This PDF is available at http://nap.nationalacademies.

org/24668

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control

Facilities (2017)

DETAILS
104 pages | 8.5 x 11 | PAPERBACK
ISBN 978-0-309-44609-9 | DOI 10.17226/24668

CONTRIBUTORS
Barbara Cogliandro, Rafal Kicinger, Rick Klarmann, Rose Agnew, Christina
Coverdell, J. Michael Nash, George Ingram, Richard Marchi, and Lee Brown;
BUY THIS BOOK Airport Cooperative Research Program; Transportation Research Board; National
Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

FIND RELATED TITLES SUGGESTED CITATION

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2017. Guidebook for
Developing Ramp Control Facilities. Washington, DC: The National Academies
Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/24668.

Visit the National Academies Press at nap.edu and login or register to get:
– Access to free PDF downloads of thousands of publications
– 10% off the price of print publications
– Email or social media notifications of new titles related to your interests
– Special offers and discounts

All downloadable National Academies titles are free to be used for personal and/or non-commercial
academic use. Users may also freely post links to our titles on this website; non-commercial academic
users are encouraged to link to the version on this website rather than distribute a downloaded PDF
to ensure that all users are accessing the latest authoritative version of the work. All other uses require
written permission. (Request Permission)

This PDF is protected by copyright and owned by the National Academy of Sciences; unless otherwise
indicated, the National Academy of Sciences retains copyright to all materials in this PDF with all rights
reserved.
Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

ACRP RESEARCH REPORT 167

Guidebook for Developing
Ramp Control Facilities

Barbara Cogliandro
Rafal Kicinger
Rick Klarmann
METRON AVIATION, INC.
Washington, DC

Rose Agnew
Christina Coverdell
J. Michael Nash
George Ingram
AVIATION INNOVATION, LLC
St Paul, MN

Richard Marchi
RFMARCHI AVIATION CONSULTING, INC.
Washington, DC

Lee Brown
LANDRUM & BROWN
Cincinnati, OH

Subscriber Categories
Aviation

Research sponsored by the Federal Aviation Administration

2017

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM ACRP RESEARCH REPORT 167

Airports are vital national resources. They serve a key role in trans- Project 10-24
portation of people and goods and in regional, national, and interna- ISSN 1935-9802
tional commerce. They are where the nation’s aviation system connects ISBN 978-0-309-44609-9
with other modes of transportation and where federal responsibility for Library of Congress Control Number 2016960395
managing and regulating air traffic operations intersects with the role of
© 2016 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
state and local governments that own and operate most airports. Research
is necessary to solve common operating problems, to adapt appropriate
new technologies from other industries, and to introduce innovations into
the airport industry. The Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) COPYRIGHT INFORMATION
serves as one of the principal means by which the airport industry can Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining
develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it. written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously
The need for ACRP was identified in TRB Special Report 272: Airport published or copyrighted material used herein.
Research Needs: Cooperative Solutions in 2003, based on a study spon- Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this
sored by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). ACRP carries out publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the
applied research on problems that are shared by airport operating agen- understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, FAA, FHWA,
cies and not being adequately addressed by existing federal research FMCSA, FRA, FTA, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Research and Technology, PHMSA,
or TDC endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those
programs. ACRP is modeled after the successful National Cooperative reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give
Highway Research Program (NCHRP) and Transit Cooperative Research appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For
Program (TCRP). ACRP undertakes research and other technical activi- other uses of the material, request permission from CRP.
ties in various airport subject areas, including design, construction, legal,
maintenance, operations, safety, policy, planning, human resources, and
administration. ACRP provides a forum where airport operators can
NOTICE
cooperatively address common operational problems.
ACRP was authorized in December 2003 as part of the Vision 100— The research report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication
according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board
Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act. The primary participants in
and approved by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.
the ACRP are (1) an independent governing board, the ACRP Oversight
Committee (AOC), appointed by the Secretary of the U.S. Department of The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the
researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation
Transportation with representation from airport operating agencies, other Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; or the
stakeholders, and relevant industry organizations such as the Airports program sponsors.
Council International-North America (ACI-NA), the American Associa-
The Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and
tion of Airport Executives (AAAE), the National Association of State Medicine; and the sponsors of the Airport Cooperative Research Program do not endorse
Aviation Officials (NASAO), Airlines for America (A4A), and the Airport products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear herein solely because
Consultants Council (ACC) as vital links to the airport community; (2) TRB they are considered essential to the object of the report.
as program manager and secretariat for the governing board; and (3) the
FAA as program sponsor. In October 2005, the FAA executed a contract
with the National Academy of Sciences formally initiating the program.
ACRP benefits from the cooperation and participation of airport
professionals, air carriers, shippers, state and local government officials,
equipment and service suppliers, other airport users, and research organi-
zations. Each of these participants has different interests and responsibili-
ties, and each is an integral part of this cooperative research effort.
Research problem statements for ACRP are solicited periodically but
may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility
of the AOC to formulate the research program by identifying the highest
priority projects and defining funding levels and expected products.
Once selected, each ACRP project is assigned to an expert panel
appointed by TRB. Panels include experienced practitioners and
research specialists; heavy emphasis is placed on including airport
professionals, the intended users of the research products. The panels
prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors,
and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the Published research reports of the
project. The process for developing research problem statements and
AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing coop-
erative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, ACRP are available from
project panels serve voluntarily without compensation. Transportation Research Board
Primary emphasis is placed on disseminating ACRP results to the Business Office
500 Fifth Street, NW
intended users of the research: airport operating agencies, service pro- Washington, DC 20001
viders, and academic institutions. ACRP produces a series of research
reports for use by airport operators, local agencies, the FAA, and other and can be ordered through the Internet by going to
interested parties; industry associations may arrange for workshops, http://www.national-academies.org
training aids, field visits, webinars, and other activities to ensure that and then searching for TRB
results are implemented by airport industry practitioners. Printed in the United States of America

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an Act of Congress, signed by President Lincoln, as a private, non-
governmental institution to advise the nation on issues related to science and technology. Members are elected by their peers for
outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is president.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to bring the
practices of engineering to advising the nation. Members are elected by their peers for extraordinary contributions to engineering.
Dr. C. D. Mote, Jr., is president.
The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) was established in 1970 under the charter of the National
Academy of Sciences to advise the nation on medical and health issues. Members are elected by their peers for distinguished contributions
to medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president.

The three Academies work together as the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to provide independent,
objective analysis and advice to the nation and conduct other activities to solve complex problems and inform public policy decisions.
The Academies also encourage education and research, recognize outstanding contributions to knowledge, and increase public
understanding in matters of science, engineering, and medicine.

Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine at www.national-academies.org.

The Transportation Research Board is one of seven major programs of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.
The mission of the Transportation Research Board is to increase the benefits that transportation contributes to society by providing
leadership in transportation innovation and progress through research and information exchange, conducted within a setting that is
objective, interdisciplinary, and multimodal. The Board’s varied committees, task forces, and panels annually engage about 7,000
engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of
whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state transportation departments, federal agencies
including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individuals interested
in the development of transportation.

Learn more about the Transportation Research Board at www.TRB.org.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS

CRP STAFF FOR ACRP RESEARCH REPORT 167

Christopher J. Hedges, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Michael R. Salamone, ACRP Manager
Marci A. Greenberger, Senior Program Officer
Jeffrey L. Oser, Senior Program Assistant
Eileen P. Delaney, Director of Publications
Scott E. Hitchcock, Editor

ACRP PROJECT 10-24 PANEL

Field of Operations
Colleen E. Quinn, Ricondo & Associates, Inc., Chicago, IL (Chair)
Gary W. Broughton, Wilmington International Airport, Wilmington, NC
Jonathan DeJesus, Dallas Ft. Worth International Airport, DFW Airport, TX
Roger Nakata, IAAC, International Airport and Air Traffic Control Consultants, Aurora, CO
Viji Prasad, Los Angeles World Airports, Los Angeles, CA
Steve Vail, Mosaic ATM, Inc., Leesburg, VA
Freddie James, FAA Liaison
Michael Lawrance, FAA Liaison
Christine Gerencher, TRB Liaison

AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express appreciation to the personnel at the airports currently with and those with-
out ramp control services who participated in interviews as part of this study. Airport, airline, contract,
and FAA personnel provided valuable information concerning current policies and procedures in use
today as well as best practices and lessons learned when establishing ramp control services. We particularly
wish to thank the personnel at Washington Dulles International Airport, Ronald Reagan Washington
National Airport, Denver International Airport and Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport
for hosting and participating in our efforts to validate this research.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

FOREWORD

By Marci A. Greenberger
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board

There are a number of different ways in which ramp control services can be provided:
(1) directly by the airport, (2) contracted, or (3) airline operated or managed. This guidebook
will guide those airport operators considering providing ramp control services. The accom-
panying Ramp Control Decision Support Tool will assist airport operators in establishing
whether to conduct ramp control activities and all the related considerations. The guidebook
and the tool will be most helpful to airport operations staff.

Ramp control towers that are staffed by non-FAA personnel have been typically operated by
airlines to coordinate the movement of aircraft in the non-movement area. Over time, some
airports have taken on this responsibility (a) because there wasn’t a willing airline, (b) to avoid
conflicts between airlines, (c) due to a common-use environment, or (d) for other reasons.
Opportunities may also present themselves to those airport operators who are examining
terminal facility requirements; aging infrastructure; and physical, technological and operational
changes that are occurring, which will allow consideration of addressing the coordination of
aircraft operations in the non-movement area in a different way.
Metron Aviation, as part of ACRP Project 10-24, was selected to develop guidance to opti-
mize ramp control activities in non-movement areas. The research team interviewed airports
that have taken over the responsibility (in one form or another), and those who have consid-
ered it but determined that taking on the responsibility wasn’t right for their situation.
The Decision Support Tool will walk the user through most considerations that an air-
port should consider including facility requirements, staffing, training, and technology and
other factors, allowing the user to determine the best way to move forward. The guidance
and the tool will be useful to airport operations staff and planners. The tool can be down-
loaded from the ACRP Research Report 167 summary page at http://www.trb.org/Main/
Blurbs/175172.aspx.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

CONTENTS

1 Chapter 1 Introduction
1 1.1 Why Is This Guidebook Needed?
2 1.2 What Is Ramp Control?
2 1.3 Who Is the Guidance For?
3 1.4 How to Use the Guidebook
4 1.5 Collaboration Is a Key to Success
6 Chapter 2 Decision Process and Decision Support Tool
9 2.1 Define Ramp-Related Problems (Step 1)
10 2.1.1 Efficiency
11 2.1.2 Safety
12 2.1.3 Construction
12 2.1.4 Administrative- and Executive-Level Policies
13 2.1.5 Decisions from Step 1
13 2.2 Scope the Problem (Step 2)
14 2.2.1 Decision from Step 2
14 2.3 Evaluate Ramp Control Considerations (Step 3)
14 2.3.1 People
17 2.3.2 Technology
18 2.3.3 Facility and Supporting Infrastructure
19 2.3.4 Administrative/Budget
20 2.3.5 Step 3 Summary
20 2.4 Deciding the Best Alternative (Step 4)
24 Chapter 3 Initial and Recurring Costs
26 Chapter 4 Implementation
26 4.1 Steps Going Forward
28 Chapter 5 Summary
29 References
30 Bibliography
31 Glossary of Terms
33 Acronyms and Airport Identifiers
A-1 Appendix A Questions Associated with Steps 1–3
B-1 Appendix B Initial and Recurring Costs
C-1 Appendix C Advantages and Disadvantages

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

D-1 Appendix D Lessons Learned

E-1 Appendix E Airports with Ramp Control
F-1 Appendix F Technology Considerations
G-1 Appendix G Staffing Considerations

Note: Photographs, figures, and tables in this report may have been converted from color to grayscale for printing.
The electronic version of the report (posted on the web at www.trb.org) retains the color versions.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1 Why Is This Guidebook Needed?

Many U.S. airports experience aircraft congestion in the non-movement areas of their airport.
This congestion is often attributed to compacted demand for gate space and/or inefficient
terminal/gate configurations. This can result in delays for aircraft and passengers as well as
create risks to ground crew safety. To manage this type of congestion, some large and medium
hubs have implemented ramp control management efforts and procedures; however, airport
ramp control efforts vary widely. This variance is due to three major factors:
• No common definition of ramp control exists in the industry,
• No guidance or regulations [such as Advisory Circulars (ACs)] on ramp control management
have been promulgated, and
• No requirements have been created or standardized for those conducting ramp control activi-
ties [e.g., standard operating procedures (SOPs) or certification processes].
At the time of this printing, 28 airports in the U.S. currently engage in ramp control activi-
ties (see Appendix E). Among these airports, ramp control services are conducted by either an
airline, the airport, or a third party under contract to the airport. In some cases, a combination
of these parties provides ramp control service. At only two airports are ramp control activities
conducted solely by airport personnel—Washington Dulles International Airport (IAD) and
McCarran International Airport (LAS).
Of the airports interviewed as part of this guidance, those that decided to take on ramp con-
trol responsibility said they did so for reasons unique to their own airport management vision,
e.g., to avoid conflicts between competing airlines (to ensure equitable distribution of access),
to support a common-use operating environment, or to resolve/mitigate ramp-related safety
and/or operational challenges when no airline was willing to take on ramp control responsibility.
Considering the changes in the markets served by the airlines that have occurred over the past
few years, creating or increasing air traffic demand where none or little existed, the potential
for increased delays at many airports due to ramp congestion or lack of gate availability has
grown. Airports experiencing these types of operational challenges may want to consider various
options for managing ramps and/or gate usage in order to more effectively monitor and control
these areas, even though that may require an effort to modify or renegotiate existing tenant
agreements. In many airport situations, effective ramp control has reduced ramp congestion
through better managed decision making, which enables the airport to maximize gate usage and
optimize use of available ramp space.
This guidance may also be helpful as airports consider the implications of emerging technolo-
gies that have the potential to enhance situational awareness related to surface traffic manage-
ment. New technologies are anticipated to link an airport’s surface operations to the capacity

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

2 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

and efficiency constraints routinely experienced in the National Airspace System (NAS), which
has the potential to give those managing ramps the “big picture.”
This guidance is in no way meant to imply either that ramp control is needed at every airport
or that it will cover all that must be considered before setting the airport on the course to imple-
menting ramp control. However, for those airports that wish to consider ramp control, either
now or in the future, this guidance is designed to assist airport operators through the decision-
making process (this guidebook) and an accompanying ramp control decision-making sup-
port tool (Decision Support Tool) (available for download from the report summary page at
http://www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/175172.aspx). Both of these can help airport operators first
determine their ramp-related operational challenges and then help them decide whether these
challenges or constraints could be effectively mitigated through ramp control. In cases where
ramp control is determined to be a viable airport option, this guidance provides further assis-
tance in helping airports determine which entity should be responsible for ramp control and
what type of technology (e.g., on-site, virtual tower) would be most appropriate.

1.2 What Is Ramp Control?

During initial interviews with personnel from passenger airlines, cargo operators, and airport
operators, the research team found the primary reason that no single common definition of ramp
control exists is because each airport is unique; each has its own staffing plan, and tailors ramp con-
trol activities to fit its specific needs. Because of this, interview definitions given for ramp control
ranged from controlling the movement of aircraft in the non-movement area to controlling the
ground personnel responsible for physically pushing an aircraft off the gate.
Therefore, the definition below is a culmination of ramp control activities at airports that were
interviewed. For the purpose of this guidebook, ramp control can be defined as the activities
undertaken by a non-FAA entity at an airport that:
• Provides guidance and direction to all aircraft moving within the control entity’s area of
jurisdiction:
– For departing aircraft, typical instructions include providing pushback and disconnect
point, and coordination with air traffic control (ATC).
– For arriving aircraft, instructions include providing gate and ramp entrance information,
if appropriate.
• Sequences departing aircraft to the designated transition point (spot) on the ground and
issuing traffic advisories, as necessary.
• Coordinates arriving and departing aircraft hand-offs with ATC, including situations when
aircraft enter the ramp but are unable to clear active taxiways.
• Resolves conflicts with aircraft that are arriving, departing, or under tow within their area of
jurisdiction. However:
– Ramp control personnel do not resolve conflicts with vehicles or personnel moving on the
ramp. Ramp controllers normally issue advisories to aircraft taxiing in the ramp (apron) area.
– Ramp personnel (those performing pushback or marshalling aircraft) are responsible for
ensuring aircraft do not come in contact with other aircraft, equipment, or buildings.

1.3 Who Is the Guidance For?

This guidance has been primarily designed for use by airport operators who do not currently
manage ramp control operations but are experiencing or anticipate experiencing one or more
of the following issues that could impact ramp operations:

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Introduction 3

• As a possible way to mitigate a safety issue either currently being experienced or that may be
created with growth.
• Growth in airport demand, including new flight operators.
• Construction that may affect operations at the airport for the long term (e.g., building new
terminals, adding additional gates) as well as short-term projects that result in the temporary
closure of runways or taxiways.
• Administrative decisions that affect operations at the airport (e.g., changes to or expansion
of common-use gates).
• Potential changes in airfield operations due to the implementation of evolving FAA Next
Generation technologies [e.g., surface management, terminal flight data manager (TFDM)].
Additionally, this guidance may be used by airports that currently have ramp control and
want to validate or consider modifying current management options.

1.4 How to Use the Guidebook

To best use this guidebook, it is recommended that airport management identify a point per-
son who will be responsible for carrying out all of the necessary tasks outlined in this document,
coordinating between all interested stakeholders, and developing an environment conducive to
communication and collaboration.
See Figure 1 for a description of this guidebook and the accompanying Decision Support
Tool. The icons in the figure are used throughout to alert the user as to the appropriate guidance.
The decision process described in this guidebook utilizes a series of questions meant to foster
critical thinking about the ramp-related problems an airport is interested in solving while also
encouraging stakeholder involvement. The questions are designed to probe shared goals and
objectives as well as ramp solutions.
An airport operator (also referred to as a “user” in this document) can continue to delve
further into the details of the considerations itemized in the guidebook in order to reach a final
decision on whether or not to start up ramp control at an airport. For this purpose, the user may
use the questions that are contained in Appendix A.
Both the decision process described in this guidebook and the Decision Support Tool can
be used for planning, as well as serve as a resource for airport operators to use when new or
unforeseen ramp-related conditions occur.

Guidebook—describes the ramp Decision Support Tool—an

control decision process that guides the easy-to-use, graphical user interface
airport operator and stakeholders through (GUI) aid that guides the user through
a number of consideration topics and the four-step decision process and
questions in order to determine whether allows him/her to create a record of
the airport has ramp-related operational his/her responses. The responses can
constraints that could be resolved or be generated into HTML-formatted
mitigated by implementation of ramp reports and printed and shared with
control. stakeholders.

Figure 1. Two-part guidance.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

4 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

This guidebook is organized as follows:

• Chapter 1, Introduction: This chapter provides background about the research project and
explains the purpose and organization of the guidebook.
• Chapter 2, Decision Process and Decision Support Tool: This chapter describes the four-
step process in detail, including the important aspect of information sharing. Steps 1, 2, and 3
have associated questions found in Appendix A, as well as in the Decision Support Tool, that
will help the user determine if there is a ramp-related operational challenge that ramp control
could resolve or mitigate and how significant the problem is. In Step 4, users can then evalu-
ate the various areas of concern to help determine the best candidates for performing ramp
control and which locations are most ideal for managing ramp control.
• Chapter 3, Initial and Recurring Costs: This chapter describes how potential costs and benefits
associated with various ramp management options and locations may be evaluated and compared
against one another in order to help weigh various ramp control options under consideration.
• Chapter 4, Implementation: This chapter describes many of the steps that should be consid-
ered once the decision to implement ramp control has been made.
• Chapter 5, Summary: This chapter provides a brief summary of research results, which may
lead to further study on ramp control.
In addition to a list of references, a glossary of terms, and acronyms, this guidebook includes
several appendices:
• Appendix A, Questions Associated with Steps 1–3: This appendix contains the questions
associated with Steps 1, 2, and 3. The questions in this appendix may be copied for indi-
viduals to document their responses; however, the same questions are provided in the Deci-
sion Support Tool. Using the Decision Support Tool will make documentation easier as it has
a reporting feature. In the tool, some responses to questions will prompt the user to answer
additional follow-on questions. Additionally, some of the questions in the tool allow for free-
text responses.
• Appendix B, Initial and Recurring Costs: This appendix includes the initial and recurring
costs associated with implementing ramp control from the airport operator’s perspective.
• Appendix C, Advantages and Disadvantages: This appendix lists the advantages and dis-
advantages of each of the consideration topics. The responses are written from the airport
operator’s perspective.
• Appendix D, Lessons Learned: This appendix describes lessons learned from the perspectives
of the various stakeholders that perform ramp control. This information was obtained during
the data gathering phases and during this research project’s validation workshops.
• Appendix E, Airports with Ramp Control: This appendix lists the airports that currently man-
age ramp control operations, whether through airport, airline, third party, or a combination of
these efforts. Airports are listed by region and by type of stakeholder that performs ramp control.
• Appendix F, Technology Considerations: This appendix describes a few examples of tech-
nology that is being developed or utilized that should be considered by an airport operator.
• Appendix G, Staffing Considerations: This appendix describes the various factors to consider
when determining staffing options for a ramp control facility.

1.5 Collaboration Is a Key to Success

During the development of this guidebook and during the validation reviews, one clear mes-
sage emerged: for the decision-making process to be successful, collaboration is paramount.
Therefore, all of the stakeholders who may be affected by the decision to pursue ramp control

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Introduction 5

need to be included in the decision-making process. Generally, stakeholders include the FAA,
major air carriers, fixed-base operators (FBOs), de-icing operators, or other stakeholders based
on the local airport situation. Including these parties, whether through face-to-face meetings
or “community partnership” efforts, can help the airport be proactive rather than reactive in
addressing airport challenges. Furthermore, the airport operator is typically in the best position
to bring the stakeholders together and champion this collaborative effort.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

CHAPTER 2

Decision Process and

Decision Support Tool

Figure 2 illustrates the four-step decision process, which is a problem solving method designed
to take the user through the process of defining ramp-related problem(s), determining the scope
of the problem(s), evaluating the items that should be considered, and determining the best
implementation alternative.

The Four-Step Decision Process

Step 1: Define Ramp-Related Problem: The airport operator and interested stakeholders
must determine whether there are ramp-related operational concerns in one or more con-
sideration topics. It is important to discern whether alternatives to resolve/mitigate the chal-
lenges or constraints require implementation of formal ramp control or whether they can be
accomplished through a change in operational procedures. Consideration topics are reviewed
in Section 2.1.1. Users can also balance these concerns with executive-level considerations
as described in 2.1.4. Questions that guide the user through this critical step can be found in
Appendix A.
At the end of this step, if an airport operator, with the input from stakeholders, determines
that ramp control is not required to resolve or mitigate ramp-related operational challenges
or constraints, then they are finished with this process and can focus on other solutions includ-
ing development and/or changes to existing procedures. If it is determined that ramp control
is required as part of a ramp-related solution, then the reader is directed to complete Steps 2,
3, and 4.
Step 2: Scope the Problem: An airport operator and interested stakeholders must deter-
mine the degree (scope) to which operational efficiency, safety, construction, or administra-
tive challenges impact local stakeholders. More details on scoping the problem can be found
in Section 2.2. Questions associated with this step can be found in Appendix A, Table A-2.
Step 3: Evaluate Ramp Control Considerations: The airport operator must now determine
which entity (airline, third party, airport operator, or a hybrid solution) is best suited to perform
ramp control at the airport by considering each of four major areas of concern—people, tech-
nology, facility and supporting infrastructure options, and administrative/budget. A discussion
on these topics can be found in Section 2.3. Questions associated with this step can be found in
Appendix A, Table A-3.
Step 4: Determine the Best Alternative: In this step, the guidebook user focuses on decid-
ing who will manage the ramp and from what type of location. More details on this step can be
found in Section 2.1.5.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Decision Process and Decision Support Tool 7

Figure 2. Decision process.

The Decision Support Tool

A Decision Support Tool was created to accompany this guidebook. Guidebook users are not
required to use the tool in order to follow the process but it provides the benefits of automation
over paper and pencil. The tool is an easy-to-use, GUI aid that guides the user through the four-
step decision process, mirroring the questions contained in Appendix A of this guidebook. The
tool allows the user to create a record of his/her responses, which can be generated into reports

Decision Support Tool Tip: When more than one management option
is being considered (e.g., airport operations vs. airline) or ramp facility location
(e.g., new ramp tower vs. a virtual facility), separate records in the Decision Support
Tool must be created for each consideration.

Caution! The more complex the decision-making process, the more

complex the tool inputs. If a user is considering more than one management
option and more than one facility type, then each management option will need
to be populated for each type of facility being evaluated in order to complete a
full analysis using the tool.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

8 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Figure 3. How the design support process (this guidebook) relates to the
Decision Support Tool.

in HTML format. These can be printed and shared with stakeholders for collaborative discus-
sions and decision making. The Decision Support Tool is available for download from the
report summary page at http://www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/175172.aspx. Please open and read
the “Instructions for Ramp Control Decision Support Tool” file first as it contains instruc-
tions for using the tool.
As indicated in Figure 3, users can use guidance from all of Chapter 2 to help them populate
the Decision Support Tool.
Furthermore, guidebook users can access the Decision Support Tool during Steps 1, 2 and
3 as described in the following sections. Once all inputs are recorded in the Decision Support
Tool, a report can be generated that summarizes the information from Steps 1, 2, and 3 for
review by the airport operator and stakeholders as described in Step 4: Determine the Best
Alternative. Users are encouraged to be familiar with all steps in the guidebook prior to using
the Decision Support Tool and to pay close attention to the “tool tips” that are provided. This
format ensures that the considerations made and the conclusions reached are documented as
they are developed and are available for collective review following the evaluation process.

What the Decision Support Tool Does and What It Does Not Do

What it does: The Decision Support Tool is an aid that receives inputs from the user
and can generate reports in HTML format that can easily be printed and shared
with the stakeholders involved with ramp control.

What it does not do: The Decision Support Tool does not generate a ramp control
decision for a user. It simply provides a report that contains the key factors involved
in ramp control decision making.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Decision Process and Decision Support Tool 9

2.1 Define Ramp-Related Problems (Step 1)

The first step in the decision process is to determine what challenges or constraints are occur-
ring or projected to occur related to ramp operations at an airport, and to consider potential
solutions to mitigate the challenges or constraints. Operational challenges and constraints gener-
ally fall into one of four areas of concern—operational efficiency, safety, construction, or admin-
istrative. As airport operators consider these challenges, they may discover that ramp-related
problem areas overlap. They may also find that they are only acknowledging the symptoms of a
ramp-related issue (e.g., a complex airport terminal layout may cause ramp congestion issues that
may intensify if new construction increases ramp activity).
Some major questions to consider include:
• What ramp-related operational challenge(s) or constraints are occurring or are projected to
occur at an airport?
• Do the ramp-related operational challenges or constraints require action on the part of the
airport operator or airport community?
• Are suggested ramp-related actions in alignment with executive-level policies (e.g., hiring
freeze, budgetary constraint)?
• What are the potential solutions to mitigate the operational challenges or constraints? Has a
change in operational procedures been investigated?
• What lessons can be learned from other airports that have implemented ramp control? The
airports that have implemented ramp control are listed in Appendix E.
To help illustrate the importance of these types of questions, the scenario in Figure 4 provides
a typical situation in which an airport and its stakeholders need to discuss whether there are

Example: Multiple Ramp-Related

Considerations

Scenario: The airport operator and a number of

interested stakeholders have determined that
growth at the airport is increasing and the trend
is expected to continue. In past years, ramp
congestion had not been a problem; however,
with the increased activity, ATC has noticed a rise
in the number of arrivals delayed getting to their
gate due to increased traffic. ATC added that the
situation is manageable, but some of the airlines
noted their on-time arrival performance has been
negatively affected. The airport is planning to add
an additional concourse, but the construction is
not expected to start for another year and may
affect existing ramp space during the
construction period.
Challenges/Constraints:
Continued growth is creating ramp
congestion.
On-time performance is negatively
impacted.
Construction may exacerbate the problem
before improvement is seen.

Figure 4. Example of multiple

ramp-related considerations.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

10 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

ramp-related operational challenges affecting the airport. A more in-depth review of these types
of consideration topics is detailed in subsequent sections.

2.1.1 Efficiency
Efficiency refers to an airline’s ability to operate as scheduled (e.g., an arrivals gate and ramp
access ways are available after landing and a departure is able to pushback and exit the ramp at
its scheduled time of departure). Airports with ramp control noted the following concerns that
can directly impact efficiency:
• Gate adjacency issues. These often arise due to the varying sizes of aircraft vying for gate
access. For example, an aircraft may not be able to pull up to a gate adjacent to another aircraft
whose wingspan extends into its gate space, thereby causing delays. Ramp control can manage
these situations. Additionally, gate adjacency agreements can be developed that address the
type and sizes of aircraft that can utilize specific parking spots.
• Ramp congestion. Ramp congestion, as shown in Figure 5, can occur when the movement of
an aircraft (e.g., pushback, tow, taxi) is restricted by other aircraft moving in the ramp, espe-
cially at airports with narrow ramps. The significance of ramp congestion can be determined
by the number of conflicts that occur within a period of time. For example, if there is an occa-
sional conflict between arriving and departing flights, this may not be considered significant;
however, if this is a frequent or routine occurrence, then ramp congestion may be considered
significant enough to require active ramp control. Irregular operations (IROPS) may be a sig-
nificant contributor to ramp congestion or the cause of occasional ramp congestion, depend-
ing on the specific airport.
• Demand/capacity imbalance. This can occur when there are more arrivals or departures than
the gates are able to accommodate. Temporary demand/capacity imbalances may result due
to IROPS caused by events such as severe weather.
• Terminal complexity. Terminal design affects the layout of the gates and taxi lanes, which
impact the movement of aircraft within ramp (apron) areas. As shown in Figure 6, terminal
complexity can cause the following issues:
– With parallel concourses or terminals, departures may be pushed back in such a way that
they block other departures from simultaneously pushing back or taxiing to a transfer
point, or prevent arriving aircraft from getting to their gate.
– Restrictions on portions of a ramp area, as shown in Figure 7, may prevent simultaneous
aircraft movement; therefore, it is important to understand both the restrictions as well as
the type of aircraft being moved in the ramp area.

Figure 5. Congested ramp space can hamper efficiency.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Decision Process and Decision Support Tool 11

Figure 6. Multiple concourses can complicate

ramp operations.

• Holding pad management. Determining who manages holding pads located within the
ramp area may affect efficiency and equity. Choosing a third-party or airline stakeholder to
manage holding pads, thereby enabling them to determine the order in which aircraft can enter/
exit a holding area, can potentially result in additional coordination between stakeholders
and raise potential concerns about equity.

2.1.2 Safety
The airport operators and airlines interviewed both agreed that safety is a number one priority
as the consequences of apron accidents and incidents can be substantial in terms of personnel
injury and equipment damage. However, ramp control may not be the answer for every safety-
related situation. For example, ramp control is not likely to prevent someone from failing to
follow established procedures; however, ramp control may be able to alert an airline’s pilot when
procedures are not followed.

Figure 7. Ramp configuration at Charlotte/Douglas

International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

12 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

To further understand the significance of safety concerns at an airport, it is beneficial to dis-

tinguish between accidents (e.g., events that cause equipment damage or personnel injury) and
incidents (e.g., situations where an accident might have occurred, but did not due to some sort of
intervention). It is important to analyze known safety concerns as well as potential safety-related
issues in order to fully understand which ones directly relate to ramp control.

2.1.3 Construction
Not all construction at an airport will directly affect a ramp, but may impact operational effi-
ciency (e.g., gate capacity). Therefore, it is important to determine whether construction proj-
ects will improve or diminish operational efficiency not only during the construction phase, but
also once construction projects are finished. For example, Figure 8 illustrates how a construction
project designed to improve efficiency might also cause ramp-related operational challenges in
the near term.
During the validation sessions, some airport operators noted that ramp control may be a
recommended solution for a short-term construction project that has a significant impact on
ramp congestion. Understanding how upcoming capital improvement programs may affect
ramp operations in the future is a significant consideration when determining overall ramp
control management.

2.1.4 Administrative- and Executive-Level Policies

Administrative decisions that may concern ramp control include strategizing long-range
expansion plans based on the projected growth of an airport, choosing to implement or
expand the use of common-use gates (e.g., common-use gates may impact existing lease agree-
ments and also affect which stakeholders are responsible for managing the gate assignment
process), or agreeing to provide better management of the ramp (e.g., if a significant number
of airlines request that the airport implement ramp control). Additionally, if ramp control is
pursued and based on the services that will be provided by the ramp control service providers,

Example: Construction Project

Scenario:
A construction project, which is expected to
last six months, will increase the number of
ramp exits/entrances and reduce congestion
on the ramp. However, for two months in
the middle of the construction period,
several gates will be unavailable due to their
proximity to the construction site. The final
result of the project will be improved
efficiency, but the interim effect on gate
availability and the resulting ramp
congestion may be significant enough to
warrant considering ramp control.
Results:
Improved efficiency
Impact:
Short-term reduction in gate capacity

Figure 8. Example: construction

project.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Decision Process and Decision Support Tool 13

agreements with the FAA to re-adjust portions of the movement areas to non-movement areas
may be in order.
Understanding how each potential administrative decision may affect ramp operations in the
future is significant in the determination of overall ramp control management. For example,
senior airport management may be looking to reduce costs or freeze hiring within certain airport
departments. These constraints may dictate that ramp control be considered at a later time or be
escalated for review before policies are implemented. This type of information is important to
obtain prior to doing any further significant analysis related to ramp control decision making.

2.1.5 Decisions from Step 1

Decision Option 1: Yes. Based on the responses to Step 1 questions in Appendix A, Table A-1,
or from the Decision Support Tool, an airport operator and interested stakeholders have initially
determined that ramp-related operational challenges or constraints are likely to be resolved via
ramp control. The airport operator should proceed to Step 2.

The Decision Support Tool is available for download from the report
summary page at http://www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/175172.aspx and may be
accessed by opening the index.html file in a web-browser.

Decision Option 2: No. Airport operator and interested stakeholders have initially deter-
mined that ramp-related operational challenges or constraints are not likely to be resolved by
ramp control, but rather by changes to existing processes or procedures. Ramp control is not
currently a viable option.

Tool Tip: If ramp control is not considered at this time, information

collected may be recorded in the Decision Support Tool as part of formal record-
keeping processes. A tool report can be printed, documenting the decision made,
and may be used in future discussions in the event circumstances change.

2.2 Scope the Problem (Step 2)

The questions listed in Appendix A, Table A-2 (and in the Decision Support Tool) provide a
more in-depth look into the ramp-related operational challenges and constraints identified by
the airport operators and interested stakeholders. The questions are designed to help the air-
port operator understand the impact (significance) of the ramp-related operational challenges.
It should be noted that questions asking, “How would you characterize the significance,” of a

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

14 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

particular ramp-related operational challenge or constraint are asking for a subjective evaluation
of the impact. It should be understood that the individual stakeholder may perceive the impact
differently (e.g., ramp congestion affecting an airline that operates one flight a day and that flight
is routinely impacted by ramp congestion may be perceived differently than an airline with a
significant presence at the airport and the impact of ramp congestion is spread to other flights).
Therefore, in scoping the problem, it may be important to take into account the differences in
the perceived problem and impact on the individual stakeholders.

2.2.1 Decision from Step 2

Answers from questions in Appendix A, Table A-2 (and from the Decision Support Tool) can
help identify which stakeholders are affected most by the ramp-related operational challenges
and constraints, and may provide an initial indication as to which stakeholder could/should
perform ramp control. At this point, the user has narrowed down which stakeholders are most
affected by ramp-related management options and to what degree. The airport operator should
proceed to Step 3.

The Decision Support Tool is available for download from the report
summary page at http://www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/175172.aspx and may be
accessed by opening the index.html file in a web-browser.

2.3 Evaluate Ramp Control Considerations (Step 3)

Once the airport operator has determined that a significant ramp-related operational chal-
lenge exists, the next step is to evaluate the various ramp control management options based
on four areas of concern—people, technology, facility and supporting infrastructure, and
administrative/budget. Figure 9 illustrates the consideration topics associated with each area
of concern. To evaluate the consideration, the user will use the questions listed in Appendix A,
Table A-3.

2.3.1 People
It is important to not only understand the roles and responsibilities of those involved in ramp-
control-related duties, but also the anticipated staffing levels, training needs, and any procedures
that will be required for personnel quality assurance/control.

Roles and Responsibilities

As noted in Chapter 1, airports vary widely in the type of roles and responsibilities ramp
control personnel perform; therefore, it is important that the airport operator identify ahead of
time the specific tasks that ramp control is expected to perform.
The tasks, or more specifically, the responsibilities of the tasks, may influence the hiring and
selection of personnel, i.e., personnel with or without some sort of direct or related ramp con-
trol experience. Understanding the specific roles and responsibilities can help determine the

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Decision Process and Decision Support Tool 15

Figure 9. Step 3—Evaluate ramp control considerations.

level of effort of and workload expected from ramp control personnel. The number of person-
nel required will be determined by the complexity of the responsibilities to be performed, the
number of positions needed to divide the work so that it can be performed by a single individual,
and the number of hours per day the position must be staffed. This will influence the initial and
recurring costs, depending on which management option is selected.
The scenario in Figure 10 illustrates the type of information the user may be able to provide
when evaluating ramp personnel, including the specific tasks expected to be performed by
ramp control personnel and any known initial or recurring costs. If specific costs are not avail-
able, the user can enter the information at a later time. Initial and recurring costs are discussed
in Chapter 3.

Example: Evaluate Ramp Control Consideration

Scenario: It was determined that ramp control
personnel would be expected to perform the
following tasks:
Authorize pushback and control movement
into, out of, and on the ramp.
Apply local safety directives (e.g., gate
adjacency/wingtip clearances, engine start,
disconnect, tow-in).
Coordinate with ATC or other stakeholders as
necessary.
To accomplish the ramp control tasks above, a
portion of the movement area has been
designated as a non-movement area.
Specific initial and recurring costs were not known at
this time.

Figure 10. Evaluate roles and responsibilities.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

16 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Decision Support Tool Tip: In ramp decisions involving multiple manage-

ment options where more than one operator (airport, airline, or third party) is
being considered, it is recommended that separate records be completed for each
of these organizations in the Decision Support Tool in order to understand the costs
and benefits associated with each choice so that the following can be assessed:

• Cost of solution alternative,

• Value of expected benefits for solution alternative, and
• Determination of return on investment.

For example, if a user wants to analyze the differences between an airport operator
and an air carrier managing ramp control, the tool should be used to populate one
record for the airport operator option and another record for the air carrier option.

Staffing
Staffing is the number of individuals necessary to operate the ramp control facility. This num-
ber of staff is normally based on the number of positions, the number of hours that ramp control
is expected to operate, and whether all positions are necessary during all hours of operation.
After determining the responsibility of the tasks to be performed, as discussed above in Roles
and Responsibilities, determine how many positions are needed. Consider the physical layout
of the terminal area to be controlled (e.g., number of gates, number of ramp entrances/exits, the
ability to maneuver aircraft on the ramp, and any holding areas on the ramp) when determin-
ing the area of jurisdiction/responsibility for each position. Typically, the area of jurisdiction
is designed along the natural boundaries of the terminal. However, in cases where the natural
boundary may cause one position to control a significantly larger number of gates, adjustments
may be necessary. The number of hours ramp control is expected to operate is normally based
on the need of the specific operation. However, there may be times when ramp control positions
may be combined; thereby reducing the amount of time coverage is needed.
It is also important to consider whether ramp control personnel will be full time or part time,
whether they will be dedicated staff, and whether they will perform other duties in addition to
ramp control (flexible). Appendix B may provide some high-level insight into the initial and
recurring costs associated with staffing for each type of ramp control management option (e.g.,
airport operator, air carrier, or third party). Given that there is no formal guidance on ramp
control staffing available, airports should consider conferring with their peers or airlines that
have implemented ramp control in order to gain insight about the proper level of staffing. (For
more information on staffing considerations see Appendix G.)
An additional area of consideration is whether supervisory/managerial personnel are needed
to provide oversight for ramp control personnel. Staff at this level can significantly impact an
airport’s budget.

Training
Ramp-related training can be accomplished in a variety of ways (e.g., classroom, in-position,
computer-based). Some ramp control operations use a formal training process where trainers
provide guidance and direction to trainees until the trainee has progressed to a point that they

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Decision Process and Decision Support Tool 17

can work unmonitored. Other airports rely more heavily upon on-the-job training. To deter-
mine how best to conduct training, it is important to understand the roles and responsibilities
expected of ramp control personnel, the complexity of the operations, and the qualification of
newly hired or current personnel.
Appendix B may provide some high-level insight into the initial and recurring costs associated
with training personnel for each type of ramp control management option (e.g., airport operator,
air carrier, or third party). To gain insights into the training procedures used in other operations,
airports are encouraged to confer with peers or airlines that operated successful ramp control.

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC)

Research indicated that some airports that performed ramp control had some form of QA/QC
programs. These programs often track personnel performance as well the effectiveness or lack of
effectiveness of operating procedures put in place to ensure safety. Formal programs may include
development of target levels of safety as well as metrics to measure both personnel performance,
stakeholder feedback and/or the overall effectiveness of ramp control at the airport. An informal
QA/QC program may simply include an informal process for investigating and responding to
issues brought to ramp tower management. As ramp control operations evolve, it may become
more important to include performing quality assessments when operating procedures are devel-
oped and prior to their implementation. Since the airport operator generally authorizes the activity
of all tenants and sub-tenants through leases, operating agreements, or licenses, the airport opera-
tor may want to ensure that QA/QC processes and procedures are available to address concerns
that may arise from personnel or equipment performance or from an operating procedure.

2.3.2 Technology
Research indicated that the technology needed to support the ramp control function is depen-
dent on two main considerations: the type of facility from which it is operated (traditional ramp
tower or virtual ramp control facility) and the tasks ramp controllers are expected to perform,
including other ramp-related duties. For example, if a traditional ramp control tower is planned
from a site that has good visibility of its area of jurisdiction, the need for cameras or surface surveil-
lance technology to control its ramp may not be necessary. However, a similar facility that has a
partially or fully obstructed view of the ramp may need cameras or surface surveillance technology
to better assist ramp controllers with managing aircraft on the ramp. Additionally, a ramp control
facility that only authorizes pushback or entrance into the ramp may need less technology than
a similar facility that sequences departures leaving the ramp based on departure fix restrictions.
It is important to assess the airport’s existing equipment capabilities and investigate tech-
nologies that may support ramp control tasks, including technologies currently under devel-
opment by the FAA NextGen program. For example, line-of-sight issues may be mitigated by
the use of high-definition cameras, while an ATC request for ramp controllers to sequence
departures exiting the ramp based on departure fix, queue length, or other factors may be miti-
gated by an information display system. Some tools available today have the added benefit of
providing post-event data that can be analyzed and used in a QA/QC program.
Some questions related to understanding necessary technology include:
• What technology is required to perform the ramp control function or will serve to enhance
the ability to provide a ramp control function?
• Is the required technology available and sufficient for the desired operation?
– If insufficient, what is needed?
– What are the initial and recurring costs of obtaining and maintaining the technology?
• Does the technology under review support future enhancements to the ramp control function?

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

18 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Surface Surveillance
The airport operator will likely be aware of surface surveillance technology available at the
airport, as well as have the knowledge of which stakeholders have access to surface surveillance
technology. It is important to determine if surface surveillance technology is needed to sup-
port ramp control. This will require looking into the initial and recurring costs associated with
obtaining surface surveillance technology, such as licensing fees, maintenance, etc.

Interoperability
Responses by airport operators with ramp control facilities noted that adding technology
often creates space issues; therefore, to the extent possible, it is important to consider the inter-
operability of the technology when determining technology needs. The airport operator may
want to determine whether automation can support multiple tools, rather than having to pur-
chase and support multiple pieces of technology.
Appendix F provides examples of technology that may be considered when identifying whether
to utilize virtual technology to implement ramp control.

2.3.3 Facility and Supporting Infrastructure

This consideration topic explores the physical location where ramp control is expected to be
performed, which can sometimes involve mitigating existing siting issues or determining a loca-
tion from which to operate virtual ramp control. It is important to understand which type of
ramp control facility is desired or best suited for the airport. The three major types of location
considerations include:
• Traditional ramp tower—This is typically a structure above the terminal area that provides
line of sight to the controlled ramp area. Some gates may be partially obscured by a building
or equipment on top of a building, but the bulk of the area is viewed by the ramp controller.
• Virtual ramp control facility—This could be a room with or without windows and does not
necessarily need to be at the airport. Automation is used to provide ramp controllers visibility
of the ramp area. Figure 11 illustrates how cameras can provide visibility for the gates and
access to the gates, and how surface surveillance may provide location information for aircraft
moving on the airport, and in some cases, within the ramp area as well. Virtual facilities have
the advantage of being able to make use of the existing infrastructure—saving cost and space.
• Mixed facility—This operation combines a traditional ramp tower that offers good line of
sight to some of the controlled ramp areas with automation that enables virtual control over
parts of the ramp that cannot physically be seen by tower personnel.

Figure 11. Virtual configuration.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Decision Process and Decision Support Tool 19

In order to analyze which type of facility and supporting infrastructure is best, the airport
operator needs to consider a number of questions, including:
• Is there an existing facility available from which to conduct ramp control activities?
– Is the existing facility sufficient to meet the projected need for the ramp control positions?
– Are there any siting issues that need to be resolved or mitigated?
• If a facility is not currently available, what are the facility requirements for a traditional ramp
tower or virtual ramp control facility? Requirements may include:
– A site that allows an unencumbered view of the area under control by the ramp controllers; or
– A site that may not allow an optimum view but can be enhanced by camera technology;
– A facility of sufficient square footage that can support the number of positions and all
associated equipment needed now and in the future;
– Consideration could be given to multi-purposing the facility such as by creating a contin-
gency site for ATC use.
– Is a virtual facility the most appropriate option? (i.e., no location for a traditional tower
exists; the cost of building a structure cannot be justified by the expected benefits of ramp
control; locations that allow a good view of the area to be controlled do not support a tra-
ditional tower but do offer good sites for cameras that can be fed to monitors at a location
away from the ramp.)
Appendix B identifies some of the initial and recurring costs associated with the facility and
supporting infrastructure for each type of ramp control management option.

Decision Support Tool Tip: In ramp decisions involving multiple facility

options (tower vs. virtual), it is recommended that separate records be completed
for each of these facility types in the Decision Support Tool in order to understand
the costs and benefits associated with each choice so that the following can be
assessed:

• Cost of solution alternative,

• Value of expected benefits for solution alternative, and
• Determination of return on investment.

Caution! The more complex the decision-making process, the more

complex the tool inputs. If a user is considering more than one management
option and more than one facility type, then each management option record
will need to be populated for each type of facility being evaluated in order to
complete a full analysis using the tool.

2.3.4 Administrative/Budget
It is important to know any administrative or budget considerations that may influence the
decision to implement ramp control or which management option is selected, for example:
• Are there any administrative concerns that may influence which management option is best
suited to perform ramp control?

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

20 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

• Are there any administrative concerns (e.g., hiring freeze, cost-reduction effort) that may
influence the decision whether to have airport operator personnel perform ramp control or
whether to contract the service with a third party?
• Is the airport operator willing to accept the liability of performing ramp control?
• What are the start-up costs in terms of personnel, equipment, maintenance, and training?
• What, if any, are the long-term costs in terms of personnel, equipment, and equipment
maintenance?
Appendix B can be used to help the airport operators understand the initial and recurring
costs for each of the consideration topics.

2.3.5 Step 3 Summary

The summary in Appendix A, at the bottom of Table A-3, can be used to document information
that may need further clarification or may also be used to record the advantages and disadvantages
related to the management option being evaluated. Also refer to Appendix C, Advantages and
Disadvantages which contains the advantages and disadvantages related to each management
option based on responses from interviews with ramp management personnel. An advantage to
the airport operator may be a disadvantage to another stakeholder; therefore, the table describes
the advantages and disadvantages from the perspective of the airport operator. For example:
• Airport operator—The advantage is that the airport operator may have greater control of the
response to future changes and have less of an issue regarding fairness and equity with other
stakeholders. However, the disadvantage is that the airport operator may not have personnel
with the desired expertise to perform ramp control and would incur additional costs to oper-
ate and perform the ramp control service.
• Third party—The advantage is that individuals with the desired expertise can be contracted
to perform ramp control, even if the third party is contracted by an airline. However, the dis-
advantage may arise in that the third party must establish relationships with stakeholders and,
if contracted by an airline, the airport operator will need to go through the airline to affect
changes with the third party.
• Air carrier—In the event an air carrier will perform ramp control, the advantage is that the
costs associated with ramp control will be the responsibility of the air carrier; however, the
disadvantage may be that the airport operator has less direct control of ramp operations, and
there may be some perception of inequity by other air carriers.

2.4 Deciding the Best Alternative (Step 4)

Having completed Step 3, the user should have a firm grasp of the ramp-related operational
challenges, the considerations associated with the initial and recurring costs, and any advantages
and disadvantages of the management option being evaluated. Step 4 is the review of all of the
information that was documented in order to determine which management option is best
suited for the airport.

The Decision Support Tool is available for download from the report
summary page at http://www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/175172.aspx and may be
accessed by opening the index.html file in a web-browser.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Decision Process and Decision Support Tool 21

Figure 12. Ramp control consideration sample summary report.

Figure 12 is a copy of a notional ramp control consideration summary report from the Decision
Support Tool for use in Step 4 of the decision process.
The user will enter the appropriate information into the Decision Support Tool, which will be
presented in a printed report, as shown in Figure 13.
This review may occur either internally by the airport operator or in a group by sharing the
report with and obtaining feedback from local stakeholders that have a vested interest in the
decision. If the second option is chosen, stakeholders should be brought together for a discus-
sion of the pros and cons related to each ramp control alternative. The purpose of this joint
discussion is to determine if a consensus can be reached on how best to proceed. During this
meeting, two questions should be discussed: who is going to perform ramp control and where
will ramp control be performed. The print feature of the Decision Support Tool can provide a
report that contains the information needed for this type of meeting.
Who is going to perform ramp control? Evaluate which organization (airport, airline, or
third party) is best suited to manage ramp control. Of all the considerations related to providing
ramp control, the most important factor to consider is the willingness of the organization chosen
to accept the responsibility to do what is required to successfully implement new ramp control
operational procedures. Some general pros and cons of different options include:
• Airport management consideration: ramp control provided by the airport can provide greater
flexibility for the airport to adapt to future changes driven by increased traffic or revisions in

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

22 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Figure 13. Sample printed report.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Decision Process and Decision Support Tool 23

airline service. However, additional staffing, ramp control location, and associated technology
may have considerable cost implications.
• Airline consideration: An airline that also provides ramp control at another airport may pro-
vide more cost-effective ramp control due to greater experience and economy of scale. How-
ever, airline control could raise equity and coordination issues. In other words, a fear of lack of
fairness for all users. This must be addressed and the appropriate agreements reached through
consensus in order to eliminate these fears.
• Third party consideration: A third party has the potential to (a) be almost as flexible as the air-
port through management of their contract structure and (b) have almost as much experience
and economy of scale as an airline. However, if a third party is an option, be sure to discuss
which entity (airline or airport operator) will contract with and oversee the third party.
• Combination of management options: Considering one or more airlines or third-party opera-
tors may have economy of scale benefits, but it also may require more coordination on the
part of the airport.
Regardless of who performs ramp control, any possible liability concerns should be fully
investigated by all parties involved.
Where will ramp control be performed? Identify the location from which the ramp will be
controlled. Options may range from building a new facility (e.g., a tower) or rehabbing an old
one (e.g., a former FAA ATC Tower), to utilizing equipment that will allow ramp control activi-
ties to be conducted from a remote location. Some pros and cons of different options include:
• Traditional ramp tower—Towers may be the most cost-effective, but may not be possible due
to line-of-sight issues.
• Virtual ramp control facility—Virtual facilities ensure adequate line of sight and may be con-
ducted from a room anywhere. However, technology associated with this option may be costly.
• Mixed facility—Utilizing cameras or other technology to control a ramp in a traditional ramp
tower. This operation may offer cost-effective solutions for airports, but may require additional
coordination efforts.
In addition, various location factors may influence other airport operator’s decisions, including:
• What are the initial and recurring costs associated with ramp control?
• What are the facility requirements?
– Which is desired, a traditional ramp tower or a virtual facility?
– Are there any siting issues that need to be resolved or mitigated?
– Are there engineering and/or infrastructure issues?
• What will be the responsibility of ramp control?
• What would be the staffing requirements?
– Are there requirements for management or supervisory personnel?
• What technology is needed?

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

CHAPTER 3

Initial and Recurring Costs

After reviewing each potentially responsible organization and location for ramp control, the
airport operator should conduct a formal cost analysis. Appendix B provides some high-level
insight into the initial and recurring costs associated with ramp control decisions, including
guidance associated with each type of management option, such as:
• Airport operator
– Initial costs may include hiring and training of personnel, workspace costs (e.g., facility or
workspace, furniture, equipment).
– Recurring costs may include wages and benefits, maintenance and upkeep of the work-
space, upgrade/replacement of equipment, furniture, technology, etc.
• Air carrier
– From the airport operator’s perspective, most of the initial and recurring costs are the
responsibility of the air carrier and the airport operator may not be aware of them. How-
ever, changes in lease agreements or other contracts will likely involve the airport operator.
• Third party—The cost of a third-party provider may vary depending on who the contract is with:
– Contracted with the airport operator—the airport operator will know all initial and recur-
ring costs as they will likely be part of any request for proposals.
– Contracted with an air carrier—most of the initial or recurring costs will be unknown to
the airport operator. However, changes in lease agreements or other contracts will likely
involve the airport operator.
Note: The costs of airport operators contracting with a third party are often passed on to the
airlines, generally through lease agreements.
Potential costs may be documented by entering answers into the Decision Support Tool or
by answering the questions in Appendix A. Figure 14 illustrates an example response to the
Appendix A, Table A-3 questions and details the high-level initial and recurring costs that may
apply if an airport operator is being considered to manage the ramp control facility.
Appendix A questions and the Decision Support Tool can also be used to assess:
• Initial costs, such as:
– Facility (traditional or virtual) including equipment and furniture;
– Selection and training of personnel; and
– Initial contract obligations (e.g., lease agreements, licensing fees, liability insurance).
• Recurring costs such as:
– Maintenance and upkeep of the facility;
– Wage and benefit of personnel;
– Upgrade or replacement of the equipment and furniture, and technology required to per-
form ramp control; and
– Changes to contracts (e.g., lease agreements, licensing fees).

24

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Initial and Recurring Costs 25

Figure 14. Example: Step 3 worksheet.

An important note about ramp tower costs: Eligibility for Airport

Improvement Plan (AIP) funding is normally limited to public-use facilities. Tower
construction is limited to contract towers only. Airports considering constructing
ramp control facilities on common-use aprons should contact their FAA Regional
Office of Airport Planning and Programming for guidance on their specific
project eligibility.

Once costs have been outlined, it is time to consider the benefits of ramp control. While costs
are somewhat straightforward to understand and calculate, benefits are often harder to quantify
and can be arbitrary. Some benefits to consider include:
• Improving ramp safety,
• Mitigating ramp congestion, and
• Linking surface operations to the NAS.

How an airport operator decides to compare costs to benefits is going to be his/her decision.
However, some guidance exists that might be useful to help in this process. ACRP Report 106: Being
Prepared for IROPS: A Business Planning and Decision-Making Approach includes a Business Case
Analysis Primer that can be used to help in conducting cost estimating and benefit analysis for
airport business initiatives, such as a ramp tower. There is also a document entitled, FAA Airport
Benefit-Cost Analysis Guidance, originally published in 1999 and recently updated in 2010, that
also may be consulted.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

CHAPTER 4

Implementation

After obtaining executive management understanding and approval of the recommended

approach to implement ramp control, consider assigning the implementation of the solution
to a specific project manager within the airport organization. Giving the responsibility and the
authority to implement the decision to a single, focal point-of-contact will prove valuable because
of the technical and organizational complexity of adapting this new capability at the airport.

4.1 Steps Going Forward

Listed below are a number of steps that should be considered as airport operators develop a
ramp control implementation plan:
• Develop processes and procedures that optimize operations on the ramp.
• Develop and publish an implementation plan and schedule.
• Negotiate required contracts (e.g., airline lease amendments, stakeholder license amend-
ments, collective bargaining agreements, as appropriate).
• In considering establishing or modifying a ramp control operation, airports should remain
aware of technology developments that may enable or enhance achievement of their goals.
• Create or modify an existing SOP/letter of agreement (LOA) that denotes the area of jurisdic-
tion including specification of the transfer points with ATC, and the roles and responsibilities
of ATC and ramp control personnel. Although airports with ramp control have a number of
common practices, they vary in how ramp control is staffed, their ramp terminology, required
knowledge, how training is accomplished, etc.
• Ensure flight operators are aware of ramp control processes and procedures (e.g., pilot bul-
letins, letters to airmen).
• Identify funding options, including the potential for grants.
• Share lessons learned from the evaluation and decision process:
– With airport management and stakeholders—This may include pilot bulletins, letters to
airmen, aeronautical charts, pilot briefings, etc. Be sure to communicate with all stake-
holders affected by the decision.

Decision Support Tool Tip: Throughout the decision process, users can
save updated information entered into the Decision Support Tool. This allows the
user to change or add information as it is obtained.

26

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Implementation 27

– With other airports—Sharing the positive as well as the negative lessons learned will help
others avoid similar pitfalls.
• Monitor how well ramp control addresses your concerns.

Keep in mind that the process and Decision Support Tool can be used again in the future as
airport conditions or stakeholders change. The research in this document can continue to ben-
efit airport operators in making complex ramp decisions. In addition, because of the Decision
Support Tool’s robust, flexible, and easy-to-use format that produces well thought out support
for current or future ramp decisions, users can continue to input new scenarios.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

CHAPTER 5

Summary

This guidebook, in conjunction with the associated Decision Support Tool, can assist an
airport operator, in collaboration with its stakeholders, in recognizing whether an airport has
ramp-related operational challenges that ramp control could resolve or mitigate. Because of the
costs and possible liability, the decision to implement ramp control is an activity that should
not be entered into lightly; however, it is also important to not overlook the benefits of safety
and efficiency that this function may provide. Additionally, as demand increases throughout the
NAS, the need for surface management is also increasing, and ramp control may be one avenue
that can be used to implement NextGen surface operations tools.
The research team suggests that ramp control service providers:
• Develop a template for SOPs to document the processes and procedures performed by ramp
controllers, including areas of jurisdiction, transfer points, standardized terminology, and
other procedures unique to the airport (e.g., de-icing). SOPs can be used to describe specific
ramp control activity responsibilities in the form of position descriptions.
• Create training documents for those who perform ramp control, detailing minimum training
requirements, training goals and methods of achieving the training goal. Ideally, this docu-
ment should be editable, so that it can be tailored to an individual ramp facility.
• Consider a certification process for those who perform ramp control.

This guidance is only the first step in helping airports determine how to manage the non-
movement area. If the decision is made to go forward with ramp control, it is recommended
that contact with other airports with established ramp control services be made to learn more
about best practices and lessons learned. While recognizing that no two airports are the same,
the challenges experienced by other airports may be similar.

28

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

References

AC 150/5210-20A, Ground Vehicle Operations to include Taxiing or Towing an Aircraft on Airports, 9/1/2015.
AC 150/5300-13, Airport Design, 9/29/1989.
Belliotti, R., F. Barich, J. Ply, P. Reed, and R. Agnew, 2010. ACRP Report 30: Reference Guide on Understanding
Common Use at Airports. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering,
and Medicine, Washington, D.C.
Federal Aviation Administration Letter of Agreement, 2015, Las Vegas Airport Traffic Control Tower (LAS ATCT)
and Clark County Department of Aviation (DOA).
Federal Aviation Administration Order 7110.65—Air Traffic Control; November 2015.
Federal Aviation Administration Order 8020.16—Air Traffic Organization Aircraft Accident and Incident Notifi-
cation, Investigation and Reporting, 12/18/2014.
Nash, M., R. Agnew, S. A. D. Ward, R. A. Massey, T. Callister, R. McNeill, F. Barich, and J. Ply, 2012. ACRP
Report 65: Guidebook for Airport Irregular Operations (IROPS) Contingency Planning. Transportation
Research Board of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Washington, D.C.

29

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Bibliography

Doble, Nathan A., John Timmerman, Ted Carniol, and Mark Klopfenstein, Metron Aviation and Midori Tanino
and Ved Sud, Federal Aviation Administration. 2009. “Linking Traffic Management to the Airport Surface—
Departure Flow Management and Beyond.”
Howell, Dan, and Ritchey, Steve. 2005. “Airline Operational Benefits of Surface Surveillance.”
Goñi Modrego, Eduardo; Mihai-George Iagaru, Marc Dalichampt, and Roger Lane, Eurocontrol Experimental
Center. 2009. “Airport CDM Network Impact Assessment.”
Johnson, Bart. 2014. USA Today “Congested Airport Ramps Risky Before and After Flights.”
Landry, Joanne, and Ingolia, Shane. 2011. ACRP Synthesis 29: Ramp Safety Practices. Transportation Research
Board of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Washington, D.C.
Ricondo & Associates, Inc.; Kimley-Horn and Associates, Inc.; Airport Development Group, Inc.; Aviation Safety
and Security Education Training, LLC; and Two Hundred, Inc. 2013. ACRP Report 96: Apron Planning and
Design Guidebook. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and
Medicine, Washington, D.C.
Ricondo & Associates, Inc., Planport GmbH, Two Hundred, Inc., and Unique (Zurich Airport, Ltd.). 2012. ACRP
Report 62: Airport Apron Management and Control Programs. Transportation Research Board of the National
Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Washington, D.C.
Sandberg, Melanie, and Tom G. Reynolds, Weather Sensing Group MIT Lincoln Laboratory and Khadilkar,
Harshad and Hamsa Balakrishnan, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. 2013. “Airport Characterization for the Adaptation of Surface Congestion Management
Approaches.”
United States Government Federal Aviation Administration Order 7110.65—Air Traffic Control. November
2015.
United States Government Federal Aviation Administration Order 7210.3—Facility Operation and Administration,
November 2015.
United States Government Accountability Office—Report to Congressional Requesters. 2007. “Aviation Runway
and Ramp Safety—Sustained Efforts to Address Leadership, Technology, and Other Challenges Needed to
Reduce Accidents and Incidents.”
Vail, Steve, Churchill, Andrew, Karlsson, Joakim, Domitrovich, Jessica, and Phillips, Tim. 2015. ACRP Report 137:
Guidebook for Advancing Collaborative Decision Making (CDM) at Airports. Transportation Research
Board of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Washington, D.C.

30

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Glossary of Terms

Accident An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes

place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the inten-
tion of flight and until such time as all such persons have disembarked,
and in which any person suffers death or serious injury, or in which the
aircraft receives substantial damage. (FAA Order 8020.16)
Airport Operators The operator (public or private) or sponsor of a public-use airport.
Airport Traffic The structure from which services are provided by an appropriate
Control Tower authority to promote the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic.
Apron or Ramp A defined area on an airport or heliport intended to accommodate air-
craft for purposes of loading or unloading passengers or cargo, refuel-
ing, parking, or maintenance. With regard to seaplanes, a ramp is used
for access to the apron from the water.
[See International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) term APRON.]
APRON (ICAO)—A defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to
accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading or unloading passengers,
mail or cargo, refueling, parking or maintenance. (FAA Order 7110.65)
Common Use A facility allocation and management approach intended to maximize
airport facility access and allocation through non-dedicated resources.
It is an alternative to the traditional approach that used proprietary/
exclusive-use models.
Construction The presence and movement of construction-related personnel, equip-
ment, and materials in any location that could infringe on the movement
of aircraft
Fixed-Base A person, firm, or organization engaged in a business that provides a range
Operator of basic services to general aviation (GA). Services may include the sale
and dispensing of fuel, line services, aircraft parking and tie-down, pilot
and passenger facilities, airframe and power plant maintenance, aircraft
sales and rental, and pilot instruction.
Gate Adjacency Refers to the ability of aircraft to operate from gates that are next to one
another.
General Aviation That portion of civil aviation that encompasses all facets of aviation except
air carriers holding a certificate of public convenience and necessity.
Incident An occurrence other than an accident associated with the operation of
an aircraft, which affects or could affect the safety of operations. (FAA
Order 8020.16)

31

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

32 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Infrastructure Encompassing term to include the physical location, facility, equipment

and technology, or facility where work is being performed (e.g., ramp
tower, office space for a virtual ramp control operation). Infrastructure also
includes any line-of-sight issues or constraints for the physical building.
Initial Training Training that normally takes place where the job is to be performed, some-
times referred to as on-the-job training (OJT). Initial training is normally
accomplished under the supervision of an experienced person and may
take place in a classroom, while performing the task, or through web-based
application and prepares the trainee to perform the job unsupervised.
Large Hub An airport that accounts for at least 1.00 percent of the total enplane-
ments in the United States. [United States Department of Transportation
(DOT) definition]
Medium Hub An airport accounting for at least 0.25 percent but less than 1.00 percent of
the total enplanements in the United States. (United States DOT definition)
Movement Area The runways, taxiways, and other areas of an airport/heliport that are
used for taxiing/hover taxiing, air taxiing, takeoff, and landing of aircraft,
exclusive of loading ramps and parking areas. At those airports/heliports
with an operating airport traffic control tower (ATCT), specific approval
for entry onto the movement area must be obtained from ATC.
Non-movement The area, other than that described as the movement area, used for the
Areas loading, unloading, parking of aircraft. This may include the apron areas
and on-airport fuel farms.
Ramp Congestion When the movement of an aircraft (pushback, tow, taxi, etc.) is restricted
by other aircraft moving in the ramp.
Ramp Control Provides guidance and direction to all aircraft moving within their area
of jurisdiction.
• For departing aircraft, typical instructions include pushback, dis-
connect point, and contact ATC (Ground Control).
• For arriving aircraft, instructions include gate and ramp entrance
information, if appropriate.
• Sequences departures to the designated transition point (spot) and
issues traffic advisories as necessary.
• Resolves conflicts with aircraft that are arriving, departing, or under
tow within their area of jurisdiction:
– Ramp control personnel do not resolve conflicts with vehicles or
personnel moving in the ramp. Ramp controllers normally issue advi-
sories to aircraft taxiing in the ramp (apron) area.
Ramp Management Refers to the four options for performing ramp control—airport operators,
Options air carrier or airline, third party, or combination of the previous options.
Recurring Training Training required for individuals to remain proficient at the job; however,
may include training that is unrelated to the job the individual was hired to
perform, but is required by the employer (e.g., human relations training).
Taxilane The portion of the aircraft parking area in the non-movement area used
for access between taxiways and aircraft parking positions.
Taxiway Those parts of the movement and safety areas designated for the surface
maneuvering of aircraft to and from the runways and aircraft parking areas.
Tie-Down Area An area used for securing aircraft to the ground.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Acronyms and Airport Identifiers

AAL American Airlines

AC Advisory Circular
ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program
ADS-B Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast
AIP Airport Improvement Program
ASDE-X Airport Surface Detection Equipment – Model X
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATCT Airport Traffic Control Tower
ATL Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport
BOS Boston Logan International Airport
CCTV Closed-Circuit Television
CLE Cleveland Hopkins International Airport
CLT Charlotte-Douglas International Airport
DAL Delta Air Lines
DCA Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport
DEN Denver International Airport
DFW Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
DOA Department of Aviation
DOT Department of Transportation
DTW Detroit Metro Airport
EWR Newark Liberty International Airport
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FBO Fixed-Base Operator
FLL Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport
GA General Aviation
GSE Ground Support Equipment
GUI Graphical User Interface
HTML Hyper Text Markup Language
IAD Washington Dulles International Airport
IAH Bush Intercontinental Airport
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
IND Indianapolis International Airport
IROPS Irregular Operations
JFK John F. Kennedy International Airport
LAS McCarran International Airport
LAX Los Angeles International Airport
LGA LaGuardia Airport
LOA Letter of Agreement

33

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

34 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

MCO Orlando International Airport

MEM Memphis International Airport
MIA Miami International Airport
MSP Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport
MWAA Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority
NAS National Airspace System
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NRC National Research Council
OJT On-the-Job Training
ORD Chicago O’Hare International Airport
PANYNJ Port Authority of New York/New Jersey
PHL Philadelphia International Airport
PHX Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport
QA Quality Assurance
QC Quality Control
RDU Raleigh-Durham International Airport
rTWR Remote Tower
SAN San Diego International Airport
SEA Seattle-Tacoma International Airport
SFO San Francisco International Airport
SLC Salt Lake City International Airport
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
SWIM System Wide Information Management
TFDM Terminal Flight Data Manager
U.S. United States
UAL United Airlines
VSATS Virginia SATSLab

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

APPENDIX A

Questions Associated with Steps 1–3

Step 1—Define the Ramp-Related Problem

The questions listed in Table A-1 are the preliminary questions used by the airport operators
and interested stakeholders to identify ramp-related operational challenges that exist at the air-
port and whether potential solutions indicate ramp control as an alternative.

Table A-1. Step 1—define ramp-related problem.

Topic Questions Response

GENERAL QUESTIONS

1. What ramp-related operational challenge(s) or

constraints are occurring or are projected to
occur at the airport?

Consideration topics include:

Efficiency.
Safety.
Construction.
Administrative.

2. What are the potential solutions to mitigate

the operational challenges or constraints?

3. Are suggested ramp-related actions in

alignment with executive-level policies?

4. Do the ramp-related operational challenges or

constraints require action on the part of the
airport operator or airport community?

CONSIDERATION TOPIC: EFFICIENCY

5. What is impacting the airport’s efficiency? Gate adjacency

Ramp congestion
Holding pads in the ramp area
Demand/capacity imbalance
Terminal complexity
See the next questions for more follow-on
questions related to each of these.

(continued on next page)

A-1

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

A-2 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Table A-1. (Continued).

Topic Questions Response

6. If your airport has an efficiency concern due to Primarily affecting a single dominant air
gate adjacency, how would you characterize carrier
it?
Affects multiple flight operators including a
single dominant air carrier
Other: _____

7. If your airport has an efficiency concern due to One or more ramp areas affecting a single
ramp congestion, how would you characterize dominant air carrier
it?
One or more ramp areas affecting multiple air
carriers including a dominant air carrier
One or more ramp areas affecting multiple air
carriers that do not include the dominant air
carrier or no dominant air carrier is present
Other: _____

8. If holding pads in the ramp area are an Airport operator

efficiency concern, which stakeholder controls
access to the holding pads located in the Air carrier
ramp area? FAA
Other: _____

9. If demand/capacity imbalance is an efficiency Yes, resulting in the need for gate hold
concern, does the imbalance result in arrival procedures to be applied
or departure delays?
Yes, but does not result in the need for gate
hold procedures
No, the demand/capacity imbalance does not
typically result in arrival or departure delays

10. Is a departure metering capability in use or Yes, a departure metering capability is in use
being considered? or planned for the future
No, a departure metering capability is not
needed

11. If terminal complexity is an efficiency concern, Two or more terminals with multiple
how are the terminals and gates aligned? concourses sharing the same access routes
Single terminal with two or more concourses
sharing the same access routes
Single or multiple terminals with linear gate
alignment
Other: ___________

CONSIDERATION TOPIC: SAFETY

12. What is causing your safety concerns? Accident(s) on the ramp that resulted in
damage to aircraft or injury to personnel
Incident(s) on the ramp that could have
resulted in damage to an aircraft or injury to
personnel
Accident(s) or incident(s) between aircraft and
vehicles or injury to personnel

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Questions Associated with Steps 1–3 A-3

Table A-1. (Continued).

Topic Questions Response

13. If accidents or incidents between aircraft on Pushback

the ramp are a safety concern, during which
phase of movement do they occur? Taxi/marshal in
Movement in the ramp area
Other: _____

14. If accidents or incidents between aircraft on Gate adjacency

the ramp are a safety concern, what are the
contributing factors? Wingtip clearance
Insufficient coordination between airplane
operations on the ramp
Aircraft infringing on the airport movement
area
Personnel error: _______
Equipment: _____

CONSIDERATION TOPIC: CONSTRUCTION

15. What is causing your construction concerns? New construction that may create or worsen
efficiency
New construction that is not expected to
create or worsen efficiency
New construction that will obscure FAA ATCT
line of sight to some gates

a. If new construction creates or worsens _____

efficiency, when will the construction
impact efficiency?

b. If new construction creates or worsens o Gate adjacency

efficiency, which efficiency concern is
expected to be affected? o Ramp congestion
o Holding pads in the ramp area
o Demand/capacity imbalance
o Terminal complexity

CONSIDERATION TOPIC: ADMINISTRATIVE

16. What is causing your administrative Potential implementation of “common-use”

concerns? gates for all or select gates/concourses
Air carriers request to implement ramp control
FAA decision to no longer issue pushback
instructions for departures in the non-
movement area
Other: _____

(continued on next page)

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

A-4 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Table A-1. (Continued).

Topic Questions Response

17. If implementation of “common-use” gates is Air carriers with leased gates will continue to
an administrative concern, how will this affect manage the activity for their gates, remaining
current gate assignment procedures? gates will be assigned by the airport operator
Air carriers with leased gates will have priority
use of their gates, airport operator will
manage gate assignment for all gates
Airport operator will manage gate assignment
for all gates

a. If air carrier request for implementation of o Multiple air carriers representing at least
ramp control is an administrative concern, half of the airport’s activity
which flight operators are requesting the
service? o Single (dominant) air carrier representing
a significant percentage of the airport’s
activity
o Single or multiple air carriers that do not
represent at least half of the airport’s
activity

b. Are there siting issues that affect ATC’s o Yes

ability to authorize departure to push from
or arrivals to proceed to their gate? o No

i. If yes, how has this affected the o ATC is unable to see the gates, therefore
operation? would prefer to avoid authorizing
pushback from or taxi in to their gate
o No impact
o Other: _____

Step 2—Scope the Problem

The questions listed in Table A-2 aid the user in determining how significant the ramp control-
related challenges are and how many local stakeholders are impacted by these challenges.

Table A-2. Step 2—scope the problem.

Topic Questions Response

CONSIDERATION TOPIC: EFFICIENCY

1. If gate adjacency is an efficiency concern, Significant most of the time

how would you characterize the significance
of the airport’s gate adjacency issues? Significant some of the time
Not significant

2. If ramp congestion affects the efficiency of a Yes

single dominant air carrier, is the air carrier
considering ramp control? No

3. How many hours throughout the day does 6 or more hours

ramp congestion occur and affect efficiency?
2–6 hours
Less than 2 hours
Seasonal ______________

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Questions Associated with Steps 1–3 A-5

Table A-2. (Continued).

Topic Questions Response

4. If holding pads in the ramp area are an Significant most of the time
efficiency concern, how significant is the
issue? Significant some of the time
Not significant

5. If demand/capacity imbalance is an efficiency Significant most of the time

concern, how significant are the ramp
congestion issues? Significant some of the time
Not significant

6. If your airport has a demand/capacity Single dominant air carrier

imbalance resulting in departure delays, which
flight operators are affected? Multiple air carriers including a dominant air
carrier
Multiple air carriers that do not include the
dominant air carrier or no dominant air carrier
is present

CONSIDERATION TOPIC: SAFETY

7. If one or more accidents or incidents in the Single dominant air carrier

ramp have occurred in the past 6 months,
how many air carriers are/were involved? Multiple air carriers including a dominant air
carrier
Multiple air carriers that do not include the
dominant air carrier or no dominant air carrier
is present

CONSIDERATION TOPIC: CONSTRUCTION

8. If new construction is expected to impact Single dominant air carrier only

efficiency, which air carriers will be affected?
Multiple air carriers including a dominant air
carrier
Multiple air carriers that do not include the
dominant air carrier or no dominant air carrier
is present
a. If new construction will affect the Yes
efficiency of a single dominant air carrier
is the air carrier considering ramp No
control?

9. Are there plans for additional terminals or Yes, new construction will impact movement
concourses? within the ramp area
Yes, but new construction will not affect the
movement within the ramp area
No

10. If new construction will impact efficiency within Gate adjacency

the ramp area, what will be affected?
Ramp congestion
Holding pads in the ramp area
Demand/capacity imbalance
Terminal complexity

(continued on next page)

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

A-6 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Table A-2. (Continued).

Topic Questions Response

CONSIDERATION TOPIC: ADMINISTRATIVE

11. How many flight operators will be affected by Single dominant flight operator only
the airport operator’s decision to implement
“common-use” gates? Multiple flight operators including a dominant
air carrier
Multiple air carriers that do not include the
dominant air carrier or no dominant air carrier
is present

12. How many flight operators are requesting Single dominant flight operator
implementations of ramp control?
Multiple flight operators including a dominant
air carrier
Multiple air carriers that do not include the
dominant air carrier or no dominant air carrier
is present
13. Which flight operators are expected to benefit Single dominant flight operator
from implementation of ramp control?
Multiple flight operators including a dominant
air carrier
Multiple air carriers that do not include the
dominant air carrier or no dominant air carrier
is present

Step 3—Evaluate Ramp Control Considerations

The questions listed in Table A-3 should enable the user to record answers to the questions
and list any known initial and recurring costs associated with each of the ramp control man-
agement options. This information will be used to identify which entity may be best suited to
perform ramp control at an airport and from which location ramp control should be conducted.
Appendix B lists some of the initial and recurring costs that the user should consider based on
the management option being evaluated.

Table A-3. Step 3—evaluate ramp control considerations.

RAMP CONTROL CONSIDERATION INITIAL COST RECURRING COST

People—Roles and Responsibilities

1. What specific tasks are ramp control expected to Initial cost of hiring Wages and salary
perform? personnel may be may be affected by
affected by required the required recurring
Authorize pushback and movement into, out
job qualifications training
of, and on the ramp.
Sequence departures prior to transfer to ATC. Cost of procuring Updating and
Apply local safety directives (e.g., gate technology upgrading technology
adjacency/wingtip clearances, engine start,
Initial cost of creating Ongoing
disconnect, tow-in).
positions including telecommunications
Coordinate with ATC or other stakeholders.
equipment, and utilities cost
Track/document flight information.
communication lines,
Ramp-related duties (e.g., gate management,
physical space, etc.
tracking/updating information).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Questions Associated with Steps 1–3 A-7

Table A-3. (Continued).

RAMP CONTROL CONSIDERATION INITIAL COST RECURRING COST

People—Staffing

2. How many ramp control positions do you Initial cost of Annual wages and
anticipate needing? hiring/training benefits based on
personnel number of personnel
Maximum: _____
Minimum: _____

3. Approximately how many hours per day is ramp Initial cost of hiring Annual wages and
control desired/needed? personnel benefits based on
number of personnel
Maximum: _____
Minimum: _____

4. Identify work rules that may impact the number of Annual wages and
hours per shift (e.g., breaks, maximum number of benefits based on
hours per day). number of personnel
Annual wages and
5. How many shifts are expected to be
benefits based on
needed/desired?
number of personnel
Maximum: _____
Minimum: _____
Annual wages and
6. How many supervisory/managerial personnel
benefits based on
desired/needed per shift?
number of personnel
Maximum: _____
Minimum: _____

7. List the job qualifications for those that are May influence costs
required to perform ramp control function associated with
supervision, training
and staffing

a) Does your organization have personnel with If yes, determine cost Annual wages and
the requisite expertise to perform ramp of additional training benefits based on
control? required for current number of personnel
personnel
Yes
No If no, determine initial
cost of hiring/training
personnel

b) Will previous experience with military or FAA

ATC be required?
Yes
No

8. Will ramp control personnel be required to perform If yes, determine Annual wages and
other duties unrelated to ramp control? initial cost of hiring/ benefits based on
training personnel number of personnel
Yes
No If no, then no
additional costs are
anticipated

a) If yes, how frequently are these other duties Initial cost of hiring Annual wages and
expected to be performed? /training personnel benefits based on
number of personnel
Frequently
Occasionally
Rarely

(continued on next page)

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

A-8 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Table A-3. (Continued).

RAMP CONTROL CONSIDERATION INITIAL COST RECURRING COST

People—Training

9. Does your organization have the facilities to Cost may depend on Cost may depend on
provide desired training? the management the management
option chosen option chosen
Yes
No

a) If web-based or computer training is desired, is If yes, determine per- Annual refresher

it currently available? person costs to train course costs, if
personnel on current necessary
Yes
systems
No
If no, determine cost
to develop training
and obtain necessary
equipment

10. Does your organization have personnel with the If yes, then Annual refresher
expertise to train ramp control personnel? determine if training course costs, if
will result in any necessary
Yes
internal personnel
No
costs
If no, determine cost
to hire
personnel/third party
to provide training

11. Does your organization have the expertise to If yes, then Regular updates to
develop a ramp control training plan? determine internal training materials
costs to create a
Yes
training plan
No
If no, determine cost
to hire personnel/
third party to produce
a training plan

People—QA/QC

12. Is a QA process desired/needed? If yes, then

determine internal or
Yes
external (third party)
No
costs to create a
QA/QC plan
If no, then no
additional costs
should be incurred

a) If QA desired/needed, who is expected to If chosen staff Annual cost of time

administer it? already performs a spent administering
QA/QC function, then process
no additional costs
anticipated
If staff needs to be
hired, determine
initial cost of hiring/
training personnel

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Questions Associated with Steps 1–3 A-9

Table A-3. (Continued).

RAMP CONTROL CONSIDERATION INITIAL COST RECURRING COST

Technology

13. List the technology that is needed/desired to Include costs to Annual maintenance
perform the ramp control function that is not procure, including costs and licensing
already available installation fees

a) Identify existing technology that does not Include costs to Annual maintenance
support future enhancements. procure and install costs and licensing
new technology that fees
will support future
enhancements or to
retrofit current
technology

b) Identify existing technology that supports Include costs to Annual maintenance

future enhancements. procure and install costs and licensing
future enhancements fees

Technology—Surface Surveillance

14. Is surface surveillance technology needed/desired If yes, determine Annual maintenance

and available to ramp control? costs to utilize costs and licensing
technology for ramp fees
Yes
control
No
If no, either
determine cost to
procure and install
new technology or no
additional costs
should be incurred

Technology—Interoperability

15. Will additional technology cause workspace If yes, determine Annual maintenance
concerns? costs to procure new costs
equipment or modify
Yes
workspace for new
No
technology
If no, then no
additional costs
should be incurred

Facility and Supporting Infrastructure

16. If a traditional ramp tower is desired/most No additional costs Changes to annual

appropriate, is it available to support the projected should be incurred lease agreement
number of ramp control positions?
Annual maintenance
Yes costs
No

a) Workspace is available to support ramp Determine Annual maintenance

control but there will be siting issues that need technology costs costs
to be resolved or mitigated? (e.g., cameras,
surface surveillance)
Yes
No

b) Is workspace available to support the Determine Annual maintenance

projected number of ramp control positions? technology costs costs
(e.g., cameras,
Yes
surface surveillance)
No
(continued on next page)

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

A-10 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Table A-3. (Continued).

RAMP CONTROL CONSIDERATION INITIAL COST RECURRING COST

17. A virtual facility the desired/most appropriate If yes, determine Annual maintenance
option, is workspace available to support the costs associated with costs
projected number of ramp control positions? modifying or creating
new lease
Yes
agreements and
No
procuring equipment
and furniture
If no, determine costs
associated with
modifying workspace
and procuring
equipment and
furniture

a) Is workspace available to support a virtual If yes, determine Annual maintenance

ramp control facility? costs associated with costs
modifying or creating
Yes
new lease
No
agreements and
procuring equipment
and furniture
If no, determine costs
associated with
modifying workspace
and procuring
equipment and
furniture

Administrative/Budget

18. List any administrative concerns (e.g., hiring

freeze, cost-reduction effort) that may influence the
decision whether to have airport operator
personnel perform ramp control or to contract the
service with a third party.

19. List any stakeholders who have expressed a desire

or willingness to accept ramp control responsibility.

SUMMARY

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

APPENDIX B

Initial and Recurring Costs

Ramp Control Responsible Organization

Considerations Airport Operator Third--Party Operator Air Carrier
Recurring One-time Recurring One-time Recurring One-time
Roles and Responsibilities

Specific tasks to Wages and Initial cost of Oversight if If contracted by Training costs Hiring and
be performed by salary may be hiring contracted by the airport are the air technology
ramp control affected by the personnel may the airport operator, carrier’s costs are the
personnel required be affected by operator expectations responsibility air carrier’s
recurring required job will be specified responsibility
training qualifications Expectations in the contract Address quality
are specified in of service
the contract issues

Gate Training costs Initial cost Oversight if If contracted by Training costs Technology
management training contracted by the airport are the air costs are the
personnel the airport operator, carrier’s air carrier’s
operator expectations responsibility responsibility
Cost of will be specified
technology Expectations in the contract
are specified in
the contract

Other duties— Training costs Initial cost Oversight if If contracted by Training costs Technology
tracking engine training contracted by the airport are the air costs are the
start times personnel the airport operator, carrier’s air carrier’s
operator expectations responsibility responsibility
Cost of will be specified
technology Expectations in the contract
are specified in
the contract

FAA and other N/A—no cost Training and Oversight if If contracted by Training costs Technology
flight operators attributed to necessary contracted by the airport costs are the
coordination technology the airport operator, air carrier’s
costs operator expectations responsibility
will be specified
Expectations in the contract
are specified in
the contract

B-1

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

B-2 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Ramp Control Responsible Organization

Considerations Airport Operator Third--Party Operator Air Carrier
Recurring One-time Recurring One-time Recurring One-time
Facility and Infrastructure

Physical location Facility Create or N/A—typically N/A—typically If already Create or

(ramp tower) is maintenance modify existing the the leased by the modify existing
desired and a facility for use responsibility of responsibility of air carrier, facility for use
facility is as a ramp airport operator airport operator should incur no as a ramp
available tower, to or air carrier or air carrier additional fees tower, to
include contracted with contracted with include
installation of If not already installation of
desired leased by the desired
technology air carrier, will technology
likely require
Modify facility lease Modify facility
when needed agreement when needed

Physical location Facility Facility N/A—typically N/A—typically Will likely affect Facility
(ramp tower) is maintenance planning and the the existing lease planning and
desired but not construction responsibility of responsibility of agreement construction
available airport operator airport operator
or air carrier or air carrier Facility
contracted with contracted with maintenance

No Ramp Tower Maintenance of May have less N/A—typically N/A—typically If spaced May have less
is desired— existing space cost than a the the already leased cost than a
virtual option physical responsibility of responsibility of by the air physical
location but still airport operator airport operator carrier, should location but still
some cost in or air carrier or air carrier not have some cost in
technology contracted with contracted with additional fees technology
If space not
already leased
by the air
carrier, will
likely require
increased cost

Staffing

Non- Wages and Initial hiring Determined by Determined by Wages and Dedicated
management/non- benefits should costs the vendor or the vendor or benefits should personnel may
supervisory remain specified in the specified in the remain have a higher
personnel will constant but contract contract constant but cost in wages;
likely be based may be may be but likely lower
on the number of affected by affected by training costs
positions and the IROPS, IROPS,
hours of qualification qualification
operation requirements requirements
for personnel, for personnel,
or collective or collective
bargaining bargaining
agreement agreement

Need for Wages, Initial cost to Determined by Initial cost to Depending on Initial cost to
management or benefits, as hire and train the vendor or hire and train turnover some hire and train
supervisory well as cost to personnel specified in the personnel hiring and personnel
personnel hire personnel contract training costs
will be recurring

Management or Wages and Initial hiring Determined by Determined by Wages and Initial hiring
supervisory benefits should costs the vendor or the vendor or benefits should costs
personnel remain specified in the specified in the remain
constant but contract contract constant but
may be may be
affected by affected by
irregular irregular
operations operations

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Initial and Recurring Costs B-3

Ramp Control Responsible Organization

Considerations Airport Operator Third--Party Operator Air Carrier
Recurring One-time Recurring One-time Recurring One-time
Technology

Ramp tower, Cost of Initial N/A—cost of N/A—cost of Cost of Initial

(e.g., cameras, maintaining, installation, maintaining, maintaining, maintaining, installation,
surface replacing, or includes replacing, or replacing, or replacing, or includes
surveillance, updating planning updating updating updating planning
web-based, technology technology will technology will technology
departure (e.g., cameras, likely depend likely depend (e.g., cameras,
metering surface on agreement on agreement surface
technology) surveillance with the airport with the airport surveillance
system, operator operator system,
including including
applicable applicable
licenses costs) licenses costs)

Virtual ramp Cost of Initial N/A—typically N/A—typically Cost of Initial

tower (e.g., maintaining, installation, the the maintaining, installation,
cameras, replacing, or includes responsibility of responsibility of replacing, or includes
surface updating planning airport operator airport operator updating planning
surveillance, technology or air carrier or air carrier technology
web-based, (e.g., cameras, contracted with contracted with (e.g., cameras,
departure surface surface
metering surveillance surveillance
technology) system, system,
including including
applicable applicable
licenses costs) licenses costs)

Training

Qualification N/A OJT and N/A— N/A— N/A OJT and

training (e.g., classroom Personnel Personnel classroom
classroom, training will performing performing training will
computer-based) vary based on ramp control ramp control vary based on
qualifications of must meet the must meet the qualifications of
personnel, terms of the terms of the personnel,
complexity of contract contract complexity of
the operation the operation
being trained, being trained,
amount of amount of
turnover turnover, etc.

Recurring Training N/A N/A—unless N/A – unless Training N/A

training (e.g., required by the specified in the specified in the required by the
safety or other airport operator contract contract air carrier
required training)

Management Option

Which Wages, Initial cost to Should be Should be Wages, Initial cost to

stakeholder is benefits, as hire and train specified in the specified in the benefits, as hire and train
expected to well as cost to personnel contract contract well as cost to personnel
perform ramp hire personnel hire personnel
control? Turnover costs
Depending on will likely be Depending on
turnover some contractor turnover some
hiring and responsibility hiring and
training costs training costs
will be recurring will be recurring

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

APPENDIX C

Advantages and Disadvantages

Responsible Organization
Ramp Control
Considerations Airport Operator Third-Party Operator Air Carrier

Advantages Advantages Advantages

Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages
(Benefit) (Benefit) (Benefit)
Roles and Responsibilities

Taking on new Additional Greater control Challenges of New business Additional Greater direct
responsibilities finance, of response to establishing finance, control of
operations, and future changes new team at operations, and ramp
staffing new location staffing operations
obligations obligations

Impact of Depending on Typically, roles Process to N/A—Roles and N/A—airport N/A—airport

collective collective and obtain a third- responsibilities operator is not operator is
bargaining bargaining responsibilities party vendor to can be deter- involved in air not involved
agreement agreements are determined perform ramp mined in carrier in air carrier
with airport in advance control advance by the collective collective
personnel, any airport operator bargaining bargaining
changes may and specified agreements agreements
take time to in the contract
implement

Ramp controllers Potential issue Versatility in If contracted by If contracted N/A—airport N/A—airport

will perform other with proficiency personnel the air carrier, with the airport operator is operator is
ramp-related especially at the airport operator, unaffected by unaffected by
duties airport with operator additional air carrier air carrier
complex ramp typically has duties decision to decision to
control little or no determined by perform other perform other
operations influence in the the airport ramp-related ramp-related
duties operator and duties duties
performed by specified in the
the third party contract

Gate management May require Provides If contracted by If contracted N/A—airport N/A—airport

additional flexibility and the air carrier, with the airport operator is operator is
staffing to control in airport operator operator, unaffected by unaffected by
manage gates assigning gates will have little or expectations air carrier air carrier
when needed, no influence in will be specified decision to decision to
especially for the decision to in the contract have ramp have ramp
“common-use” perform control control
gates additional personnel personnel
duties perform gate perform gate
management management
duties duties

C-1

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

C-2 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Responsible Organization
Ramp Control
Considerations Airport Operator Third-Party Operator Air Carrier

Advantages Advantages Advantages

Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages
(Benefit) (Benefit) (Benefit)

Other duties – Requires Tracking If contracted by If contracted N/A—airport N/A—airport

tracking engine personnel or engine start the air carrier, with the airport, operator is operator is
start times technology to time—single airport operator expectations unaffected by unaffected by
do it source tracking will have little or will be specified air carrier air carrier
data no influence in in the contract decision to decision to
the decision to have ramp have ramp
perform control control
additional personnel personnel
duties perform other perform other
duties duties

FAA and other N/A – N/A— N/A—if If contracted by N/A Should be

flight operators coordination is coordination is contracted by the airport involved in
part of the ramp part of the ramp the air carrier; operator, must required
control job control job the airport meet the terms coordination
operator will of the contract that affects
have little or no the airport or
influence in any other
coordination stakeholders;
specified in the may be
contract addressed in
a letter of
agreement

Facility and Infrastructure

Physical location Potential cost No additional N/A N/A N/A N/A

(ramp tower) is to install cost to build
desired and a necessary facility
facility is available equipment and
technology

Physical location Cost Costs for the N/A N/A N/A N/A
(ramp tower) is associated with space to
desired but not developing and establish a
available building facility. virtual tower will
Need to generally be
address line-of- lower than cost
sight issues to to build a
extent possible, traditional tower
use technology facility
to address line-
of-sight issues

No ramp tower is Cost of Lower cost of N/A N/A N/A N/A

desired—virtual installing or performing
option obtaining ramp control
necessary from virtual
technology location; line of
(e.g., cameras, sight may be
surface augmented by
surveillance) technology
(e.g., cameras,
surface
surveillance)

Management or May require Will ensure If contracted by If contracted N/A—airport N/A—airport

supervisory additional staff ramp the air carrier, with the airport operator is operator is
personnel controllers the airport operator, the unaffected by unaffected by
required May need to be perform as operator may requirement for air carrier air carrier
involved when desired have no management or decision to decision to
fairness or influence on the supervisory utilize utilize
equity is an Ensure all selection of personnel can management management
issue stakeholders management or be required by personnel personnel
are treated supervisory contract
fairly personnel

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Advantages and Disadvantages C-3

Responsible Organization
Ramp Control
Considerations Airport Operator Third-Party Operator Air Carrier

Advantages Advantages Advantages

Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages
(Benefit) (Benefit) (Benefit)
Staffing

Decision to utilize Wages and Personnel are N/A—if If contracted by N/A—airport N/A—airport
dedicated, full- benefits may normally highly contracted by the airport operator is not operator is
time staffing depend on qualified; the air carrier; operator; involved in the not involved
option qualifications of proficient with the airport staffing air carrier in the air
personnel and specific tasks; operator will requirements, decision of carrier
any related lower training likely have little including which staffing decision of
ramp activities costs or no influence qualifications option to use which staffing
expected to be in staffing will be specified option to use
performed Option may requirements in the contract
offer increased
Use of part- flexibility in use
time or of personnel
seasonal
staffing option
may negatively
impact
proficiency

Decision to utilize Personnel may Flexibility in N/A—if N/A—if N/A—airport N/A—airport

part-time or be less scheduling contracted by contracted by operator is not operator is
flexible staffing proficient and personnel; the air carrier; the airport involved in the not involved
option (ramp may have a greater the airport operator; air carrier in the air
controllers high turnover coverage with operator will staffing decision of carrier
perform other less people likely have little requirements which staffing decision of
airport operations Seasonal or no influence will be specified option to use which staffing
duties) changes may in staffing in the contract, option to use
negatively option but at the
affect morale vendor’s
discretion

Technology

Ramp tower and Cost of Provide equal If contracted by If contracted by Airport operator Airport
virtual tower technology service to all the air carrier; the airport not likely operator not
including stakeholders the airport operator; involved in likely involved
installation operator will requirements technology in technology
likely not be will be specified decision decision
impacted by in the contract
technology Technology
If contracted by costs
If contracted by the air carrier, absorbed by
airport technology will air carrier
operator, will be provided by
need to provide the air carrier
technology

Training

Qualification May require Highly qualified Must meet the Must meet the May require Highly
training (e.g., more personnel personnel; terms of the terms of the more personnel qualified
classroom, proficient with contract contract personnel;
computer-based) Lack of specific tasks Lack of proficient with
experience with experience with specific tasks
providing Versatile or providing
training part-time training Versatile or
staff—flexibility part-time
in scheduling staff—
personnel; flexibility in
greater scheduling
coverage with personnel;
less people greater
coverage with
less people

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

C-4 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Responsible Organization
Ramp Control
Considerations Airport Operator Third-Party Operator Air Carrier

Advantages Advantages Advantages

Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages
(Benefit) (Benefit) (Benefit)

Recurring training Seasonal Have positive N/A N/A Seasonal Have positive
(e.g., safety or changes in effect on changes in effect on
other required personnel may morale; personnel may morale;
training) require more typically lower require more typically lower
training cost in wages training cost in wages

Management Option

Which stakeholder May require Responsible for Process to Represents the Airport operator Airport
is expected to additional staff activities at the obtain a third- airport operator typically operator not
perform ramp and cost airport, party vendor to or air carrier involved when typically
control? represents all perform ramp fairness or involved in
stakeholders control If contracted equity concerns day to day
with airport are expressed operation
Fairness is If contracted operator by stakeholders
rarely in with an air fairness and Ramp control
question carrier, airport equity should activities
operator not be an issue ensure
typically business
involved if model of air
fairness and carrier is
equity are a achieved
concern

Expected benefits Benefits Will ensure If contracted by If contracted Airport N/A—airport

may differ determined by airport operator the air carrier, with the airport, operation may operator has
between an airport benefits are the airport expected need to little or no
stakeholders operator may achieved operator has benefits will be address influence on
differ from other little or no specified in the situations when air carrier
stakeholders Typically strives influence in contract perception of benefit
to achieve achieving equity is a
Airport operator benefit (equity) benefits concern
must deal more for all airport
intimately wi stakeholders;
operational th perception of
issues of fairness
fairness

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

APPENDIX D

Lessons Learned

Airport operators and airline representatives were interviewed at facilities currently engaged in
ramp control to understand why ramp control was implemented, what topics were considered
when determining whether or not to implement ramp control, and any other factors that should
be considered (e.g., staffing roles and responsibilities). The interview responses highlighted four
major areas of concern that were used to develop the questions used in Step 3—people, technol-
ogy, facility and supporting infrastructure, and administrative/budget. A common theme among
those that contributed to “lessons learned” is the need for early and frequent collaboration among
all interested stakeholders. Collaboration up-front will prevent missteps later.

People

Table D-1. Lessons learned—people.

People Lessons Learned

Roles and The variation in ramp control operations at airports across the country
Responsibilities negatively impacts pilots through lack of consistency.
Conduct a needs assessment for front line ramp service operators in
order to address safety concerns.
There are a number of tasks performed by ramp control that are common
to many ramp control operations, but there is no single ramp control
solution that works at all airports.
Processes and procedures for ramp control are typically driven by
operational needs.
Multiple organizations providing ramp control services at a single airport
has highlighted the absence of standardization in ramp control processes.
Staffing Use gate management along with ramp control to optimize benefit from
ramp control.
There are different ways of staffing ramp control (direct hires vs. contract
employees) that affect the cost of ramp control.
Need to determine if ramp control staff is subject to frequent changes
(seasonal or bid process).
There is a cost of having qualified individuals able to multi-task, and have
good decision-making skills.
(continued on next page)

D-1

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

D-2 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

People

Table D-1. (Continued).

People Lessons Learned

Training Training is typically designed to meet specific roles and responsibilities
from basic ramp control to ground control-like activities where
sequencing occurs in the ramp prior to contacting ATC.
Airports and airlines use a variety of training processes for ramp control
personnel (e.g., classroom, in-position or OJT, web-based). All are not
equal in effectiveness. Consider joint training activities.
Training impacts additional ramp management responsibilities for each
key stakeholder.
Understand the pros and cons (including cost/benefit) of alternative
training methods.
QA/QC QA/QC may be needed to address potential perception of equity or
fairness.

Technology

Table D-2. Lessons learned—technology.

Technology Lessons Learned

Gate/Terminal Processes and procedures, and technology for ramp control are
Management typically driven by operational needs.
Ground handling is not a major influence in an airport’s decision to
implement ramp control.
Technology for ramp control is typically driven by operational needs.
Surface Surveillance Surface surveillance aids ramp control personnel in decision making.
May mitigate or resolve line-of-sight issues.
Interoperability Technology does not stand alone—it is an integrated model.

Facility and Supporting Infrastructure

Table D-3. Lessons learned—facility and supporting infrastructure.

Facility and Lessons Learned

Supporting
Infrastructure
Traditional Ramp Document current siting and facility situation including any related
Tower issues.
Confirm considerations by using a site study that includes line-of-sight
requirements, height requirements, cost estimations, and best location.
Virtual Ramp Control Consider virtual ramp control option when there are line-of-sight
Facility issues.
Mixed Facility Line-of-sight issues existing in a traditional ramp tower may be
addressed by technology, cameras, and surface surveillance
technology.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Lessons Learned D-3

Administrative/Budget

Table D-4. Lessons learned—administrative/budget.

Administrative/Budget Lessons Learned

Administrative Ensure ramp control activities help comply with an airport’s
Concerns sustainability plan.
Understand an airport’s vision to increase capacity and introduce new
airlines.
Lack of long-range planning for growth resulted in reactionary solutions
to problems.
When planning for the future, give serious consideration to identifying
as many common-use gates as possible.
Initial and Recurring Consider working through all pros and cons (including cost/benefit
Costs analysis) of alternative ramp management options.
Management No one ramp control solution exists.
Ramp control decisions need to be made on a case-by-case basis—each
airport/terminal area is different and has different needs and
requirements.
Collaboration is key to successful implementation.
Ensure the FAA is involved throughout the consideration process.
Interested stakeholders should be included in ramp-related decisions;
forming an integrated team will help the airport develop the desired
ramp control operation.
Implementing ramp control is not the only solution to resolve/mitigate
gate availability and ramp access way conflicts; there are potential
procedural solutions that should be considered.
Document the final agreement between the FAA and ramp control
management.
As airports have adopted “common-use” gates, the tendency is for the
airport operator or their contractor to operate ramp control.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

APPENDIX E

Airports with Ramp Control

Table E-1 is an inventory of airports with non-FAA ramp control operations. Airports and
the stakeholders performing their ramp control are listed by their FAA region. Subsequent pages
provide airport diagrams of airports with ramp control (Figures E-1 to E-28). These may provide
airport operators with insight to airports with similar characteristics (e.g., runway configuration,
terminal layout, hub type).
Additional airport diagrams can be found at http://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/
diagrams/.

E-1

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-2 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Table E-1. Inventory of airports with non-FAA ramp control.

Airports (Listed by FAA Region) Confirmed to have Non-FAA Ramp Control

Eastern Region New England Region Southwest Region

EWR (Newark)—United BOS (Boston)—DAL DFW (Dallas)—AAL; DFW
Airlines (UAL); Port Authority Airport
of New York/New Jersey Northwest Mountain Region IAH (Houston)—UAL
(PANYNJ) DEN (Denver)—UAL; DEN
IAD (Dulles, VA)— Department of Aviation Western Pacific Region
Metropolitan Washington SEA (Seattle)—DAL; Robinson LAS (Las Vegas)—Clark
Airports Authority (MWAA) Aviation County Department of
JFK (New York)—American SLC (Salt Lake City)—DAL Aviation
Airlines (AAL); Delta Air Lines LAX (Los Angeles)—UAL;
(DAL); JetBlue Airways; Southern Region AAL; DAL
PANYNJ ATL (Atlanta)—DAL; TBI PHX (Phoenix)—AAL
LGA (New York)—AAL; DAL; CLT (Charlotte)—AAL SAN (San Diego)—SERCO
UAL; Airway Services FLL (Ft Lauderdale)— SFO (San Francisco)—UAL;
PHL (Philadelphia)—AAL; Robinson Aviation ASIG/AGI/TBI
PHL Airport MCO (Orlando)—DAL
MEM (Memphis) – FDX
Great Lakes Region MIA (Miami)—AAL; Miami-
Dade Department of
CLE (Cleveland)—UAL;
Aviation
Service Air
RDU (Raleigh )—TBI
DTW (Detroit)—DAL; DTW
Airport; Dynamic Science
IND (Indianapolis)—Federal
Express (FDX)
MSP (Minneapolis)—DAL
ORD (Chicago)—UAL; AAL;
Signature

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-3

Atlanta, GA
(Southern Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-1. (ATL) Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-4 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Boston, MA
(New England Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-2. (BOS) Boston Logan International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-5

Cleveland, OH
(Great Lakes Region—Medium Hub)

Figure E-3. (CLE) Cleveland Hopkins International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-6 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Charlotte, NC
(Southern Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-4. (CLT) Charlotte/Douglas International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-7

Denver, CO
(Northwest Mountain Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-5. (DEN) Denver International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-8 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Dallas, TX
(Southwest Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-6. (DFW) Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-9

Detroit, MI
(Great Lakes Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-7. (DTW) Detroit Metro Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-10 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Newark, NJ
(Eastern Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-8. (EWR) Newark Liberty International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-11

Fort Lauderdale, FL
(Southern Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-9. (FLL) Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-12 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Dulles, VA
(Eastern Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-10. (IAD) Washington Dulles International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-13

Houston, TX
(Southwest Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-11. (IAH) Bush Intercontinental Airport (Houston).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-14 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Indianapolis, IN
(Great Lakes Region—Medium Hub)

Figure E-12. (IND) Indianapolis International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-15

New York, NY
(Eastern Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-13. (JFK) John F. Kennedy International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-16 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Las Vegas, NV
(Western Pacific Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-14. (LAS) McCarran International Airport (Las Vegas).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-17

Los Angeles, CA
(Western Pacific Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-15. (LAX) Los Angeles International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-18 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

New York, NY
(Eastern Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-16. (LGA) LaGuardia Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-19

Orlando, FL
(Southern Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-17. (MCO) Orlando International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-20 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Memphis, TN
(Southern Region—Medium Hub)

Figure E-18. (MEM) Memphis International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-21

Miami, FL
(Southern Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-19. (MIA) Miami International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-22 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Minneapolis, MN
(Great Lakes Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-20. (MSP) Minneapolis/St. Paul International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-23

Chicago, IL
(Great Lakes Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-21. (ORD) Chicago O’Hare International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-24 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Philadelphia, PA
(Eastern Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-22. (PHL) Philadelphia International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-25

Phoenix, AZ
(Western Pacific Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-23. (PHX) Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-26 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Raleigh / Durham, NC
(Southern Region—Medium Hub)

Figure E-24. (RDU) Raleigh-Durham International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-27

San Diego, CA
(Western Pacific Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-25. (SAN) San Diego International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-28 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Seattle, WA
(Northwest Mountain Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-26. (SEA) Seattle/Tacoma International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Airports with Ramp Control E-29

San Francisco, CA
(Western Pacific Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-27. (SFO) San Francisco International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

E-30 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Salt Lake City, UT

(Northwest Mountain Region—Large Hub)

Figure E-28. (SLC) Salt Lake City International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

APPENDIX F

Technology Considerations

Traditionally, ramp control operations have not required the use of advanced technolo-
gies. Standard ATC support technologies such as radios, telephones, closed-circuit television
(CCTV), audio/video recording equipment, and commercially available gate management soft-
ware are mentioned elsewhere in this guidebook and are normally sufficient to conduct ramp
control. However, new technologies are being developed and introduced that may provide
advanced capabilities to organizations contemplating ramp control. Some of these include the
following:

Virtual Air Traffic Control Towers

The development of fully capable virtual air traffic control towers is well underway, with dem-
onstration projects in Europe and the United States. A typical installation includes 360 degree
coverage of the airfield with high-definition video, radar feeds, integration with air navigation
service provider data streams, weather and air carrier gate and schedule information, as shown
in Figure F-1. These systems can support multiple controller positions at multiple airports, all
being operated from remote sites. While such an extensive system of virtual towers is probably
more capability than is needed for ramp control, the basic technologies can be sized to meet the
requirement of controlling gates at multiple concourses from a single, remote location. Some
air carriers already employ surveillance of all their gates at given airports with high-definition
video and stereo audio monitoring.

Surface Management
Most ramp control functions depend on data feeds to provide scheduled operating times
for flights. They depend on aircrews to announce when they are ready for pushback. At air-
ports employing some form of departure metering, the aircrew request for pushback may not
be well-coordinated with FAA’s departure sequence goals. Technologies, such as the NextGen
SWIM program or commercially available data feeds, can help better coordinate both the arrival
and pushback of an airplane with that of other airplanes and with FAA’s departure sequencing
scheme. The additional data can permit smoother ramp operations by reducing uncertainties
in arrival times, improving gate assignments, and sequencing departures. The Surface Collab-
orative Decision Making concept of operations developed by the FAA in conjunction with the
aviation community describes a vision for data exchange and a process for metering departure
traffic that will reduce airport departure queues. Additionally, the FAA has made a commit-
ment to implement Surface Departure Management through the use of the Airspace Technol-
ogy Demonstration (ATD-2) tool developed by the FAA and National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). The first site for this technology is Charlotte Airport, which is due to

F-1

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

F-2 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Figure F-1. Virtual air traffic control tower at

Leesburg Airport in Leesburg, Va.

implement it in 2017. This technology will improve the flow of aircraft from pushback from the
gate to the runway and into the overhead stream of air traffic.
Another emerging technology that has the potential to assist in Surface Management is auto-
matic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B). This technology will allow users to precisely
identify the location of aircraft and equipped vehicles moving on the ground in poor visibility
situations such as during heavy rainfall and fog.
As these technologies are expanded throughout the NAS and as the SWIM infrastructure
evolves with more and more efficient data sharing among the aviation partners, the role of ramp
control may very well change from maintaining an orderly airport ramp to assisting the FAA
with maintaining airspace orderliness. This evolution could become the overriding reason for
airports where no ramp control is established to consider establishing ramp control.

Surface Surveillance
FAA has deployed airport surface detection equipment—Model X (ASDE-X) radar with multi-
lateration allowing precise tracking of airplanes on the airport surface at 35 airports. This capa-
bility can provide ramp controllers with graphic information about an airplane’s position on the
surface and progress toward the ramp. Coupled with a feed from airport surveillance FAA radar
showing arriving airplanes, these surveillance tools can supplement schedule data and improve
ramp operations and gate assignments. Commercial tracking systems are available offering
similar data feeds on a contract basis for additional airports in addition to the 35 ASDE-X
installations.

Advanced Gate Servicing

Air carriers have been increasingly outsourcing ground handling services, especially at smaller
stations. For decades, non-U.S. airports conducting ramp control operations have provided
advanced capabilities, such as coordinating ground handling, jet bridge operation, fueling,

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Technology Considerations F-3

passenger handling, and other aspects of aircraft turnarounds. While airports in the U.S. do not
currently engage in those tasks, some consideration of long-term trends in that direction may
be warranted.

Further Information
Information on the technologies mentioned here and other NextGen aviation advancements
can be found on numerous public web sites such as www.faa.gov. All users of this guidebook are
encouraged to research these subjects as they will assist those planning to develop ramp control
duties at the airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

APPENDIX G

Staffing Considerations

When considering introducing ramp control to the airport, staffing is one of the most impor-
tant considerations for those who will provide the service. What follows are some things to
consider when determining staffing options for the ramp control facility.
How many people it takes to provide ramp control services is one of the biggest cost driv-
ers for ramp control. Before the amount of staffing can be determined the following must be
determined:
• The specific responsibilities of the tasks to be performed, and from those
• How the tasks will be apportioned among those who will provide the services.

Determining the Number of Positions

The specific tasks and how they will be divided will determine how many positions need to be
staffed. Some of the things to consider when determining the number of positions include the
span or area of control. Span of control refers to the size and physical layout of the ramp area to
be controlled, the number of gates, the number of ramp entrances and exits, the complexities in
the ability to maneuver aircraft on the ramp, and any holding areas on the ramp that contribute
to span of control. Equally important when determining the number of ramp control positions
is the amount of hourly activity. If the services will be provided from a traditional tower where
the ramp controller is expected to actually see the ramp activity with the naked eye, the span
of control coupled with high activity becomes a driving issue for staffing. It may take two or
three sets of eyes (two or three positions) to accomplish the job. If ramp control services will
be provided from a virtual facility where there is reliance on cameras instead of windows to see
the ramp area, it is possible that scanning the ramp via monitors will result in less workload and
therefore fewer positions and people.

Determine When the Positions Will Be Opened

After determining the number of positions to be staffed, the next thing to do is to determine
the number of days per week and number of hours per day the positions will be opened. This will
vary with every airport because the hours the position is opened will be primarily based on the
flow of traffic into and out of the airport. Once the airport has established the hours of operation
for ramp control, the number of people needed can be computed.

G-1

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

G-2 Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Determine How Many People It Takes

Things to consider when determining the number of employees must include:
• How many hours per day will ramp control operate? Will the facility be full time or part time?
• What scheduling policies will the employer offer?
– Flex scheduling such as a compressed work week where employees work 40 hours in four days.
– Core hours schedules.
– 8-, 10-, or 12-hour shifts.
– How much overlap is needed for shift change/transfer of responsibility?
• Will employees rotate between day and night shifts or work the same shift?
• How will the schedule rotate to allow 7 day coverage?
• What are the existing or expected work rules that will apply to ramp control personnel?
– Are employees covered by a collective bargaining agreement?
– What are the required breaks throughout the day, including lunch? Is lunch part of the
workday?
– Are there a maximum number of hours that employees can work per day? (This is important
during irregular operations, e.g., winter operations or thunderstorms when ramp control-
lers may be required to work beyond their normal schedule?
– What are the vacation and leave policies?
• How will the training plan for ramp controllers be administered? Will training be conducted
by one of the ramp controllers? How much time away from the ramp positions will be required
to conduct the training? How many hours per week, day, and month will each ramp controller
be unavailable to work positions in order to receive training?
• Will the work staff be dedicated or flexible?
– Dedicated—individuals only perform ramp control duties.
– Flexible—individuals may be required to perform other duties in addition to ramp control.

Determine How Many Hours a Ramp

Controller Is Available
From all of the factors above determine the actual number of hours a full-time or part-time
employee (FTE/PTE) is available to work. For example:
• One FTE works = 40 hours per week times 52 weeks = 2,080 hours.
• FTE’s receive vacation totaling...................................... − 120 hours
• FTE’s receive personal time totaling ............................... − 48 hours
• FTE’s will receive Training Hours totaling ................... − 104 hours
• Net Available Work Hours ......................................... = 1,808 hours
Note: This is not an all-inclusive list of hours an employee is not available for work. Each
employer must determine the other factors specific to their organization that will reduce the
hours available to work (i.e., the amount of time per day for meal and other breaks).
Estimate the total number of work hours needed to operate the ramp control facility. For exam-
ple if the facility will staff two positions, for 12 hours a day, for 7 days a week for 52 weeks that
equals 2 positions × 12 hours = 24 hours × 7 days = 168 hours per week × 52 weeks = 8,736 hours
per year divided by 1,808 available hours per person = 5 people needed to staff 2 positions for
12 hours per day every day for one year.
This simplistic example is only meant to demonstrate how to determine the number of people
to work a specific number of hours that a position will be opened. To estimate the number of staff-
ing needed for ramp control, the service provider must determine as closely as possible the actual
number of hours a position will be opened throughout the year by factoring in every nuance of

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Staffing Considerations G-3

the particular airport. For example, because of IROPS, winter and summer at some airports may
require positions to be opened for longer hours than during the spring and fall. Additionally,
activity may not be the same throughout the week or throughout the year. Summer air traffic
activity may not be as heavy at some Florida airports as it is during the winter. Positions may
need to be opened longer during the week than they are on the weekends. The deeper the analy-
sis is on the activity the better the estimate will be as to the number of hours a position will be
opened in a year.
This information is by no means everything one needs to know about the subject of staffing.
Guidebook users are encouraged to contact facilities that are engaged in ramp control to learn
about staffing scheduling practices currently in use.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Guidebook for Developing Ramp Control Facilities

Abbreviations and acronyms used without definitions in TRB publications:

A4A Airlines for America
AAAE American Association of Airport Executives
AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACI–NA Airports Council International–North America
ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program
ADA Americans with Disabilities Act
APTA American Public Transportation Association
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
ATA American Trucking Associations
CTAA Community Transportation Association of America
CTBSSP Commercial Truck and Bus Safety Synthesis Program
DHS Department of Homeland Security
DOE Department of Energy
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAST Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act (2015)
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration
FRA Federal Railroad Administration
FTA Federal Transit Administration
HMCRP Hazardous Materials Cooperative Research Program
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991
ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers
MAP-21 Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (2012)
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASAO National Association of State Aviation Officials
NCFRP National Cooperative Freight Research Program
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
PHMSA Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration
RITA Research and Innovative Technology Administration
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SAFETEA-LU Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act:
A Legacy for Users (2005)
TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program
TDC Transit Development Corporation
TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (1998)
TRB Transportation Research Board
TSA Transportation Security Administration
U.S.DOT United States Department of Transportation

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.