SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Department of Civil Engineering

B.Sc. in Civil Engineering
Fourth Year, Second Semester
September – December, 2024

ECE 4215: Pavement Analysis & Design

Dr. Kiplagat Chelelgo
E-mail: [email protected]
Cell pone No.: +254 (0) 716 217 856

Dedan Kimathi University of Technology

Better Life Through Technology
1
 Lesson 5: Stresses and Strains
in Pavements

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.1 Introduction
▪ The mechanistic approach to pavement design requires
accurate determination of stresses, strains and deflections in a
pavement due to wheel loads.

▪ Stress distribution in pavements is based on the theory of

elasticity

▪ Stresses and the resultant pavement response are the

combined result of loading, environment, sub-grade and
pavement material characteristics.

▪ According to elasticity theory, constant ratios exist between

stresses and strains

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.1 Introduction
▪ For non-elastic soil masses, the elastic theory may be assumed
to hold so long as the stresses induced in the soil mass are
relatively small.

▪ The formulae that are most widely used are the Boussinesq and
Westergaard formulae.

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.2 Contact shapes and contact stress distribution
▪ The load from the wheel is transmitted to the pavement
through rubber tyres.

▪ The tyre pressures on commercial vehicles vary from 0.5 to 0.7

MN/m2 (70 - 100 psi). A value of 0.5 MN/m2 is typical.

▪ A much higher tyre pressure, in the range between 1.0 and 1.5
MN/m2 (150 – 200 psi) is used in airfield design.

▪ The contact pressure between the tyre and the pavement is

assumed to be equal to the tyre pressure.

▪ The tyre footprint can be defined by an equivalent circular

area with a radius calculated by:

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.2 Contact shapes and contact stress distribution

𝑃 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑁)
𝑎= =
𝜋×𝑝 𝜋 × 𝑇𝑦𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒(𝑘𝑃𝑎)

▪ Where,
a = The contact radius (mm),
P = The wheel load (N),
p = The tyre pressure (kPa).

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
(i) Boussinesq’s theory for point loads
▪ In the figure overleaf, a load P acting on the surface of a semi-
infinite solid at point O.

▪ A semi-infinite solid is one bounded on one side by a

horizontal surface, here the surface of the earth, and infinite
in all the other directions.

▪ A half-space has an infinitely large area and an infinite depth

with a top plane on which the loads are applied.

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Assumptions by Boussinesq:

i. The soil mass is elastic (constant elasticity E), isotropic,

homogeneous and semi-infinite.

ii. The soil mass is weightless. Stress is independent of the

properties of the transmitting medium

iii. The load is a point load acting on the surface.

iv. Pavement layers extend infinitely in the horizontal direction.

v. The bottom layer (usually the sub-grade) extends infinitely

downward.
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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
vi. Materials are not stressed beyond their elastic ranges.

vii. There is full friction between pavement layers and there are

no surface shearing forces.

viii. There are no shearing forces at the surface

▪ Isotropic materials-have same physical properties in every

direction

▪ Anisotropic materials-have different physical properties in

different directions.

▪ Homogenous materials-have same chemical composition and

uniformity through out.
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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
(i) Boussinesq’s theory for point loads

3𝑃 1 𝑃
𝜎z = ∗ 5 = 2 IB
2πz 2 z
1 + (rΤz)2 2
3 1
𝐼𝐵 = ∗ 5
2𝜋
1 + (𝑟Τ𝑧)2 2

At any given depth, stress distribution on

a horizontal plane is bell shaped with the
volume under the bell equal to P

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-1 Vertical

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pressure within an earth mass 10
 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
(ii) Westergaard’s formula for point loads

▪ Assumes soils as being laterally reinforced by numerous, closely

spaced, horizontal sheets of negligible thickness but of infinite
rigidity, which prevent the mass as a whole from experiencing
lateral movement of soil grains.

𝑃 1 − 2𝜇 2 − 2𝜇 𝑃
𝜎𝑧 = ∗ 3 = 2 𝐼𝑤
2𝜋𝑧 2 2 2 𝑧
1 − 2𝜇 𝑟
+
2−𝜇 𝑧

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Drawbacks of Bousinesq theory

i. The assumption that soil is perfectly elastic and

homogeneous is not true. Soil may be elastic only up to a
certain limit.

ii. The pavement consists of a number of layers, each with its

own modulus of elasticity. Hence the assumption of one
constant property for the entire mass is not justified.

iii. The assumption that the load is uniformly distributed may

not be correct.

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
(ii) Westergaard's theory for point loads

▪ For 𝜇=0,
𝑃 1 𝑃
𝜎𝑧 = 2 ∗ 3 = 2 𝐼𝑤
𝜋𝑧 2 2 𝑧
𝑟
1+2
𝑧
1ൗ
𝜋
𝐼𝑤 = 3
𝑟 2 2
1+2 𝑧

▪ Geotechnical engineers prefer to use Boussinesq's solution as this

gives conservative results.

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example

A concentrated load of 1,000𝑘𝑁 is applied on a pavement surface.

Using Boussinesq's equation, compute the vertical pressure at:

– A depth of 4 m below the load,

– A distance of 3 m at the same depth.

Solution

The equation is:

𝑃
𝜎𝑧 = 2
𝐼𝐵
𝑧
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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example

A concentrated load of 1,000𝑘𝑁 is applied at a pavement surface.

Using Boussinesq's equation, compute the vertical pressure at:

– A depth of 4 m below the load,

– A distance of 3 m at the same depth.

Solution
The equation is:
𝑷
𝝈𝒛 = 𝑰
𝒛𝟐 𝑩

𝟑 𝟏
𝑰𝑩 = ∗ 𝟓
𝟐𝝅
𝟏 + (𝒓Τ𝒛)𝟐 𝟐
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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
3 1,000
i. When 𝑟/𝑧 = 0, 𝐼𝐵 = = 0.48, 𝜎𝑧 = 0.48 ∗ = 30𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
2𝜋 4×4

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
3 1,000
i. When 𝑟/𝑧 = 0, 𝐼𝐵 = = 0.48, 𝜎𝑧 = 0.48 ∗ = 30𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
2𝜋 4×4

3 1
ii. When r/z = 3/4 = 0.75, 𝐼𝐵 = ∗ 5 = 0.156, 𝜎𝑧 = 0.156 ∗
2𝜋
1+(0.75)2 2

1,000
= 9.8𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
4×4

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
(iii) Boussinesq’s theory for uniformly distributed circular load

Homogenous half-space

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
(iii) Boussinesq’s theory for uniformly distributed circular load
𝒛𝟑
𝛔𝐳 = 𝐪 𝟏 − 𝟑ൗ
𝐚𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 𝟐

Where;
q = Applied surface pressure
𝜎𝑧 = Vertical stress along the vertical axis of loading
𝜎𝑟 = 𝜎𝑡 = Horizontal stress on the vertical axis of loading
a = Radius of applied circle of loading
z = Distance of the point from the surface
𝜇 = Poisson’s ratio

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
(iv) Foster and Ahlvin Charts
▪ Foster and Ahlvin (1954) presented charts for determination of
vertical stress σz, tangential stress σt, radial stress σr, shear
stress τzr, and vertical deflection w.
▪ The load is applied over a circular area with radius (a) and an
load intensity (q).
▪ Because Poisson ratio has relatively small effect on stresses
and deflections, Foster and Ahlvin assumed the Poisson’s ratio
value 0.5.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑧
▪ In the charts, x-axis → × 100, y-axis , No. on the
𝑞 𝑎
𝑟
curve
𝑎

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems 𝝈𝒛
x100(%)
𝒒

𝒛
𝒂 𝒓
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐞𝒔
𝒂

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
▪ A homogeneous half-space is subjected to dual wheel loads,
170mm apart, as shown in the figure below. The contact areas
are taken as circular, each with a 230mm diameter. The tyre
pressures are 0.5MPa and 0.45MPa for tyre A and B
respectively. The half-space has an elastic modulus of 70MPa
and a Poisson's ratio of 0.5. Determine the vertical stresses at
points 1, 2 and 3

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
▪ Given:
– a = 115mm
– pA = 0.5MPa, , pB = 0.45MPa
– z = 180mm
– For wheel A:
• r1 = 0mm, r2 = 200mm, r3 = 400mm
– For wheel B:
• r1 = 400mm, r2 = 200mm, r3 = 0mm
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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
For Point 1:
▪ Consider Wheel A
– zΤa = 180Τ115 ≅ 1.56
– rΤa = 0Τ115 = 0
– From the chart:
σz 45
– × 100 ≅ 45 => σz = × 0.5 = 0.225MPa
p 100

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems 𝝈𝒛
x 100(%)
𝒒

𝒛
𝒂 𝒓
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐞𝒔
𝒂

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
For Point 1:
▪ Consider Wheel B
– zΤa = 180Τ115 ≅ 1.56
– rΤa = 400Τ115 = 3.48
– From the chart:
σz 0.7
– × 100 ≅ 0.7 => σz = × 0.45 = 0.00315MPa
p 100

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems 𝝈𝒛
x100(%)
𝒒

𝒛
𝒂 𝒓
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐞𝒔
𝒂

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
▪ Total vertical stress at Point 1 = 0.225 + 0.00315 = 0.22815MPa

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 2. STRESSES AND STRAINS IN PAVEMENTS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
▪ For Point 2:
▪ Consider Wheel A
– 𝑧Τ𝑎 = 180Τ115 ≅ 1.56
– 𝑟Τ𝑎 = 200Τ115 = 1.74
– From the chart:
𝜎𝑧 9
– × 100 ≅ 9 => 𝜎𝑧 = × 0.5 = 0.045𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑝 100

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems 𝝈𝒛
x100(%)
𝒒

𝒛
𝒂 𝒓
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐞𝒔
𝒂

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
▪ For Point 2:
▪ Consider Wheel B
– 𝑧Τ𝑎 = 180Τ115 ≅ 1.56
– 𝑟Τ𝑎 = 200Τ115 = 1.74
– From the chart:
𝜎𝑧 9
– × 100 ≅ 9 => 𝜎𝑧 = × 0.45 = 0.0405𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑝 100

▪ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 = 0.045 + 0.0405 =

𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟓𝟓𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐
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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems 𝝈𝒛
x100(%)
𝒒

𝒛
𝒂 𝒓
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐞𝒔
𝒂

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
▪ Total vertical stress at Point 2 = 0.045 + 0.0405 = 0.0855MPa

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
▪ For Point 3: (4mks)
▪ Consider Wheel A
– zΤa = 180Τ115 ≅ 1.56
– rΤa = 400Τ115 = 3.48
– From the chart:
σz 0.7
– × 100 ≅ 0.7 => σz = × 0.5 = 0.0035MPa
p 100

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems 𝝈𝒛
x100(%)
𝒒

𝒛
𝒂 𝒓
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐞𝒔
𝒂

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
▪ For Point 3: (4mks)
▪ Consider Wheel B
– zΤa = 180Τ115 ≅ 1.56
– rΤa = 0Τ115 = 0
– From the chart:
σz 45
– × 100 ≅ 45 => σz = × 0.45 = 0.2025 kN/m2
p 100

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems 𝝈𝒛
x100(%)
𝒒

𝒛
𝒂 𝒓
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐞𝒔
𝒂

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.1 One-layered systems
Example
▪ Total vertical stress at Point 3 = 0.0035 + 0.2025 = 0.206MPa
▪ Summary
▪ Point 1 = 0.22815MPa
▪ Point 2 = 0.0855MPa
▪ Point 3 = 0.206MPa
▪ After stresses are obtained from charts, the normal, radial
and tangential strains can be obtained by use of existing
equations.

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.2 Two-layered systems
(i) Burmister's theory for layered systems

▪ The two-layer theory was developed by Donald Martin

Burmister in 1943. He extended it to a 3-layer system in 1945.

▪ With the advent of computers, the theory can be applied to

multilayer systems.

▪ Assumes that the top layer, consisting of the pavement

structure, is an infinite elastic horizontal slab of finite depth
overlying a semi-infinite solid of lower elastic modulus.

▪ For Burmister’s theory, a Poisson’s ratio of 0.5 is assumed for

each layer.
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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.2 Two-layered systems
(i) Burmister's theory for layered systems

▪ The surface loading is assumed to be uniformly-distributed over

a circular area and there are no shearing stresses outside the
loaded area.

▪ The interface between the layers is assumed to be either

perfectly rough or perfectly smooth to ensure perfect contact
between layers

𝟏.𝟓𝐪𝐚
▪ Flexible plate, 𝒘𝒐 = 𝑭𝟐
𝐄𝟐

𝑞𝑎
▪ Rigid plate, 𝑤𝑜 = 1.18
𝐸2
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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.2 Two-layered systems
(i) Burmister's theory for layered systems
Where;
𝑤𝑜 = Total vertical deflection of the surface
q = Intensity of applied load
𝑎 = Radius of circular area of loading
F2 = Deflection factor. A dimensionless displacement
factor depending on the thickness of the top layer
and the ratio 𝐸1 Τ𝐸2 (ranging from 0.02 to 1.0 for
ratios of 𝐸1 Τ𝐸2 between about 10,000 and 2,
respectively)
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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.2 Two-layered systems
(i) Burmister's theory for layered systems

𝐸1 = Elastic modulus of the top layer (pavement

structure)
𝐸2 = Elastic modulus of the bottom layer

▪ These equations can be used for design of a pavement by

limiting the value of 𝒘𝒐 or the deformation of the pavement,
to a desired value.

▪ Burmister suggested that the displacement under the wheel

load can be limited to 5.0 mm for flexible pavements.

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 2. Stress & strains in pavements
Modulus ratio

Thickness-radius ratio
Figure 2 4: Influence layers – two-layer theory
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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.2 Two-layered systems
Example

Calculate the deflection at the surface of a flexible pavement due

to a wheel load of 40𝑘𝑁 and a tyre pressure of 0.5 MN/m2. The
modulus of elasticity, E, of the pavement and subgrade may be
assumed to be uniformly equal to 20 MN/m2.

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.2 Two-layered systems
Example

Calculate the deflection at the surface of a flexible pavement due

to a wheel load of 40𝑘𝑁 and a tyre pressure of 0.5 MN/m2. The
modulus of elasticity, E, of the pavement and subgrade may be
assumed to be uniformly equal to 20 MN/m2.

Solution

Radius of contact area, a, is given by:

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑇𝑦𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝜋𝑎2

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.2 Two-layered systems
Example

Therefore,

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑎=
𝜋 × 𝑇𝑦𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

40 × 1000
𝑎= 6
= 0.1595𝑚𝑚
𝜋 × 0.5 × 10

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.2 Two-layered systems
Example
𝑞𝑎 40×1000 0.1595
Therefore, deflection ∆= 1.5 = 1.5 × × = 0.5986𝑚
𝐸 𝜋×0.15952 20×106

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.2 Two-layered systems
Example

A 300mm thick flexible pavement receives a uniformly distributed

load via a tyre with a tyre footprint of radius of 150mm. Given that
the tyre is pressurized to 0.552MPa and the pavement and subgrade
layers have moduli of 345MPa and 69MPa respectively, calculate the
surface deflection under the center of the tyre using the two-layer
theory.

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.2 Two-layered systems
Solution
𝑧=300mm, 𝑎= 150mm, 𝑞 = 0.552MPa, 𝐸1 = 345MPa and 𝐸2 = 69 MPa

1.5𝑞𝑎
𝑤𝑜 = 𝐹
𝐸2 2

𝑧 300 𝐸1 345
= 150 and = =5
𝑎 𝐸2 69

From the chart, 𝐹2 =0.42

1.5 × 0.552 × 150

𝑤𝑜 = × 0.42 = 0.756𝑚𝑚
69

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.3 Three-layered systems
Figure 2. Critical analysis locations in a pavement structure.

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.4 Multi-layer systems
▪ Typical pavement sections can be idealized as a multi-layered
system.

▪ The thickness and material properties may vary from one layer
to the next.

▪ But in any one layer the material is assumed to be homogeneous

and linearly elastic.

▪ Pavement loading is then introduced and analysis carried out to

determine the stresses and strains at critical points in the
structure.

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.4 Multi-layer systems
▪ The stresses and strains obtained are compared with allowable
values for the various materials used in the pavement structure.

▪ If the calculated stresses or strains are greater than these

allowable values, the design is repeated using thicker layers or
alternative materials.

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 2. PAVEMENT STRESS ANALYSIS
2.3 Stresses in layered systems
2.3.4 Multi-layer systems
▪ Examples of computer programs used to analyze stress, strains
and deflections in pavements include:

▪ BISTRO and Bitumen Stress Analysis in Roads (BISAR) (from

Shell), ELSYM5 (from Chevron), ALIZE III (LCPC) and CIRCLY
(from MINCAD), DAMA (from Asphalt Institute), SAPIV and
ELSYM5 (from University of California), ILLI-PAVE (Raad and
Figueroa, 1980), PDMAP (Finn et al., 1986), MICH-PAVE
(Harichandran et al., 1989), KENLAYER (Huang, 1993),
Everstress (Washington State DOT, 1995)

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