MFCS

UNIT-V
Graph Theory: Basic Concepts of Graphs, Sub graphs, Matrix Representation of Graphs:
Adjacency Matrices, Incidence Matrices, Isomorphic Graphs, Paths and Circuits, Eulerian and
Hamiltonian Graphs, Multigraphs, (Problems and Theorems without proofs), Planar Graphs,
Euler’s Formula, Graph Colouring, Chromatic Number,(Problems and Theorems without proofs)
Trees, Binary Trees, Decision Trees, Spanning Trees: Properties, Algorithms for Spanning trees
and Minimum Spanning Trees

GRAPH THEORY

Basic concepts of graphs:

Graph:- A graph G consists of a pair (V,E) where V is a non-empty finite set whose elements are
called vertices (or nodes or points) and E is another set whose elements are called edges (or lines)
such that each edge eєE is associated with ordered or unordered pair of elements of V, that is there
is a mapping from the set of edge E to the set of ordered or unordered pair of elements of V.
The graph G with vertices V and edge E is written as G = (V,E) or G(V,E).
(or)
A graph G = (V,E) consists of two objects V and E such that V = {v1,v2,. ...... } called vertices
and E = {e1,e2,......} called edges and each edge ek is associated with an unordered pair (vi,vj) of
vertices.
 Edge e is said to connect u and v then u,v are called as endpoints of e.
 The edge e that joins the nodes u and v is said to be incident on each of its end points u & v.
 If two distinct edges e1 and e2 are incident with a common point then they are called
adjacent edges.
 Any two vertices connected by an edge in a graph are called as adjacent vertices.
 Vertex that is not adjacent to any other vertex is called as isolated vertex.

Eg-1:- V = {a,b,c,d} and E = {(a,b) (a,c) (a,d)} draw a graph for this information
Sol: G = (V,E) = (4,3)

In the graph a and b

are adjacent, b and c
are non-adjacent.

Eg-2:- let V = {1,2,3,4} and E = {(1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (2,3) (2,4) (3,4)} draw a graph.
Sol: G = (V,E) = (4,6)

In the graph edge (1,3) &

(2,4) intersect, however
their intersection is not a
vertex of the graph.

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Eg-3:- Consider (10, 15)

This graph is called as Petersen graph.

V = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
E = {(1,2) (2,3) (3,4) (4,5) (5,1) (1,9) (2,7) (3,10)
(4,8) (5,6) (6,7) (6,10) (7,8) (8,9) (9,10)}

Types of Graphs:

Null graph:- A graph in which number of edge is zero is called as null graph
Eg: .v1 .v2

.v3 .v4

Self loop:- An edge joining a vertex to itself is called as self loop. A loop may be defined as an edge
(vl,vm) , where vl = vm.

Eg: v1 v2

v3 v4
v2 is a self loop.

Parallel edges:- If there is more than one edge between two vertices they are called parallel edges.
Eg:

e4 and e5 are parallel edges

Simple Graph:- A graph which contains neither self-loops nor parallel edges is called a simple
graph.
Eg:

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Multi graph:- A graph which contains parallel edges is called a multi graph.
Eg:

Pseudograph:- A graph in which loops and multiple edges are allowed is called a pseudo graph.
Eg:

Directed graph:- A directed graph or digraph G consists of a set V of vertices and a set E of edges
such that each edge e є E is associated with an ordered pair of vertices. In other words, if each edge
of the graph G has direction then the graph is called directed graph.
Eg:

Undirected graph:- An undirected graph G consists of a set V of vertices and the set E of edges such
that each edge e є E is associated with an unordered pair of vertices.
Eg:

Complete graph:- A simple graph G is said to be complete if every vertex in G is connected with
every other vertex if G. A complete graph is usually denoted by Kn .
Eg:

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Regular graph:- A graph in which all vertices are of equal degree is called a regular graph. If the
degree of each vertex is r, then the graph is called a regular graph of degree r.
Eg:

Note:- Every null graph is a regular graph of degree zero.

Cycle Graph:- A cycle Cn , n  3 consists of n vertice v1,v2,… vn and edges {v1,v2},{v2,v3}……{vn-1,vn}

and {vn,v1}.
Eg:

C3 C4 C5
Wheels:- A wheel Wn is obtained when an additional vertex is added to the cycle C n, for n>=3 and
this new vertex is connected to each of the n vertices in Cn .
Eg:

Bipartite graphs:- A graph G = (V,E) is said to be bipartite if the vertex set V can be partitioned into
two disjoint subsets V1 and V2 such that every edge in E connects a vertex in V1 and a vertex V2 so
that no edge in G connects either two vertices in V1 or two vertices in V2. (V1,V2) is called a
bipartition of G.
Eg:

Note:- A bipartite graph can have no loop.

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Complete bipartite graph:-A complete bipartite graph on m and n vertices denoted by km,n is a
graph whose vertex set is partitioned into sets V1 with m vertices and V2 with n vertices in which
there is an edge between each pair of vertices v1 and v2 where v1 is in V1 and v2 is in V2 .
Eg:

Path graph:- Path graph of order n which will be obtained by removing any one edge
from cycle graph Cn and is denoted by Pn.
Eg:

C5 P5

N – cube graph:- An N-cube is a graph that has vertices representing the 2 n bit string of length n. An
N-cube is denoted by Qn.
Eg:

Finite graph and Infinite graph:-A graph is finite if both its vertex set and the edge set are finite.
Otherwise it is an infinite graph.

Degree of a vertex in a non-directed graph and degree sequence:-

 The degree of a vertex V of a graph G is the number of edges of G, which are incident with V.
 A vertex of degree zero is called an isolated vertex.
 A vertex with degree one is called a pendant vertex.
 A vertex of odd degree is an odd vertex and a vertex of even degree is an even vertex.

Deg(V1) = 3
Deg(V2) = 4
Deg(V3) = 3
Deg(V4) = 3
Deg(V5) = 1

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In the above graph V5 is a pendant. The degree of V2 is 4 because there are 2 edges
incident with it and a loop which should be counted as 2.

In this example,
f is an isolated vertex.
a,d,j are pendant vertices

Degree of a vertex in a directed graph:-

 The number of edges incident to a vertex is called the indegree of the vertex and the
number of edges incident from it is called its outdegree for a digraph.
 The indegree of a vertex v in a graph G is denoted by deg G +(v) and the outdegree of a vertex
v in a graph G is denoted by deg G-(v).
 The degree of a vertex is determined by counting each loop incident on it twice and each
other edge once.
 The minimum of all the degree of the vertices of a graph G is denoted by  (G) and the
maximum of all the degree of the vertices of G is denoted by (G) .

Deg+(1) = 1 Deg -(1) = 1

Deg+(2) = 1 Deg -(2) = 2
Deg+(3) = 1 Deg -(3) = 1
Deg+(4) = 0 Deg -(4) = 1
Deg+(5) = 3 Deg -(5) = 1

Deg(1) = Deg+(1) + Deg -(1) =1+1=2

Deg(2) = Deg+(2) + Deg -(2) =1+2=3
Deg(3) = Deg+(3) + Deg -(3) =1+1=2
Deg(4) = Deg+(4) + Deg -(4) =0+1=1
Deg(5) = Deg+(5) + Deg -(5) =3+1=4

 (G) =1 , (G) =4

Weighted graph: A graph in which weights are assigned to every edge is called a weighted graph

Theorem-1: The sum of all vertex degrees is equal to twice the number of edges. (or) The sum of
the degrees of the vertices of G is even.
n

d
i1
i  2| E |

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 Note:- Any graph has even number of odd degree vertices.

Theorem-2: (The handshaking theorem):- If G = (V, E) be an undirected graph with e edges then

deg G(v)  2e
vV
where e is the number of edges.

Theorem-3:- If G = (V,E) be a directed graph with e edges then

deg G(v) deg G(v)  e

vV vV

Graph Operations:-

Union of two graphs:- Let G1 = (V1,E1) and G2 = (V2,E2) be two graphs. The union of G1 and G2 will be
a graph (V,E) such that
V = V1  V2
E = E1  E2
Eg:

Intersection of two graphs:- Let G1 = (V1,E1) and G2 = (V2,E2) be two graphs with atleast one vertex
in common. The intersection of G1 and G2 will be a graph (V,E) such that V = V1  V2, E = E1  E2.
Eg:

Sum of two graphs:- Let G1 = (V1,E1) and G2 = (V2,E2) be two graphs such that V1  V2 =  . The sum
G1+G2 is defined as the graph whose vertex set is V1+V2 and the edge set consists of those edges
which are in G1 and in G2 and the edges obtained by joining each vertex of G1 to that of G2 .
Eg:

Ring Sum:- Let G1 = (V1,E1) and G2 = (V2,E2) be two graphs. The ring sum G1  G2 is a graph G = (V,E)
such that
V = V1  V2
E = ( E1  E2) – (E1  E2)

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Eg:

Complement of a graph:- The complement G or GC of a graph G = (V,E) is the graph with the vertex
set V such that two vertices are adjacent in G if an only if these vertices are non-adjacent in G i.e, G
is a graph with V (G)  V (G) and
E(G)  {(x, y) /(x, y)  E(G)}.

Note: Suppose G is a graph with n-vertices and m-edges. Then the number of edges in its
n(n 1)
complement is given by G  m .
2
For the above graph G, n=5 and m= 6. So its complement G have 5(4)/2 – 6 = 10 – 6 = 4
edges.

Subgraphs:
 If G and H are two graphs with vertex sets V(H) and V(G) and edge sets E(H) and E(G)
respectively such that V(H)  V(G) and E(H)  E(G) , then we call H as a sub graph of G.
 If V(H)  V(G) and E(H)  E(G) then H is a proper sub graph of G and
 If V(H)= V(G) then we say that H is spanning sub graph of G.
 A spanning sub graph need contain all the edges in G.
If H is a sub graph of G, then
 All the vertices of H are in G.
 All the edges of H are in G and
 Each edge of H has the same end points in H as in G.

G
Vertex deleted subgraph:- Let G=(V,E) be a graph. Let vi ∈ V. The subgraph of G obtained by
removing the vertex vi and all the edges incident with vi is called a vertex deleted subgraph and is
denoted by G- vi.

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Eg:

G G- v1
Edge deleted subgraph:- Let G=(V,E) be a graph. Let ej ∈ E. Then G- ej =(V,E-{ ej}) is called the edge
deleted subgraph of G obtained by the removal of edge ej.
Eg:

G G- e1
Isomorphic Graphs:- Let G1=(V(G1),E(G1)) and G2=(V(G2,E(G2)) be two graphs. A function f:G1 G2 is
called an isomorphism if
i. f is one one
ii. f is onto
iii. (x,y) E(G1) if and only if f(x),f(y) E(G2) i.e two vertices x and y are adjacent in G1 iff
f(x),f(y) are adjacent in G2. If the graph G1 is isomorphic to G2 then we write G1  G2.

Properties of isomorphism:
If two graphs G1 and G2 are isomorphic then
1. No of vertices of G1= No of vertices of G2
|V(G1)|=|(V(G2)|
2. No of edges of G1= No of edges of G2
|E(G1)|=|(E(G2)|
3. Degree sequences(ascending order of degrees of all the vertices) of G1 and G2 must be the
same.
4. If (u,u) is a loop in G1 then (f(u),f(u)) must be a loop in G2.
5. If v0-v1-v2……vn-1-vn-v0 is cycle of length n in G1 then f(v0)-f(v1)-f(v2)……f(vn-1) - f(vn) -f(v0) must
be cycle of length n in G2.
6. If two graphs are isomorphic then their adjacency matrices are same.

Eg-1: Determine whether the following graphs are isomorphic or not

G1 G2

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Sol:
1. Number of vertices of G1 and G2 are equal
|V(G1)| = |V(G2)| ⇒ 4=4
2. Number of edges of G1 and G2 are equal
|E(G1)| = |E(G2)| ⇒ 3=3
3. Mapping (Function from G1 to G2) A E
f(A) =E , f(B) =F , f(C) =H , f(D) =G B F
Clearly the given function is one-to-one and onto C H
4. Degree sequence of G1 = Degree sequence of G2 D G
(1, 1, 2, 2) = (1, 1, 2, 2)
5. There are no loops in G1 and G2.
6. There are no cycles in G1 and G2.
7. Adjacency matrices of G1 and G2 are equal

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 𝐸 𝐹 𝐻 𝐺
𝖥 1 𝖥 1
I𝐴 0 1 0 0I I𝐸 0 1 0 0I
I𝐵 1 0 1 0I = I𝐹 1 0 1 0I
I𝐶 0 1 0 1I I𝐻 0 1 0 1I
[ 0 0 1 0] [ 0 0 1 0]

∴ The given graphs G1 and G2 are isomorphic.

Eg-2: Determine whether the following graphs are isomorphic or not

Sol:
1. Number of vertices of G1 and G2 are equal
|V(G1)| = |V(G2)| ⇒ 5=5
2. Number of edges of G1 and G2 are equal v1 a
|E(G1)| = |E(G2)| ⇒ 6=6 v2 b
3. Mapping (Function from G1 to G2) v3 c
f(v4) =d , f(v5) =e , f(v3) =c , f(v2) =b , f(v1) =a v4 d
Clearly the given function is one-to-one and onto v5 e
4. Degree sequence of G1 = Degree sequence of G2
(1,2,3,3,3) = (1,2,3,3,3)
5. There are no loops in G1 and G2.
6. i) v1-v2-v3-v4-v1 is a cycle in G1 and f(v1)-f(v2)-f(v3)-f(v4)-f(v1) i.e a-b-c-d-a is a cycle
in G2 .
ii) v1-v2-v3-v1 is a cycle in G1 and f(v1)-f(v2)-f(v3)-f(v1) i.e a-b-c-a is a cycle in G2 .
iii) v1-v3-v4-v1 is a cycle in G1 and f(v1)-f(v3)-f(v4)-f(v1) i.e a-c-d-a is a cycle in G2 .
Clearly If v0-v1-v2……vn-1-vn-v0 is cycle of length n in G1 then f(v0)-f(v1)-f(v2)……f(vn-1) -
f(vn) -f(v0) is a cycle of length n in G2.
7. Adjacency matrices of G1 and G2 are equal

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𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑣4 𝑣5 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒
𝖥 1 𝖥 1
I𝑣1 0 1 1 1 0I I𝑎 0 1 1 1 0I
I𝑣2 1 0 1 0 0I = I𝑏 1 0 1 0 0I
I𝑣3 1 1 0 1 0I I𝑐 1 1 0 1 0I
I𝑣4 1 0 1 0 1I I𝑑 1 0 1 0 1I
[𝑣5 0 0 0 1 0] [ 0 0 0 1 0]

∴ The given graphs G1 and G2 are isomorphic.

Eg-3: Determine whether the following graphs are isomorphic or not

G1 G2
Sol:
1. Number of vertices of G1 and G2 are equal
|V(G1)| = |V(G2)| ⇒ 5=5
2. Number of edges of G1 and G2 are equal v1 u1
|E(G1)| = |E(G2)| ⇒ 6=6 v2 u2
3. Mapping (Function from G1 to G2) v3 u3
f(v4) = u4 , f(v5) = u5 , f(v3) = u3 , f(v2) = u2 , f(v1) = u1 v4 u4
Clearly the given function is one-to-one and onto v5 u5
4. Degree sequence of G1 = Degree sequence of G2
(1,2,3,3,5) = (1,2,3,3,5)
5. v4 is a loop in G1 and f(v4) i.e u4 is a loop in G2.Clearly if (u,u) is a loop in G1
then (f(u),f(u)) is a loop in G2.

6. i) v1-v2-v3-v4-v1 is a cycle in G1 and f(v1)-f(v2)-f(v3)-f(v4)-f(v1) i.e u1-u2-u3-u4-u1 is a

cycle in G2 .
ii) v1-v4-v3-v2-v1 is a cycle in G1 and f(v1)-f(v4)-f(v3)-f(v2)-f(v1) i.e u1-u4-u3-u2-u1 is a
cycle in G2 .
Clearly If v0-v1-v2……vn-1-vn-v0 is cycle of length n in G1 then f(v0)-f(v1)-f(v2)……f(vn-1) -
f(vn) -f(v0) is a cycle of length n in G2.
7. Adjacency matrices of G1 and G2 are equal

𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑣4 𝑣5 𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 𝑢4 𝑢5
𝖥 1 𝖥 1
I𝑣1 0 1 1 1 0I I𝑢1 0 1 1 1 0I
I𝑣2 1 0 1 0 0I = I𝑢2 1 0 1 0 0I
I𝑣3 1 1 0 1 0I I𝑢3 1 1 0 1 0I
I𝑣4 1 0 1 1 1I I𝑢4 1 0 1 1 1I
[𝑣5 0 0 0 1 0] [𝑢5 0 0 0 1 0]

∴ The given graphs G1 and G2 are isomorphic.

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Paths and Circuits:

Walk:
 A walk of a graph G is defined as an alternating sequence of vertices and edges
v0,e1,v1,e2,v2,……vn-1,en,vn beginning and ending with vertices such that each line e i is incident
with vi-1 and vi.
 A walk joining v0 and vn is called v0-vn walk. Here v0 is called the initial vertex and vn is called
the terminal vertex of the walk
 The number of edges in the walk is known as the length of the walk.
 If the length of the walk is zero, then the walk has no edges and it contains only a single
vertex. Such a walk is called a trivial walk.

Trail: A walk is called a trail if its edges are distinct.

Path: A walk is called a path if all its vertices are distinct.
Note: Every path is a trail, but every trail need not be a path.
Closed path: A closed path is a path that starts and ends at the same point.
Circuits: A circuit or cycle is defined as a closed path of non zero length that does not contain a
repeated edge.
Eg-1:

i) v1-v2-v3-v4-v5 is a walk of length 4(no of edges in the walk v1-v2,v2-v3,v3-v4,v4-v5)

ii) v1-v2-v4-v3-v2-v5 is a trail(edges are distinct) but not a path( because the vertex v2 is
repeated)
iii) v1-v2-v4-v5 is a path and also a trail

Eg-2:

i) v1-e1-v2-e6-v4-e3-v3-e2-v2 is a walk and a trail but not a path (because v2 is repeated)

and circuit.
ii) v1-e1-v2-e2-v3-e3-v4-e4-v5 is a walk, trail and a path but not a circuit
iii) v2-e2-v3-e3-v4-e4-v5-e5-v1-e1-v2 is a walk, trail, path and a circuit

Eulers (or) Eulerian Graph:

1. An Euler’s path in a multigraph is a path that travels all edges exactly once and vertices can
be travelled at least once.

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2. In any multigraph we can get an Euler’s path if there are two vertices of odd degree and
remaining vertices degree is even.
3. The Euler’s path will always start at odd degree vertex and end at other odd degree vertex.

Euler’s circuit/cycle:
If the starting and ending vertices of Euler’s path are same then such a path is called Euler’s
circuit.

Euler’s graph:
A graph having an Euler’s circuit is called an Euler’s graph.
Eg:

Theorem 1: If G is a graph in which the degree of every vertex is atleast two then G contains a cycle.
Theorem 2: A non-empty connected graph G is Eulerian if and only if its vertices are all of even
degree.

Hamiltonian graph:
Hamiltonian circuit: A circuit in a graph G is called a Hamiltonian graph if it contains every vertex
of G exactly once, except for the starting and ending vertex that appears twice.

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Eg:

Hamiltonian graph: A graph is said to be a Hamiltonian graph if it contains Hamiltonian cycle i.e a
graph G is Hamiltonian if there exists a cycle containing every vertex of G.

Hamiltonian path:A path in a graph G is called a Hamiltonian graph if it contains every vertex of G
where the end points may be distinct.
Eg:

Note: Hamiltonian path in G may be obtained by deleting an edge from a Hamiltonian cycle/
Note: Every graph which has a Hamiltonian cycle or circuit contains a Hamiltonian path but a graph
containing Hamiltonian path may not have a Hamiltonian cycle.

Theorem 1: (Dirac’s theorem) Every graph G with n ≥ 3 vertices.If deg(v) ≥ n/2 for all vertices of G,
then G is Hamiltonian.
Eg-1:

The given graph has n=5 which is ≥ 3 vertices and n/2 =5/3 =2.deg(v1) =2, deg(v2) =3, deg(v3) =2,
deg(v4) =3 and deg(v5) =2.
∴ deg(v) ≥ n/2 for all vertices of G. So the given graph is Hamiltonian.

Theorem 2: If the graph G has no loops or parallel edges, if V|G|= n ≥ 3 and if deg(v) ≥ n/2 for each
vertex v of G, then G is Hamiltonian. Given graph has no loops, no parallel
edges,V (G) = 5 which is ≥ 3, n/2= 5/2 =2
deg (a) = 4, deg (b) = 4, deg(c) = 4,
deg (d) = 4, deg (e) = 4 and deg (v) ≥ n/2
i.e. 4 ≥ 2 for each vertex v of G.
∴ The given graph is Hamiltonian and
circuit is a, b, c, d, e

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Theorem 3: Let G be a graph with n vertices with no loops or parallel edges. Then, G has atleast
½ (n-1) (n-2)+2 edges in Hamiltonian.
Given graph has 5 vertices & it has no loops and parallel edges.
(n 1)(n  2) (5 1)(5  2) (4)(3)
 2  2  2
2 2 2
= 6+2 =8.Hence the graph has atleast 8 edges (Minimum 8 edges
and they may be exceed 8, in this case 10) .So the given graph is a
Hamiltonian graph.

Theorem 4: If the graph G has no loops or parallel edges, if V|G|= n ≥ 3. If deg(u) + deg(v) ≥ n for
each two vertices u and v not connected by an edge in G is Hamiltonian.

A B

D E

Given graph has n=5 which is ≥ 3 vertices. First find all the possible vertices u and v not connected by
an edge in G.
S.No u v deg(u) deg(v) deg(u)+ deg(v)
1 A E 3 3 6
2 B C 3 2 5
3 C D 2 3 5

Clearly it is evident from the table that deg(u) + deg(v) ≥ n for each two vertices u and v not
connected by an edge in G. So the given graph is Hamiltonian.

Representation of graphs:-

Matrix representation of graphs: A diagrammatic representation of a graph is very useful for visual
study. Any graph can be represented by a matrix. A matrix is a very effective and convenient way of
representing a graph. There are two types of matrix representation.
1. Adjacency matrix
2. Incident matrix

1. Adjacency matrix: Representation of different types of graphs as adjacency matrices is

described as follows.
a. Representation of undirected graph:
Let G be a graph with n vertices, where n>0 and no parallel edges. The adjacency
matrix of G denoted by AG is an nxn matrix, A=[aij], whose elements are defined as
follows:
aij=1, if there is an edge between ith and jth vertices
=0, if there is no edge between them.

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b. Representation of directed graph:

The adjacency matrix of a digraph D with n vertices is an nxn matrix AG=(aij) in which
aij = 1, if (vi,vj) is in D
= 0, otherwise

2. Incidence matrix:
a. Representation of undirected graph:
Let G=(V,E) be an undirected graph with n labeled vertices and m labeled edges. The
incidence matrix IG=(bi,j) is the nxm matrix , where
bij = 1, if the jth edge ej is incident on the ith vertex vi
= 0, otherwise

b. Representation of directed graph:

The incidence matrix IG =(bij) of digraph D with n vertices and m edges is the nxm
matrix, where
bij = 1, if the jth edge is incident out of the ith vertex.
= -1, if the jth edge is incident into the ith vertex.
= 0, if jth edge in not incident on ith vertex.

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Linked Representation: In this a list of vertices adjacent to each vertex is maintained. This is also
called adjacency list representation.

Fleury’s Algorithm for finding Euler’s circuit:- Let G = (V,E) be an Eulerian connected graph with
each vertex of even degree. The following steps may be used to construct an Eulerian circuit.
Step 1:- Choose any arbitrary vertex v0 from V as the starting vertex.
Step 2:- Select an edge e = (v0,v). If there are many such edges, select the one that is not a bridge. If
there are more than one edges of that type choose any of them. If e is a bridge, select only if there
is no possibility.
Step 3:- Now delete that edge from the edge list and the graph.
Step 4:- Repeat step-2 and step-3 until E   .

Note:- To find an Euler’s path in a graph, Fleury’s algorithm can be used with a slight modification.
The choice of selection of starting vertex is limited to one of the two odd – degree vertices. If all the
vertices are of even degree then no modification is required.

Eg-1: Find Euler’s circuit for the following graph

17 CSE Dept., Vishnu Institute of Technology

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Sol:
Current Path Next Reason | Remark
Edge

1.F { F, C } No edge from F is a bridge. So

choose anyone. Let it be C i.e, {F, C}

2. F, C { C, D } No edge from C is a bridge. So

choose anyone. Let it be D i.e, {C, D}

3. F, C, D { D, A } No edge from D is a bridge. So

choose anyone. Let it be A i.e, {D, A}

4.F, C, D,A { A,C } From A edges are {A,B}, {A,C}, {A,E}.

Since {A, B} is a bridge choose the
remaining edges. Let it be {A, C}.

5. F,C,D,A,C { C, E } From C there is only one edge {C,E}.

So choose it.

6. F,C,D,A,C,E { E, A } From E there is only one edge {E,A}.

So choose it.

7. F,C,D,A,C, E, A { A, B } From A there is only one edge {A,B}.

So choose it.

8. F,C,D,A,C, E, A, B { B, D } From B there is only one edge {B,D}.

So choose it.

9. F,C,D,A,C, E, A,B,D { D, F} From D there is only one edge {D,F}.

So choose it.

10. F,C,D,A,C,E,A,B,D,  No more edges left

F

∴ Euler’s circuit is F, C, D, A, C, E, A, B, D, F

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Eg-2: A B

C
D

F
Sol:
deg(A)=3,deg(B)=deg(C)=deg(D)=4,deg(E)=2 and deg(F)=3. So the given graph has 2 odd
degree vertices A and F. So only path exists. So start at any odd degree vertex. Let’s start at
F.
Note: Euler’s path starts at one degree vertex and ends at the other odd degree vertex.

Current Path Next Reason | Remark

Edge
A B
1.F { F, E } No edge from F is a bridge. So
choose anyone. Let it be {F, E} C D

F
2. F, E { E, A } From E there is only one edge A B
{E,A}. So choose it.
C D

F
3. F, E,A { A, C } No edge from A is a bridge. So A B
choose anyone. Let it be {A, C}
C D

F
4.F, E,A,C { C,B } From C there are 3 edges B
A
{C,B},{C,D} and {C,F} out of which
{C,F} is bridge. So select one
C
from remaining two edges. Let it D
be {C,B} E
F
A B
5. F,E,A,C,B { B, D } From B there is a multiple edge
{B,D} and another edge {B,A}
which are not bridges. So choose C D
anyone. Let it be {B,D} E
F

6. F,E,A,C,B,D { D, C } From D, {D,B} is bridge. So A B

choose from {D,C} or {D,F}.Let it
be {D,C}. C D

F
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A B
7. F,E,A,C,B,D,C { C, F } From C there is only one edge
{C,F}.So choose it C D

E
F

8. F,E,A,C,B,D,C,F { F, D } From F there is only one edge A B

{F,D}.So choose it
C D

E
F

9. F,E,A,C,B,D,C,F,D { D, B} From D there is only one edge A B

{D,B}.So choose it
C D

E
F
A B
10. F,E,A,C,B,D,C,F,D,B { B, A} From B there is only one edge
{B,A}.So choose it
C D

E
F

11. F,E,A,C,B,D,C,F,D,B,A  No more edges left

∴ Euler’s path is F,E,A,C,B,D,C,F,D,B

Planar graphs:
A graph G is called a planar graph if it can be drawn on a plane such that no two edges intersect
except at the common vertex.
 A graph may be planar even if it is usually drawn with crossings since it may be possible to
draw it in a different way without crossings.

Eg-1:

Eg-2:

Euler’s theorem/ Euler’s Formula:

If a connected planar graph ‘G’ has nv vertices, ne edges and nf faces or regions then nv – ne + nf =2.

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Eg-1:

Sol: For the given graph nv = 4, ne =6 and nf = 4 and nv – ne + nf = 4-6+4 = 8-6 = 2. So it is a planar
graph.

Eg-2:

Sol: : For the given graph nv = 5, ne =6 and nf = 3 and nv – ne + nf = 5-6+3 = 8-6 = 2. So it is a planar
graph.

Graph coloring:
 An assignment of colors to the vertices of a graph so that no two adjacent vertices get the
same color is called coloring of the graph or simply vertex coloring.
 The ‘n’ coloring of G refers to the coloring of G using n-colors.
 If G has n-coloring then G is said to be n-colorable.

Chromatic number:
 The chromatic number of a graph G is the minimum number of colors needed to color the
vertices of a graph G is denoted by  (G) .
 A graph G is n-colorable if  (G)  n.

Eg’s :

Chromatic number = 3 Chromatic number = 2

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The chromatic number of some familiar graphs:

 Theorem:- Let G be a non-trivial simple graph. Then  (G) =2 if and only if G is a bipartite
graph.
 Theorem:- For any simple graph G, (G)  (G) 1.

 Determine the chromatic number of complete graph Kn with n vertices.

=6

(K n )  n
 Determine the chromatic number of Cn if n = even and n = odd.
Sol:- (Cn )  2 , if n is even.
(Cn )  3, if n is odd.

 3 2
n5 n6
 Determine the chromatic number of wheel graph with n vertices.
Sol:- (wn )  3 , if n is odd.
(wn )  4 , if n is even.

  3 , n=5   4 , n=6

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Trees:
A graph that contains no cycles is called acyclic graph and a connected acyclic graph is called a tree.
In other words, a connected graph with no cycles is known as a tree. Its edges are called branches.
Connected: There is a path between any pair of nodes.

Tree properties:
i. There is only one path between every pair of vertices, in a tree T.
ii. If in a graph G, there is one and only one path between every pair of vertices then G
is a tree.
iii. A tree with n vertices has (n-1) edges.
iv. For any +ve integer n, if G is a connected graph with n vertices and n-1 edges , then G
is a tree.
v. In a tree with more than one vertex there are at least two vertices of degree 1.

Rooted Trees:- A rooted tree is a tree in which a particular vertex is distinguished from the others
and is called the root.
Height:- It is defined as maximum level.
Depth:- It is defined as the length of the path from the root to V.

 Root of Tree = 6
 Find all leaves vertices
1 ,3, 5, 7, 9
 What’s the level of 4 and 8  2 and 1
 Children of 8 are 7 and 9.
 Internal vertices are 2, 8 and 4
ry tree: A rooted tree is an m-ary tree if every internal vertex has atmost m children.

Binary Tree: A 2-ary tree is called a binary tree. A binary tree is a rooted tree in which each vertex
has at most two children(means every vertex should have 0 children or I child or 2 children),
designated as left child and right child. If a vertex has one child, that child is designated as either a
left child or a right child, but not both. A full binary tree is a binary tree in which each vertex has
exactly two children or none.

Note: If T is a full binary tree with i internal vertices, then T has i+1 terminal vertices and 2i +
1 total vertices.
Decision Trees: Decision trees are those which are used to model problems in which a series of
decisions lead to a solution.
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Eg-1: Sort three distinct elements a, b, and c

Sol:
Case (i) : Let a>b. Then compare a and c.
If a<c then c>a>b.
If a >c , then compare b and c.
If b<c then a>c>b, otherwise a>b>c.
Case (ii): The case a< b can be discussed similarly.
The following tree is the decision tree for this problem.

Spanning Trees:
A sub graph ‘T’ of a graph ‘G’ said to be a spanning tree if
a. ‘T’ is a tree.
b. If ‘T’ includes every vertex of ‘G’ i.e. V(T) = V(G)

Below are the examples of some graphs and all possible spanning trees of them.

Eg-1:

Eg-2:

Eg-3:

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Algorithms for spanning trees:

1. BFS
2. DFS

BFS (Breadth First Search): In this algorithm a rooted tree is constructed and the undirected graph
of this rooted tree forms the spanning tree.
The idea of BFS is to visit all the vertices on a given level before going to the next level.
Procedure:
Step1: Choose a vertex arbitrarily and designated it as the root.
Step2: Add all the edges incident to this vertex such that the addition of vertex does not produce
any cycle. The new vertices added at this stage become the vertices at level 1 in the spanning tree.
Order them in as arbitrary manner.
Step3: For each vertex at level 1, visited in order, add each edge incident to vertex to the tree as
long as it does not produce any cycle.
Step4: Arbitrarily order the children of each vertex at level 1. This produces the vertices at level 2 in
the tree.
Step5: Continue with the same procedure until all the vertices in the tree have been added.
This procedure ends, since there are only a finite no of edges in the graph.
Since we have produced a tree without cycle containing every vertex of the graph, the produced
tree is a spanning tree.

Eg: Find Breadth First Search (BFS) order for the given graph:

Sol:
Step 1: Choose the vertex ‘A’ to be the root.
Step-2: Add all the edges incident to the vertex A such that the addition of edges does not produce
any cycle. Hence the edges {A,B},{A,C} are added. The two vertices B and C are in level 1 in the tree.
Step-3: Add edges from these vertices at level 1 to adjacent vertices which are not already in the
tree. Hence the edges {B,D}, {B,E}, {C,F} and {C,G} are added. The vertices D,E,F and G are in level 2
in the tree.
Step-4: Add edges from these vertices at level 2 to adjacent vertices which are not already in the
tree. Hence the edges {D,H} is added. The vertex H is in level 3.
in the tree.
The steps of breadth-first procedure are shown below.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

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So the required path is A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H and the BFS spanning tree is fig(d) given above.

DFS (Depth First Search): DFSA is also known as backtracking.

Procedure:
Step1: Arbitrarily choose a vertex from the vertices of the graph and designate it as the root.
Step2: Form a path starting at this vertex by successively adding edges as long as possible
where each new edge is incident with the last vertex in the path without producing any cycle.
Step3: If the path goes through all the vertices of the graph, then the tree consisting of this path
is a spanning tree otherwise go the next step.
Step4: Move back to the next vertex in the graph. If possible, form a new path starting at this
vertex passing through vertices that were not already visited.
Step5: If this cannot be done, move back another vertex in the path and repeat the
process described in step2.
Step6: Repeat this procedure, beginning at the last vertex visited, moving back up the path
one vertex at a time, and form a new path until no more edges can be added.
This process ends, since the graph has a finite number of edges and is connected. Hence a
spanning tree is produced.

Eg-1: Find the Depth First Traversal order for the given graph

Sol:

Step1: Choose the vertex v1 to be the root.

Step2: Form a path by successively adding edges incident with vertices which are not already
in the path as long as possible. This procedure produces the path (v1, v3, v4, v5, v6, v7).
Step3: Now backtrack to v6. There is no path beginning at v6 containing vertices not already
visited.
Step4: Similarly on backtracking to v5, we observe that there is no path.
Step5: Backtrack to v4 and form the path (v4, v2).This produces the required spanning tree.
So the required path is v1, v3, v4, v5, v6, v7,v2 and the DFS spanning tree is shown below

Minimum Cost Spanning Tree (or) Minimal Spanning Tree:

Let ‘G’ be a weighted graph. A minimal spanning tree of G is defined as a spanning tree of ‘G’
with minimum weight.

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Algorithms for finding minimal Spanning Tree:

1. Kruskal’s
2. Prim’s
1. Kruskal’s:
i/p: A connected weighted graph ‘G’.
o/p: A minimum cost(minimal) spanning tree ‘T’ for ‘G’

Procedure:
Step1: Choose an edge with minimal weight.
Step2: At each stage, choose (from the edges not yet chosen) the edge of lowest weight
whose inclusion will not produce a cycle.
Step3: Stop the process of step2 when (n-1) edges are selected. These (n-1) edges
contribute a minimum spanning tree for ‘G’. Otherwise repeat step (2).

Eg: Find Minimum spanning tree for a graph in Fig using Kruskal’s algorithm

Sol: We first tabulate the edges with their weights(costs) in non-decreasing order.

Edge (h,g) (i,c) (g,f) (a,b) (c,f) (i,g) (c,d) (i,h) (a,h) (b,c) (d,e) (e,f) (b,h) (d,f)
Weight 1 2 2 4 4 6 7 7 8 8 9 10 11 14

Step-1: Choose the edge (h,g) which has the minimal weight

Step-2: There are two edges (i,c) and(g,f) with the next minimal cost. So choose both of them
each in a step.So add the next edge (i,c).

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Step-3: Add the next edge (g,f).

Step-4: Add the next edge (a,b).

Step-5: Add the next edge (c,f).

Step-6: The next edges with minimal cost are (i,g) and (i,h). But their inclusion will produce a cycle.
So discard them and add the next edge (c,d).

Step-7: Add the next edge (b,c).

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Step-8: The next edge with minimal cost is (a,h) but we discard it as its inclusion produces a cycle.
So add the next edge (d,e).

Step-9: Discard all the remaining edges as their inclusion produces a cycle.Since the graph has 9
vertices it is enough to choose only 8 edges.Therefore we stop the procedure and the tree
obtained in the Step-8 is the required Minimal Spanning tree and the Cost of the minimum
spanning tree = 4+8+7+9+2+4+2+1 = 37

2. Prim’s algorithm:
i/p: A connected weighted graph ‘G’
o/p: A minimal spanning tree ‘T’
Procedure:
Step1: Select any vertex and choose the edge and minimum weight from ‘G’.
Step2: At each stage choose the edge of smallest weight joining a vertex already included
to vertex not yet included.
Step3: Continue until all vertices are included or If G has n vertices, then stop after (n-1)
edges have been chosen otherwise repeat step(2).

Eg:

Sol:
Step-1: Choose the vertex ‘a’. Now edges incident on ‘a’ are (a,b) , (a,c) and (a,d).
Choose the edge with minimum weight i.e (a,c).

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Step-2: The recent vertex is c. Now we have to choose the edge with minimum cost which are
incident from both a and c which are already not included and which does not form a cycle. We
have w(a,b)=20,w(a,d) =13,w(c,b) =1 and w(c,d) =2. So choose the edge (c,b)

Step-3: The recent vertex is b. Now we have to choose the edge with minimum cost which are
incident from a ,c and b which are already not included and which does not form a cycle. We have
w(a,b)=20,w(a,d) =13,w(c,d) =2, w(be)=4 and w(b,f)=5. So choose the edge (c,d)

Step-4: The recent vertex is d. Now we have to choose the edge with minimum cost which are
incident from a ,c,b and d which are already not included and which does not form a cycle. We
have w(a,b)=20,w(a,d) =13, w(be)=4 ,w(b,f)=5,w(d,e)=3 and w(df)=14. So choose the edge (d,e)

Step-5: The recent vertex is e. Now we have to choose the edge with minimum cost which are
incident from a ,c,b,d and e which are already not included and which does not form a cycle.
We have w(a,b)=20,w(a,d) =13, w(be)=4 ,w(b,f)=5,w(df)=14. The edge with the next minimum
cost is (b,e) but it is discarded as it forms a cycle.So choose the edge (b,f)

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Step-6: The recent vertex is f. Now we have to choose the edge with minimum cost which are
incident from a ,c,b,d,e and f which are already not included and which does not form a cycle.
We have w(a,b)=20,w(a,d) =13, w(be)=4 and w(df)=14. We have to discard all these edges as
they form a cycle .As all the vertices are covered we can stop this procedure and the tree
obtained in the Step-5 is the required Minimal Spanning tree and the cost of the tree
= 9+1+2+3+5 =20
.

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