohibited the free exercise of religion by
228. The U.S. Supreme Court invalidated as himself and his children. The court found that
unconstitutional an Arkansas statute that prohib- the Science Framework, as written and as quali-
ited the teaching of evolution. The First Amend- fied by the antidogmatism policy of the State
ment to the.U.S. Constitution does not pennit a Board of Education, provided sufficient accom-
state to require that teaching and learning must modation for the religious views of Mr.
be tailored to the principles or prohibitions of Segraves. That pc:11'3...y provided that, in a discus-
any religious sect or dogma. sion of origins in science texts and classes,
3. McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education (1982) dogmatism be changed to conditional statements
529 F. Supp. 1255, 50 U.S. Law Week 2412. In where speculation is offered as explanation for
this case the federal court held a balanced origins and that science emphasizes "how" and
treatment statute to be in violation of the Estab- not "ultimate cause" for origins. The coun
lishment Clause of the U.S. Constitution. The directed the Board to make a widespread
Arkansas statute required public schools to give dissemination of the policy. In 1989 the policy
balanced treatment to creation-science and to was expanded to include all areas of science, not
evolution-science. The court found that the jusi those addressing issues of origins.

214 Science Framework

Appendix B

Education Code Sections of Special Relevance

to Science Educators

Education Code sections that are of special signifi- Hazardous substanms likely to cause physical
cance to science educators appear below. Included are injury to the eyes include materials which are flam-
regulations pertaining to devices designed to protect mable, toxic, corrosive to living tissues, irritating,
the eyes, instruction in personal health and public strongly sensitizing, radioactive, or which generate
safety, treatment of animals, requirements for gradu- pressure through heat, decomposition or other means
ation, and sex education courses. as defined in the California Hazardous Substances
Labeling Act'
32030. Duties Regarding Eye Protective Activity or the use of hazardous substances likely
Devices to cause injury to the eyes includes, but is not neces-
It shall be the duty of the governing board of every sarily limited to, the following:
school district, and of every county superintendent of 1. Working with hot molten metal.
schools, and of every person, firm, or organization 2. Milling, sawing, turning, shaping, cutting,
maintaining any private school, in this state, to equip grinding, and stamping of any solid materials.
schools with eye protective devices as defined in 3. Heat treating, tempering, or kiln firing of any
Section 32032, for the use of all students, teachers, metal or other materials.
and visitors when participating in the courses which 4. Gas or electric arc welding.
are included in Section 32031. It shall be the duty of 5. Repairing or servicing of any vehicles, or other
the superintendents, principals, teachers or instructors machinery or equipment
charged with the supervision of any class in which 6. Working with hot liquids or solids or with
any such course is conducted, to require such eye chemicals which are flammable, toxic, corrosive
protective devices to be worn by students, teachers, or to living tissues, irritating, strongly sensitizing,
instructors and visitors under the circumstances radioactive, or which generate pressure through
prescribed in Section 32031. heat, decomposition, or other means.
32031. Courses in Which Devices to Be Used; 32032. Standards for Devices
Substances and Activities Dangerous to For purposes of this article the eye protective
Eyes devices utilized shall be industrial quality eye protec-
The eye protective devices shall be worn in courses tive devices which meet the standards of the Ameri-
including, but not limited to, vocational or industrial can National Standards Institute for "Practice for
arts shops or laboratories, and chemistry, physics or Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protec
combined chemistry-physics laboratories, at any timc Lion" (Z87.1-1968), and subsequent standards that
at which the individual is engaged in, or observing, arc adopted by the American National Standards
an activity or the use of hazardous substances likely
to cause injury to the eyes. ' Health and Safety Code sections 28740 ct seq.

Appendix B 215
Institute for "Practice for Occupational and Educa- 51202. Instruction in Personal and Public
tional Eye and Face Protection." Health and Safety
32033. Sale of Devices at Cost to Pupils and The adopted course of study shall provide instruc-
Teachers tion at the appropriate elementary and secondary
grade levels and subject areas in personal and public
The eye protective devices may be sold to the
safety and accident pievention, including emergency
pupils and teachers or instructors at a price which
first-aid instruction, instruction in hemorrhage
shall not exceed the actual cost of the eye protective
control, treatment for poisoning, resuscitation tech-
devices to the school or governing board.
niques, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation when
32255.1. Pupil with Moral Objection to Dissec- appropriate equipment is available; fire prevention;
tion or Otherwise Harming or Destroy- the protection and conservation of resources, includ-
ing Animals; Notice; Alternative Educa- ing the necessity for the protection of our environ-
tional Project ment; and health, including venereal disease and the
effects of alcohol, narcotics, drugs, and tobacco upon
(a) Except as otherwise provided in Section the human body.
32255.6, any pupil with a moral objection to
dissectin2 or otherwise harming or destroying 51540. Treatment of Animals
animals, or any parts thereof, shall notify his or
her teacher regarding this objection, upon In the public elementary and high schools or in
notification by the school of his or her rights. public elementary and high school school-sponsoitd
(b) If the pupil chooses to refrain from participa- activities and classes held elsewhem than on school
tion in an education project involving the piemises, live vertebrate animals shall not, as part of
harmful or destructive use of animals, and if a scientific experiment or any purpose whatever:
the teacher believes that an adequate alterna- (a) Be experimentally medicated or drugged in a
tive education project is possible, then the manner to cause painful reactions or induce
teacher may work with the pupil to develop painful or 'lethal pathological conditions.
and agree upon an alternate education project (b) Be injured through any other treatments, in-
for the purpose of providing the pupil an cluding, but not limited to, anesthetization or
alternate avenue for obtaining the knowledge, electric shock.
information, or experience mquired by the Live animals on the premises of a public ele-
course of study in question. mentary or high school shall be housed and
(c) The alternative education project shall mquire cared for in a humane and safe manner.
a comparable time and effort investment by the
The provisionl of this section are not intended
pupiL It shall not, as a means of penalizing the
to prohibit or constrain vocational instruction
pupil be mom arduous than the original
in the normal practices of animal husbandry.
education project.
(d) The pupil shall not be discriminated against 51225.3. Requirements for Graduation Com-
based upon his or her decision to exercise his mencing with the 1986-87 School Year
or her rights pursuant to this chapter.
(e) Pupils choosing an alternative educational (a) Commencing with the 1986-87 school year, no
project shall pass all examinations of the pupil shall mceive a diploma of graduation
respective course of study in order to mceive from high school who, while in grades 9
credit for that course of study. However, if through 12, has not completed:
tests require the harmful or destructive use of (1) At least the following numbers of courses
animals, a pupil may, similarly, seek alterna- in the subjects specified, each course
tive tests pursuant to this chapter. having a duration of one year.
(f) A pupil's objection to participating in an (A) Thive courses in English.
educational project pursuant to this section (B) Two courses in mathematics.
shall be substantiated by a note from his or her (C) Two courses in science, including
parent or guardian. (Enacted 1988.) biological and physical sciences.

216 Science Framework

,b 4
 (D) Three courses in social studies, notice through the regular United States mail, or any
including United States history and other method which such local school district com-
geography; world history, culture, and monly uses to communicate individually in writing to
geography; and American government, all parents, meets the notification requirements of this
civics, and economics. paragraph.
(E) One course in fine arts or foreign Opportunity shall be provided to each parent or
language. guardian to request in writing that his child not attend
(F) Two courses in physical education the class. Such requests shall be valid for the school
unless the pupil has been exempted year in which they are submitted but may be with-
pursuant to the, provisions of this code. drawn by the parent or guardian at any time. No child
(2) Such other coursework as the governing may attend a class if a request that he not attend the
board of the school district may by rule class has been received by the school.
specify. Any written or audiovisual material to be used in a
class in which human reproductive organs and their
(b) The governing board, with the active involve- functions and processes are described, illustrated, or
ment of parents, administrators, teachers, and discussed shall be available for inspection by the
pupils, shall adopt alternative means for parent or guardian at reasonable times and places
students to complete the prescribed course of prior to the holding of a course which includes such
study which may include practical demonstra- classes. The parent or guardian shall be notified in
tion of skills and competencies, supervised writing of his opportunity to inspect and review such
work experience or other outside school materials.
experience, interdisciplinary study, independ- This section shall not apply to description or
ent study, and credit earned at a postsecondary illustration of human reproductive organs which may
institution. Requirements for graduation and appear in a textbook, adopted pursuant to law, on
specified alternative modes for completing the physiology, biology, zoology, general science,
prescribed course of study shall be made personal hygiene, or health.
available to pupils, parents, and the public. Nothing in this section shall be construed as
51550. Sex Education Courses' encouraging the description, illustration, or discus-
sion of human reproductive organs and their func-
No governing board of a public elementary or tions and processes in the public elementary and
secondary school may require pupils to attend any secondary schools.
class in which human reproductive organs and their The certification document of any person charged
functions and processes are described, illustrated or with the responsibility of making any instructional
discussed, whether such class be part of a course material available for inspection under this section or
designated "sex education" or "family life education" who is charged with the responsibility of notifying a
or by some similar term, or part of any other course parent or guardian of any class conducted within the
which pupils are required to attend. purview of this section, and who knowingly and
If classes are offered in public elementary and willfully fails to make such instructional material
secondary schools in which human reproductive available for inspection or to notify such parent or
organs and their ftInctions and processes are de- guardian, may be 'evoked or suspended because of
scribed, illustrated or discussed, the parent or guard- such act. The certification document of any person
ian of each pupil enrolled in such class shall first be who knowingly and willfully requires a pupil to
notified in writing of the class. Sending the required attend a class within the purview of this section when
' References to related sections from the Education Code appear in the
a request that the pupil not attend has been received
Health Instruction Framework for Ca-Immo Public Schools. Sacramento. from the parent or guardian may be revoked or
California Department of Education, 1978, p. 68. suspended because of such act.

235 Appendix B 217

Appendix C

Seiected References

Aldridge, Bill G. "Essential Changes in Secondary HistorySocial Science Framework for California
Science: Scope, Sequence, and Coordination," Public Schools. Sacramento: California Depart-
NSTA Reports! (January, 1989) 66-74. ment of Education, 1988.
Burke, James. Connections. Boston: Little, Brown & Instructional Materials and Framework Adoption:
Co., 1980. Policies and Procedures. Sacramento: California
Caught in the Middle: Educational Reform for Young Department of Education, Office of Curriculum
Adolescents in California Public Schools. Sacra- Framework and Textbook Development, 1988.
mento: California Department of Education, 1987.
Kobrin, Beverly. Eyeopeners! How to Choose and
EnglishLanguage Arts Framework for California Use Children's Books About Real People, Places,
Public Schools. Sacramento: California Depart- and Things. New York: Penguin Books, 1988.
ment of Education, 1987.
Mathematics Framework for California Public
Enrichment Opportunities Guide: A Resource for Schools. Sacramento: California Department of
Teachers of Students in Math and Science. Sacra- Education, 1985.
mento: California Departrnmt of Education, 1988.
Miller, Jon D. "Who Is Scientifically Literate?" Paper
Feynman, Richard P. Surely You' re Joking, Mr.
presented to the 1990 Science Education Forum,
Feynman! New York: Bantam Books, 1986.
American Association for the Advancement of
Feynman, Richard P., and Ralph Leighton. What Do Science.
You Care What Other People Think? Further
Adventures of a Curious Character. New York: Model Curriculum Standards, Grades Nine Through
W.W. Norton, 1988. Twelve Sacramento: California Department of
Education, 1985.
Foreign Language Framework for California Public
Schools. Sacramento: California Department of Moral and Civic Education and Teaching About
Education, 1989. Religion. Sacramento: California State Board of
Education, 1988.
Gould, Stephen Jay. The Panda' s Thumb: More
Reflections in Natural History,. New York: W.W. A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational
Norton, 1980. Reform, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
HammondRarnhart Dictionary of Science. Edited by Printing Office, 1983.
Robert K. Barnhart. Maplewood, N.J.: Hammond, Quality Criteria for Elementary Schools. Planning,
Inc., 1986. Implementing, Self-Study, and Program Quality
Health Instruction Framework for Cahfornia Publec Review. Sacramento: California Department of
Schools. Sacramento: California Department of Education, 1990.
Education, 1978.

218 Science Framework

46 "".
Quality Criteria for Middle Grades: Planning, The Science Report Card. National Assessment of
Implementing, Self-Study, and Program Quality Educational Progress. Princeton: Educational
Review. Sacramento: California Department of Testing Service, 1988.
Education, 1990. Science Safety Handbook for California High
Quality Criteria for High Schools: Planning, Imple- Schools. Sacramento: California Department of
menting, Self-Study, and Program Quality Review. Education, 1987.
Sacramento: California Department of Education, Statement on Preparation in Natural Science Ex-
1990. pected of Entering Freshmen. Sacramento: The
Resnick, Lauren. Education and Learning to Think. Academic Senates of the California Community
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1987 Colleges, The California State University, and the
monograph. University of California, 1986.
Technology in the Curriculum: Science Resource
Science Education for the 1980s. Sacramento:
Guide (included in full package of six subject
California Department of Education, 1985.
areas, diskettes, and updates). Sacramento: Califor-
Science for All Americans. Washington, D.C.: Ameri- nia Department of Education, 1986, 1987, 1988.
can Association for the Advancement of Science,
Temple, Robert. The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of
Inc., 1989..
Science, Discovery and Invention. New York:
Science for Children, Resources for Teaching. Simon & Schuster, 1986.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988. Visual and Performing Arts Framework for Califor-
Science Model Curricqum Guide, K-8. Sacramento. nia Public Schools. Sacramento. California De-
California Department of Education, 1988. partment of Education, 1989.

2.17 Appendix C 219

 Publications; Available from the Department of Education
This publication is one of over 650 that arc available from the California Department of Education. Some of
the more recent publications or those most widely used are the following:
ISBN Title (Date of publication) Price

0-8011-0890-x Bilingual Education Handbook: A Handbook for Designing Instruction for LEP Students (1990) $4.25
0-8011-08624 California Education Summit: Background and Final Report (a set) (1990) 5.00
0-8011-0889-6 Calibmia Private School Directory, 1990 14.00
0-8011-0853-5 California Public School Directory, 1990 14.00
0-8011-0874-8 The Changing History-Social Science Curriculum: A Booklet for Parents (1990)* 51)0110
0-8011-0867-5 The Changing Language Arts Curriculum: A Booklet for Parents (1990)* 5.00/10
0-8011-0777-6 The Changing Mathematics Curriculum: A Booklet for Parents (1989)* 5.00/10
0-8011-0856-x English as a Second Language Handbook for Adult Education Instructors (1990) 4.50
0-8011-0041-0 English-Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools (1987) 3.00
0-8011-0849-7 Food Sanitation and Safety Self-Assessment Instrument for Child Care Centers (1990) 3.75
0-8011-0850-0 Food Sanitation and Safety Self-Assessment Instilment for Famili Day Care Homes (1990) 3.75
0-8011-0851-9 Food Sanitation and Safety Self-Assessment Instrument for School Nutrition Programs (1990) 3.75
0-8011-0804-7 Foreign Language Framework for California Public Schools (1989) 5.50
0-8011-0824-I Handbook for Teaching Cantonese-Speaking Students (1989)t 4.50
0-8011-0250-2 Handbook on California Education for Language Minority Parents-Chinese/English Edition (1986)** 3.25
0-8011-0712-1 History-Social Science Framework for California Public Schools (1988) 6.00
0-8011-0782-2 Images: A Workbook for Enhancing Self-esteem and Promoting Career Prcparation, Especially for
Black Girls (1988) 6.00
0-8011-0358-4 Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools (1985) 3.00
0-8011-0840-3 Price List and Order Form for Science Instructional Materials, 1990-1992 (1990) 2.50
0-8011-0368-1 Program Duscriptions for Science Instructional Materials (1986) 2.50
0-8011-0886-1 Program Guidelines for Individuals Who An Dcaf-Blind (1990) 6.00
0-8011-0817-9 Program Guidelines for Language. Speech, and Hearing Specialists Providing Designated Instruction and
Services (1989) 6.00
0-8011.0899-3 Quality Criteria for Elementary Schools: Planning, Implementing, Self-Study, and Program Quality
Review (1990) 4.50
0-8011-0906 x Quality Criteria for High Schools. Planning, Implementing Self-Study, and Program Quality Review (1990) 4.5f,
0 8011-0905-1 Quality Critcria for Middle Grades. Planning, Implementing Sc If-Study, and Program Quality Review (1990) 4.30
0.801143858-6 Readings for Teachers of United Statcs History and Government (1990) 3.25
0-8011-0831-4 Recommended Literature, Grades 9-12 (1990) 4.50
0-8011-0863-2 Recommended Readings in Literature: Kindergarten Through Grade Eight, Addendum (1990) 2.25
0-8011-0745-8 Recommended Readings in Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight, Annotaied Editiur. (1988)t t 4.50
0-8011-0870-5 Science Framework for California Public Schools (1990) 6.50
0-8011-0669-9 Science Safety Handbook for California High Schools (1987) (without binder) 5.75
0-8011-0668-0 Science Safety Handbook for California High Schools (1987) (with binder) 8.75
0-8011-0665-6 Science Model Curriculum Guide, K-8 (1988) 3.25
0-8011-0855-1 Strengthening the Arts in California Schools: A Design for the Future (1990) 4.75
0-8011-0846-2 Toward a Statc of Esteem: The Final Report of the California Task Force to Promote Self-Esieern and .
Personal and Social Responsibility (1990) 4.00
0-8011-0854-3 Toward a Statc of Esteem, Appendixes to (1990) 4.00
0-8011-0805-5 Visual and Performing Ms Framework for California Public Schools (1989) 6.00

Orders should be directed to:

California Department of Education
P.O. Box 271
Sacramento, CA 95802-0271
Please include the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) for each title ordered.
Remittance or purchase order must accompany order. Purchase orders withont diet..ks arc a.t..cptcd only from govern-
mental agencies. Sales tax should be added to all orders from California purchasers.
A complete list of publications available from ihe Department, i:_luding apprcntit..cship instrut.tional rmiterial.), may be
obtained by writing to the address listed above or by calling (916) 445-1260.
*The price for 100 booklets is $30.00; the price for 1,030 booklets is S230.00.
tAlso available at the same price, for students who speak Japanese, Pilipino, and Portuguese.
"The following editions are also available, at the same price. Armenian/English, Cambodiaranghsh, Ilmonanglash, Japanesangloh,
Korean/English, Laotizn/English, Pilipino/English, Spanish/English, and Vietnamese/English.
tfincludes complimentary copy of Addendwn, (ISBN 0-8011-0863-2).

220 88 78089 87174 (034326) 78089 300 8.90

 Appendix 16

:
END

U.S. Dept. of Education

Office of Education
Research and
Improvement (OERI).

ERIC

Date Filmed.

March 29, 1991