CHAPTER 2

REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Conceptual Literature

2.1.1 Health Benefits of Ampalaya leaf Extract
Bitter melon, or bitter gourd (Momordica charantia), is a tropical vine in the gourd
family, related to zucchini and cucumber, and widely cultivated for its edible fruit, a staple
in various Asian cuisines. It features two main varieties: the Chinese variety, long and
pale green with wart-like bumps, and the Indian variety, narrow with jagged spikes.
Nutritionally, bitter melon is low in calories but rich in essential nutrients, providing
significant amounts of vitamins A and C, folate, potassium, zinc, and iron, along with
powerful antioxidants like catechin and chlorogenic acid that protect against cellular
damage. Traditionally used to manage diabetes-related conditions, recent studies have
confirmed its effectiveness in blood sugar control; for instance, one study involving 24
adults with diabetes found that a daily intake of 2,000 mg of bitter melon for three
months significantly lowered blood sugar levels and hemoglobin A1c. Another study with
40 participants reported reductions in blood sugar and fructosamine levels with the same
dosage. The bioactive compounds in bitter melon are believed to enhance sugar
utilization in tissues and stimulate insulin secretion. Despite these promising results,
further research is needed to clarify the impact of bitter melon on blood sugar
management in the general population (Meeks et al., 2023).
2.1.1.1 Antidiabetic Properties
Ampalaya leaf extract (Momordica charantia) is recognized for its significant
antidiabetic properties, largely attributed to its bioactive compounds, including
charantin and polypeptide-p. These constituents have been shown to enhance
insulin sensitivity and promote glucose uptake in tissues, effectively lowering
blood sugar levels. Clinical studies support these claims; for instance, one study
indicated that a daily intake of 2,000 mg of ampalaya leaf extract led to
substantial reductions in fasting blood glucose and hemoglobin A1c over three
months. Additionally, another study found improvements in both blood sugar and
fructosamine levels among participants taking the extract regularly. The
antidiabetic effects are believed to arise from increased insulin secretion and
improved glucose metabolism, highlighting ampalaya leaf extract as a promising
 functional food for managing diabetes. Despite these encouraging results, further
research is needed to determine optimal dosages and assess the long-term
effects across diverse populations (Kumar et al., 2017).
2.1.1.2 Antioxidant Effects
According to Wu & Ng, 2020 Ampalaya leaf extract (Momordica charantia)
is notable for its strong antioxidant properties, which are primarily attributed to its
rich content of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and vitamins A and C. These
antioxidants play a crucial role in neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative
stress, which is linked to various chronic diseases, including diabetes and
cardiovascular disorders. Studies have shown that the antioxidant capacity of
ampalaya leaf extract can significantly scavenge free radicals, thus protecting
cellular components from oxidative damage. For example, a study found that
ampalaya leaf extract demonstrated a high radical-scavenging activity, indicating
its potential to mitigate oxidative stress. Another research effort revealed that the
extract effectively reduced lipid peroxidation and enhanced the antioxidant
enzyme activity in diabetic rats, further supporting its role in promoting oxidative
balance (Handa et al., 2018). These findings underscore the importance of
ampalaya leaf extract as a functional food not only for its potential health benefits
in diabetes management but also for its protective effects against oxidative
damaged.
2.1.1.3 Anti-inflammatory Properties
Ampalaya leaf extract (Momordica charantia) is recognized for its significant
anti-inflammatory effects, primarily due to its bioactive compounds, including
flavonoids and saponins. These compounds have been found to inhibit the
production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enzymes. For example, research
conducted by Okwu et al. (2018) showed that ampalaya leaf extract effectively
reduced inflammatory markers such as TNF-α and IL-6 in rat models. Another
study indicated that ampalaya leaf extract improved antioxidant enzyme activity,
which is essential for combating oxidative stress linked to inflammation (Jaiswal
et al., 2019). Ampalaya leaf extract could be a beneficial natural treatment for
inflammation and overall health support.
2.1.2 Functional Food Development
Bitter gourd is often overlooked and discarded because of its bitter flavor, even
though it provides numerous essential nutrients. Compared to other cucurbit vegetables
 like squash, pumpkin, cucumber, and zucchini, bitter gourd boasts a higher nutritional
value due to its rich supply of minerals and vitamins (Krawinkel & Keding 2006). The fruit
contains significant amounts of vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin E, thiamine,
riboflavin, niacin, folate, and vitamin C. Additionally, it is packed with minerals like
potassium, iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and zinc, along with being a good
source of dietary fiber.
2.1.2.1 Incorporation into Diet
Candies offer an attractive medium for incorporating nutraceuticals due to
their wide acceptance among consumers, ease of consumption, and ability to
mask the bitter taste of certain extracts like ampalaya. Studies suggest that the
incorporation of plant extracts into candy can serve as an effective delivery
system for health-promoting compounds, particularly when dealing with
bitter-tasting substances (Siddiqui & Alam, 2015). For instance, candies made
with medicinal plant extracts have been shown to retain the bioactive
components while also improving consumer palatability (Ghosh et al., 2018).
2.1.2.2 Nutritional Enhancement
Functional foods, which provide health benefits beyond essential nutrition,
have gained popularity for addressing specific nutritional deficiencies and
promoting overall health (Biesalski et al., 2013). Ampalaya (Momordica
charantia) leaf extract is recognized for its rich nutritional profile, offering a variety
of vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. These include vitamins A, C,
and E, which act as antioxidants, protecting cells from damage caused by
oxidative stress (Grover & Yadav, 2004).
2.1.3. Consumer Acceptance and Perception
The success of any functional food product depends significantly on consumer
acceptance and perception. Studies show that taste, texture, and visual appeal are key
factors influencing consumer preference for food products, especially confectioneries
(Silva et al., 2015). However, the bitter taste of ampalaya can pose a challenge in
product development, as bitterness is generally associated with reduced consumer
appeal (Lawless & Heymann, 2010). To overcome this, research has demonstrated the
potential of food processing techniques and flavor masking agents in improving the
palatability of bitter-tasting compounds like ampalaya extract. In a study by Araujo et al.
(2016), consumers responded more favorably to nutraceutical products that incorporated
flavor enhancers and sweeteners, which significantly improved the overall sensory
experience without compromising the health benefits of the bioactive compounds.
Consumer perception of health benefits also plays a crucial role in the acceptance of
functional foods. Many consumers are increasingly aware of the link between diet and
health, and there is growing demand for products that offer health benefits alongside
indulgent qualities (Williams et al., 2017). In particular, people with diabetes or those
looking to prevent lifestyle-related diseases may perceive ampalaya infused candies as
a convenient and beneficial way to manage blood sugar levels while enjoying a sweet
treat (Lim et al., 2021).
2.1.3.1 Market Trends
The functional food and nutraceutical market has experienced significant
growth globally, driven by increasing consumer demand for health-promoting
products. The functional confectionery segment, including candies with added
health benefits, has seen substantial expansion, as consumers seek convenient
ways to integrate nutrition into their diets (Silva et al., 2019). Products that offer
both indulgence and health benefits, such as those that help manage chronic
conditions like diabetes, are gaining prominence (Siro et al., 2008). As lifestyle
diseases such as diabetes and obesity continue to rise globally, there has been a
marked shift toward products that offer nutritional solutions. The global diabetes
care market alone is projected to grow substantially, with an increasing demand
for sugar-free or low-glycemic index products (Grand View Research, 2021).
Candies infused with medicinal plant extracts, like ampalaya, align with this trend
by offering functional benefits such as blood sugar regulation (Lim et al., 2021).
In the Southeast Asian market, where ampalaya is a traditional medicinal plant,
there is a growing interest in products that combine local heritage ingredients
with modern formulations. The rising awareness about the health benefits of
traditional herbs and medicinal plants in countries like the Philippines and
Indonesia has created a niche for products that incorporate these ingredients into
everyday food items (Tan & Yap, 2017). Another key trend shaping the functional
food market is the increasing consumer demand for transparency and clean-label
products. Consumers are becoming more conscious about the ingredients in their
food, with many opting for natural, minimally processed products (Mintel, 2020).
Ampalaya leaf extract, being a natural ingredient with well-documented health
benefits, fits well within this trend and can be marketed as a clean-label,
functional confectionery ingredient.
 2.1.3.2 Cultural Significance
Ampalaya (Momordica charantia), or bitter melon, holds a prominent place
in the cultural and traditional practices of various communities, particularly in
Southeast Asia and the Philippines. For centuries, this plant has been utilized not
only as a food source but also for its medicinal properties, deeply embedding it in
local traditions and beliefs. In many Filipino households, ampalaya is regarded as
a staple vegetable, often incorporated into dishes such as stir-fries and stews. Its
bitter taste, while not universally appreciated, is often associated with notions of
resilience and health. The plant is celebrated in traditional medicine, where its
leaves, fruits, and seeds are believed to possess healing properties, particularly
for managing diabetes and other metabolic disorders (Arambulo et al., 2018).
This cultural reverence for ampalaya underscores its role as a symbol of health
and wellness within the community. Moreover, the use of ampalaya in various
forms, including candies, can reflect a modern adaptation of traditional practices.
By incorporating ampalaya leaf extract into candies, producers can create a
product that resonates with consumers’ desires for nostalgic flavors while also
promoting the health benefits associated with traditional uses. This blend of
cultural significance and contemporary innovation can foster a greater
appreciation for local ingredients and promote healthier lifestyles among younger
generations (Zamora, 2020). Additionally, the promotion of ampalaya based
products aligns with efforts to preserve and valorize indigenous knowledge
systems. These systems emphasize the importance of local plants in the diet and
traditional medicine, encouraging sustainable agricultural practices and
biodiversity. By developing ampalaya infused candies, producers not only cater to
health-conscious consumers but also contribute to the cultural heritage and
agricultural sustainability of the region (Quisumbing et al., 2019).
2.2 Related Studies
2.2.1 Efficacy of Ampalaya leaf extract in Glycemic control
Momordica charantia, commonly known as ampalaya or bitter melon, has been
extensively studied for its potential role in glycemic control and the management of
diabetes. The efficacy of ampalaya leaf extract in regulating blood glucose levels is
primarily attributed to its active compounds, including charantin, polypeptide-p, and
various flavonoids, which exhibit insulin-like properties (Kumar et al., 2020). Numerous
studies have demonstrated the hypoglycemic effects of ampalaya leaf extract. For
instance, a randomized controlled trial conducted by M. A. Ali et al. (2016) found that
diabetic patients who consumed ampalaya leaf extract showed significant reductions in
fasting blood glucose levels compared to the control group. The study suggested that
the extract promotes insulin sensitivity and enhances glucose utilization in peripheral
tissues, leading to improved glycemic control. Moreover, the antioxidant properties of
ampalaya leaves contribute to its efficacy in managing diabetes. Oxidative stress is
known to exacerbate insulin resistance, and the presence of antioxidants in ampalaya
helps mitigate this effect. A study by Chaturvedi et al. (2011) highlighted that the
consumption of ampalaya leaf extract not only lowered blood glucose levels but also
reduced markers of oxidative stress, thereby improving overall metabolic health. The
mechanism of action involves multiple pathways, including the inhibition of glucose
absorption in the intestines, stimulation of insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells, and
enhancement of glucose uptake by muscle cells (Ragasa et al., 2019). This multifaceted
approach makes *ampalaya* leaf extract a promising adjunct to conventional diabetes
treatment. Additionally, a systematic review by Z. Tan et al. (2020) examined various
studies on the efficacy of ampalaya for glycemic control and concluded that while the
extract shows promise, more extensive clinical trials are needed to fully establish its
therapeutic potential and optimal dosages.
2.2.2 Consumer Acceptance of Functional Foods
Consumer acceptance of functional foods, including those enriched with
bioactive compounds like ampalaya leaf extract, is influenced by several factors
such as taste, health benefits, convenience, and perceived effectiveness.
Functional foods are defined as products that provide health benefits beyond
basic nutrition, often through the addition of ingredients known for their
therapeutic properties (Menrad, 2003). Over recent years, there has been an
increase in demand for such foods, as more consumers become aware of the link
between diet and health (Annunziata & Vecchio, 2011). However, acceptance of
functional foods is not solely based on their health claims. Research suggests
that taste remains the most important determinant of food choice, even in
products marketed for their health benefits. Consumers often prioritize sensory
appeal, such as flavor and texture, over the nutritional or health properties of a
product (Verbeke, 2006). This is particularly relevant in the case of ampalaya,
which is known for its strong bitter taste. Masking or minimizing this bitterness
while preserving the health benefits is crucial for improving consumer acceptance
 of ampalaya based functional foods like candies. Another key factor influencing
consumer acceptance is awareness of the health benefits associated with
functional ingredients. Studies indicate that consumers who are knowledgeable
about the benefits of specific bioactive compounds, such as those found in
ampalaya, are more likely to accept and purchase functional foods containing
them (Kapsak et al., 2011). This highlights the importance of effective marketing
and clear labeling that communicate the health benefits of the product, especially
for managing conditions like diabetes. In addition, consumers are more likely to
accept functional foods if they perceive them as natural and free from artificial
additives. The clean-label trend, which emphasizes transparency and natural
ingredients, has gained significant traction in recent years. Functional foods that
are marketed as "natural" or "organic" tend to attract more health-conscious
consumers, as they are perceived to be safer and healthier (Dean et al., 2012).
Lastly, convenience plays a major role in consumer decision-making. Products
like functional candies that offer a convenient and enjoyable way to incorporate
health-promoting ingredients into the diet are more likely to be accepted. In
particular, candies infused with ampalaya leaf extract could appeal to consumers
seeking a simple, tasty method of managing blood sugar levels, especially for
individuals with diabetes or prediabetes (Kaur & Singh, 2017).
2.2.3 Nutritional Value of Ampalaya in Food Products
Macronutrients and Micronutrients Ampalaya is a low-calorie vegetable,
making it suitable for weight management and low-calorie diets. It contains a
significant amount of dietary fiber, which is beneficial for digestive health and
helps regulate blood sugar levels by slowing the absorption of glucose in the
bloodstream (Ahmed et al., 2015). Additionally, it is an excellent source of
vitamins A, C, and several B-complex vitamins, such as folate, which are
important for immune function, skin health, and energy metabolism (Alam et al.,
2019). Ampalaya is also rich in minerals like potassium, magnesium, and iron,
which play crucial roles in cardiovascular health, muscle function, and blood
formation, respectively (Chaturvedi, 2012). The potassium content of ampalaya
helps regulate blood pressure by balancing sodium levels in the body, further
enhancing its benefits for heart health. Bioactive Compounds apart from its
essential nutrients, ampalaya is well-known for its bioactive compounds, which
contribute to its health benefits, particularly in managing metabolic disorders like
 diabetes. These compounds include charantin, polypeptide-p, and vicine, all of
which have been shown to have hypoglycemic properties (Saeed et al., 2018).
Charantin is a compound unique to ampalaya, and studies have demonstrated its
ability to lower blood glucose levels by promoting insulin release and enhancing
glucose uptake by cells (Joseph & Jini, 2013). Additionally, ampalaya contains
high levels of antioxidants, such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, and vitamin C,
which help neutralize free radicals and reduce oxidative stress. These
antioxidants play a protective role in preventing chronic diseases, such as heart
disease, cancer, and diabetes, by combating inflammation and oxidative damage
(Grover & Yadav, 2004). Functional Food Applications the nutritional profile of
ampalaya makes it a valuable ingredient in functional foods. Its low glycemic
index, fiber content, and bioactive compounds allow it to be incorporated into
various food products aimed at supporting metabolic health, particularly for
individuals with diabetes or those at risk of developing the condition (Ragasa et
al., 2019). For instance, ampalaya infused products such as teas, juices, and
candies have gained popularity due to their potential in controlling blood sugar
levels and improving overall health (Choudhary et al., 2021).
2.2.4 Traditional Use and Modern Applications
For generations, ampalaya (Momordica charantia), or bitter melon, has
played an important role in traditional medicine and diets across regions such as
Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean. In Filipino folk remedies, ampalaya has been
utilized to treat a range of health issues, including coughs, fevers, wounds, and
digestive disorders. Its most significant application, however, has been in
managing diabetes, where it is commonly consumed as a tea or included in
various dishes (Quisumbing, 1978). The medicinal effects of ampalaya in
traditional practices are largely due to its bioactive components, including
charantin, vicine, and polypeptide-p, which are known for their blood
sugar-lowering and insulin-like effects. Communities have relied on ampalaya as
a natural solution for blood sugar regulation, particularly in areas with limited
access to modern medical treatments. In addition to its role in managing
diabetes, ampalaya has also been used as an anti-inflammatory and antibacterial
agent, with its leaves applied directly to the skin to treat infections and wounds
(Gupta et al., 2011). In recent times, there has been renewed interest in
medicinal plants, and ampalaya has attracted scientific attention for its health
 benefits. Modern research has confirmed its traditional use, especially for
managing diabetes. Today, ampalaya is incorporated into functional foods and
dietary supplements designed to support blood sugar control and promote overall
health. New products such as ampalaya-based teas, capsules, powders, and
candies provide convenient options for consumers to benefit from the plant’s
medicinal properties without needing to prepare it traditionally. These modern
applications aim to minimize ampalaya's bitter flavor while preserving its
health-promoting qualities, making it more appealing and accessible. For
instance, ampalaya leaf extract is a key ingredient in candies aimed at assisting
blood sugar management (Ragasa et al., 2019). This modern use marks a shift
from solely medicinal applications to lifestyle-oriented products catering to the
growing demand for health-focused consumers (Choudhary et al., 2021).
2.2.5 Health Benefits of Ampalaya Extracts
One of the most recognized health benefits of ampalaya extracts is their
ability to assist in diabetes management. The plant contains active compounds
such as charantin, polypeptide-p, and vicine, which have been shown to lower
blood sugar levels (Joseph & Jini, 2013). These compounds work by mimicking
the function of insulin, enhancing glucose uptake in cells, and increasing insulin
sensitivity (Saeed et al., 2018). Clinical trials have demonstrated that ampalaya
extract can help reduce both fasting and postprandial blood glucose levels,
making it a valuable supplement for individuals with type 2 diabetes (Grover &
Yadav, 2004). Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Properties. The extracts of
ampalaya are also abundant in antioxidants, such as phenolic acids, flavonoids,
and vitamin C, which are crucial for protecting the body from oxidative stress.
Oxidative stress plays a key role in the development of chronic conditions like
cardiovascular disease and cancer. The antioxidants in ampalaya neutralize free
radicals, thereby reducing cellular damage and inflammation (Alam et al., 2019).
This makes ampalaya a useful dietary addition for those aiming to reduce the risk
of inflammatory diseases and enhance immune function. Anti-Cancer
Potential.Research has suggested that ampalaya extracts may also exhibit
anti-cancer effects. Compounds such as cucurbitacin and momordicin present in
ampalaya have shown promise in slowing the growth of cancer cells and
triggering apoptosis (programmed cell death) in several types of cancer, including
breast, liver, and colon cancer (Baldwin et al., 2014). While these results are
 encouraging, further studies are required to better understand the mechanisms
behind ampalaya's potential role in cancer therapy. The antimicrobial properties
of ampalaya extracts have been well-documented. Research has shown that
these extracts can inhibit the growth of several harmful microorganisms, including
bacteria and fungi, making them useful for treating infections (Gupta et al., 2011).
Moreover, the immune-boosting benefits of ampalaya are thought to stem from its
high vitamin C content, which supports the production of white blood cells,
thereby strengthening the body’s immune response. In addition to its anti-diabetic
and antioxidant qualities, ampalaya extracts also promote heart health. The
potassium content in ampalaya helps regulate blood pressure by balancing the
effects of sodium, while its fiber content aids in reducing cholesterol levels, thus
lowering the risk of heart disease (Chaturvedi, 2012). These combined benefits
make ampalaya an effective natural remedy for maintaining cardiovascular health
and preventing heart-related conditions.
2.2.6 Impact of Formulating Functional Candies
Functional candies offer a tasty and practical option for consumers seeking
both pleasure and nutritional value, catering to the modern trend of prioritizing
convenience and health. This shift has created a lucrative market for companies
to expand their product lines and explore new formulations that address specific
health concerns (Mintel, 2021). Moreover, functional candies can target specific
dietary needs, such as blood sugar management, immune support, or weight
control. In the case of ampalaya-based candies, these products offer a dual
benefit by providing a sweet treat that simultaneously helps control blood glucose
levels. This innovation reflects the growing consumer demand for products that
balance taste and health benefits, making it easier to maintain a healthy lifestyle
without compromising on enjoyment (Choudhary et al., 2021).
2.2.7 Market Trends for Herbal Functional Foods
Herbal functional foods, which incorporate ingredients like Momordica
charantia (ampalaya), turmeric, and ginger, are gaining popularity as they align
with the trend of clean eating and plant-based nutrition. This demand is
particularly strong among millennials and Gen Z, who prioritize sustainability and
natural health solutions (Global Data, 2022).As consumers become more
proactive about their health, they are increasingly looking for products that can
help prevent chronic diseases rather than just treat symptoms. Herbal functional
foods, often rich in antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals, are positioned as natural
remedies for improving immune function, regulating blood sugar levels, and
enhancing cardiovascular health. Products containing ampalaya are particularly
appealing for their potential in managing diabetes, one of the most prevalent
global health concerns (Smith & Lee, 2020).The market has also seen a surge in
innovation, with manufacturers experimenting with different ways to incorporate
herbal ingredients into everyday foods. From snacks and beverages to candies
and supplements, there is a growing variety of products that make consuming
herbal functional ingredients both convenient and enjoyable. Functional candies
and beverages, for example, have gained traction as they offer a simple way for
consumers to incorporate health-promoting herbs into their diets without
compromising on taste (Mintel, 2021).