1) Define Blockchain. A blockchain is a decentralized, distributed digital ledger that 6) Which institute standardized AES algorithm?

thm? The Advanced Encryption 12)What is the formula to calculate transaction fee in Ethereum? **Ethereum
records transactions across many computers in such a way that the recorded Standard (AES) algorithm was standardized by the National Institute of Standards Transaction Fee Formula**: The transaction fee in Ethereum is calculated using the
transactions cannot be altered retroactively. Each record, or block, contains a list of and Technology (NIST) in 2001 to ensure secure data encryption formula: **Gas Used * (Base Fee + Priority Fee)**. The base fee is set by the
transactions, a timestamp, and a link to the previous block, forming a chain. This 7)What is EVM? The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) is a decentralized runtime protocol, while the priority fee (or tip) is set by the user to incentivize miners.
ensures data integrity and transparency. environment that executes smart contracts and DApps, enabling interaction across 13) What is plain text and cipher text? **Plain Text and Cipher Text**: - **Plain
2) Who published a white paper proposing Ethereum in 2013? Vitalik Buterin the Ethereum network. Text**: The original, readable data before encryption. - **Cipher Text**: The
published the Ethereum white paper in 2013, outlining a blockchainbased platform 8) What is Non-repudiation? Non-repudiation is a security principle ensuring that encrypted, unreadable data after encryption.
capable of running decentralized applications (DApps) and smart contracts. actions or communications (e.g., transactions) cannot be denied by the party that 14) What is FPGA? **FPGA (Field-Programmable Gate Array)**: An FPGA is a type
3) In which type of network each and every node is itself client and server? In a performed them, often enforced through digital signatures. of configurable integrated circuit that can be programmed after manufacturing to
peer-to-peer (P2P) network, every node acts as both a client and a server, enabling 9)What is Nonce? A Nonce is a unique, random number used in cryptography and perform various digital functions. It's used in applications requiring high-speed data
decentralized data sharing and processing without central authority. blockchain to ensure secure transactions, avoid duplication, and allow miners to processing and parallel processing abilities
4) Give the command to find the current difficulty level. To find the current solve blocks during mining. 13) What is plain text and cipher text? **Plain Text and Cipher Text**: - **Plain
difficulty level in Ethereum, use the command: eth.getBlock("latest").difficulty 10)What is ICO? An Initial Coin Offering (ICO) is a crowdfunding method where Text**: The original, readable data before encryption. - **Cipher Text**: The
5) What happens if someone loses the private key of his wallet? Losing the new cryptocurrencies or tokens are sold to investors to raise funds for blockchain encrypted, unreadable data after encryption.
private key of a wallet results in permanent loss of access to the wallet and its projects. 14) What is FPGA? **FPGA (Field-Programmable Gate Array)**: An FPGA is a type
funds, as the private key is the only way to prove ownership and sign transactions. 11) Who owns the Blockchain? Blockchain is decentralized and has no single of configurable integrated circuit that can be programmed after manufacturing to
17)What is the size of encryption key in DES? => 56-bit owner. It is maintained by a network of participants (miners, validators, or nodes) perform various digital functions. It's used in applications requiring high-speed data
who collectively uphold its integrity processing and parallel processing abilities

18) What is ASIC? ASIC (Application-Specific Integrated Circuit)**: An ASIC is a 23) What is Difficulty in a Block. The difficulty in a blockchain is a measure of how 27) What is Full Node. A full node in a blockchain network is a computer that fully
custom-designed integrated circuit built for a specific use, rather than for general- hard it is to mine a new block. Higher difficulty means more computational effort is validates transactions and blocks. Unlike lightweight nodes, full nodes download
purpose use. It's often used in mining cryptocurrencies due to its efficiency. required to solve the cryptographic puzzle needed to add a new block to the and verify the entire blockchain, ensuring adherence to the network's rules.
19) Which algorithm is used by Bitcoin to verify transactions? Bitcoin Transaction blockchain. This ensures the rate which new blocks added remains stable over 28) What is Remix. Remix is an integrated development environment (IDE) for
Verification Algorithm**: Bitcoin uses the **Proof of Work (PoW)** algorithm to time. 24) In which network each and every node acts as both a client and a writing, testing, and deploying smart contracts on the Ethereum blockchain. It
verify transactions. server. In a **peer-to-peer (P2P) network**, each and every node acts as both a provides tools and plugins that make the development process more efficient and
20) Which is a unique PoS cryptocurrency that is aimed at delivering client and a server. This decentralized structure allows nodes to share resources user-friendly.
interoperability among other blockchains? **Unique PoS Cryptocurrency for and communicate directly without relying on a central server. 29) What is Immutable Ledger. An immutable ledger in the context of blockchain
Interoperability**: **Polkadot (DOT)** is a unique Proof of Stake (PoS) 25) What is Ether (ETH). Ether (ETH) is the native cryptocurrency of the Ethereum refers to a record-keeping system where transactions are permanent, unalterable,
cryptocurrency aimed at delivering interoperability among different blockchains. blockchain. It is used to pay for transaction fees and computational services on the and chronologically ordered. Once a transaction is recorded on the blockchain, it
21)What is DAPP? **DAPP (Decentralized Application)**: A DAPP is an application Ethereum network. It also serves as a medium of exchange and store of value cannot be modified or deleted.
that runs on a decentralized network, typically a blockchain, and is not controlled within the ecosystem. 30) Define Genesis Block. The genesis block is the very first block in a blockchain. It
by any single entity. 26) What is Consensus.=> Consensus in blockchain refers to the agreement among is unique in that it has no previous block to reference. All subsequent blocks are
22) What is Non-repudiation. Non-repudiation is a property that ensures a party in network participants on the state of the blockchain. It ensures all nodes in the linked back to the genesis block, forming the foundation of the blockchain.
a transaction cannot deny the authenticity of their signature on a document or a network have a consistent view of the blockchain's data. Common consensus
sent message. It provides proof of the origin, integrity, and authenticity of data, mechanisms include Proof of Work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS).
making it impossible for the sender to later refute having sent the message or
performed the action.

31) Define Consensus Protocol A **consensus protocol** is a mechanism used in 34) Define Hashing. Hashing is the process of converting data of any size into a 38) What is digital signature. A **digital signature** is a cryptographic technique
blockchain networks to achieve agreement on a single data value among fixed-size string of characters, typically using a hash function. The output, known as used to validate the authenticity and integrity of a message, software, or digital
distributed processes or systems. It ensures all nodes in the network agree on the the hash value or hash code, is unique to the input data. Hashing is used in various document. It ensures that the data has not been altered in transit and verifies the
current state of the blockchain, which is crucial for maintaining consistency and applications, including data integrity verification, password storage, and digital identity of the sender, providing non-repudiation.
security. Examples of consensus protocols include Proof of Work (PoW), Proof of signatures. 35) What is GAS. In the context of Ethereum, **GAS** is a unit that 1) What is Public & Private Blockchain **Public Blockchain**: A public blockchain
Stake (PoS), and Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT). measures the amount of computational effort required to execute operations, such is a decentralized network that is open to anyone who wishes to participate. It is
32) What is Cryptography. **Cryptography** is the practice and study of as transactions or smart contracts. Users pay GAS fees to miners for processing transparent, and anyone can read, write, or audit the blockchain. Examples include
techniques for securing communication and data from third parties. It involves the their transactions. The cost of GAS can fluctuate based on network demand. Bitcoin and Ethereum. **Private Blockchain**: A private blockchain is a restricted
use of algorithms to convert plain text into ciphertext (encryption) and then back 36) What is GAS limit. The **GAS limit** in Ethereum refers to the maximum network controlled by a single organization. Participation is limited, and
to plain text (decryption). Cryptography ensures data confidentiality, integrity, amount of gas units a user is willing to consume on a transaction or contract permissions are required to read or write data. It is typically used within enterprises
authentication, and non-repudiation. execution. Gas is the unit that measures the amount of computational effort
33) Define Immutable Ledger An **immutable ledger** is a type of data storage required to process transactions and execute smart contracts. The gas limit ensures for internal 3) What are benefits of Immutable Ledger in Blockchain => 1. Data
system where records cannot be altered or deleted once they are written. This that the transaction doesn't exceed a certain cost, preventing accidental Integrity: Once data is written, it cannot be altered, ensuring the integrity of
ensures the integrity and reliability of the data, making it ideal for applications like records. 2. **Transparency**: All transactions are permanently recorded and can
blockchain, where trust and transparency are essential. overspending and potential network abuse. 37) Define Database. A **database** be audited by anyone. 3. **Trust**: Immutable records build trust among
is an organized collection of data that can be easily accessed, managed, and participants as they cannot be tampered with. 4. **Security**: Reduces the risk of
updated. Databases are used to store, retrieve, and manipulate data efficiently. fraud and unauthorized changes.
They can be structured (like SQL databases) or unstructured (like NoSQL databases)
and are used in a wide range of applications, from small-scale projects to large
enterprise systems.
2) List and explain Value Data Types in Solidity Solidity-> the programming 5) Blockchains are Slow Compared to Databases:- Justify Blockchains tend to be 8) What is Hybrid Blockchain :- A **Hybrid Blockchain** combines elements of
language for Ethereum smart contracts, has several value data types: - **boolean slower than traditional databases due to several factors: 1. **Decentralization**: both public and private blockchains. It allows certain data to be made public and
(`bool`)**: Represents true or false. - **integer (`int`, `uint`)**: Signed and In a blockchain, transactions must be validated by multiple nodes, which takes accessible, while keeping other data private and restricted to authorized
unsigned integers of various sizes (e.g., `int8`, `int16`, `uint8`, `uint256`). - time. Traditional databases typically rely on a central server, making them faster. 2. participants. This setup provides the benefits of both transparency and
**address**: Holds an Ethereum address (20 bytes). - **fixed-point numbers **Consensus Mechanisms**: Blockchains use consensus protocols (like Proof of confidentiality, making it suitable for enterprise use cases where some data needs
(`fixed`, `ufixed`)**: Fixed-point numbers, though not fully supported yet. - Work or Proof of Stake) to agree on the state of the network, which adds to be shared openly while other data remains secure and private.
**bytes**: Dynamically-sized byte array. - **string**: Dynamically-sized UTF-8 processing time. 3. **Redundancy**: Each node in a blockchain network maintains 9) Define Symmetric and Asymmetric Key Cryptography **Symmetric Key
encoded string. a copy of the entire blockchain, resulting in redundancy that can slow down Cryptography**: This method uses the same key for both encryption and
4) What is stream Cipher and Block Cipher - **Stream Cipher**: Encrypts data one performance. Traditional databases often optimize for efficiency and speed. 4. decryption. Both the sender and the receiver must have the same secret key. It's
bit or byte at a time, making it suitable for real-time data processing. Examples **Immutability**: Once data is written to a blockchain, it cannot be changed, fast and efficient but requires secure key distribution. Examples include AES and
include RC4. - **Block Cipher**: Encrypts data in fixed-size blocks (e.g., 64 or 128 which involves additional steps to ensure the integrity of the data, slowing down DES. **Asymmetric Key Cryptography**: This method uses a pair of keys—a public
bits), ensuring security through block transformations. Examples include AES, DES. the process. key for encryption and a private key for decryption. The public key can be shared
6) What is P2P Crypto Exchange:- A P2P (Peer-to-Peer) Crypto Exchange** is a 7) What is BFT (Byzantine Fault Tolerance):- **Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT)** is openly, while the private key is kept secret. It enhances security since the private
decentralized platform where users can trade cryptocurrencies directly with one a property of a distributed system that allows it to function correctly even if some key is never transmitted. Examples include RSA and ECC.
another without the need for an intermediary or central authority. These of its nodes fail or act maliciously. BFT mechanisms ensure that the system can
exchanges facilitate transactions through an automated process and often use reach consensus despite the presence of faulty or malicious nodes. This is crucial
escrow services to ensure security and trust between parties. for maintaining the integrity and reliability of blockchain networks.

*Stream Cipher**: Encrypts data one bit or byte at a time, making it suitable for 13) What are the tasks of Miners. Miners play a crucial role in the functioning of 17) Explain the contents of a Block in a Blockchain A block in a blockchain contains
real-time data processing. Stream ciphers are fast and efficient for encrypting blockchain networks, especially those using Proof of Work (PoW) as their several essential components: 1. Block Header: Contains metadata about the block,
continuous streams of data. An example is RC4. consensus mechanism. Here are their primary tasks: 1. **Transaction Validation**: including: o Previous Block Hash: A reference to the hash of the previous block in
*Block Cipher: Encrypts data in fixed-size blocks (e.g., 64 or 128 bits). Each block is Miners validate transactions to ensure they are legitimate and not double-spent. 2. the chain, ensuring immutability and order. o Timestamp: The exact date and time
processed independently but may use the result of previous blocks (in modes like **Block Creation**: They collect validated transactions and compile them into a
CBC). Block ciphers provide strong security for data at rest. Examples include AES block. 3. Solving Cryptographic Puzzles: Miners compete to solve complex when the block was created. 2. Block Body: Contains the transactions that are
and DES. cryptographic puzzles. The first to solve it gets to add the block to the blockchain included in the block: o Transactions: A list of all the transactions that have been
12) What is purpose of Test Network? List Ethereum Testnets. **Purpose of Test and is rewarded. 4. **Adding Blocks to the Blockchain**: Once a block is created validated and included in the block. o Transaction Count: The number of
Network**: Test networks (testnets) are used to simulate the blockchain and the puzzle is solved, the block is added to the blockchain. 5. **Propagation**: transactions included in the block.
environment without using real cryptocurrency. They allow developers to test The newly created block is propagated to other nodes in the network, ensuring all 18) What are the advantages of Smart contracts. 1. **Automation**: Smart
smart contracts, decentralized applications (DApps), and other blockchain features nodes have the updated blockchain. contracts automatically execute when predefined conditions are met, eliminating
in a safe environment, ensuring they function correctly before deployment on the 14) What are the Components of Blockchain 1. **Nodes**: The individual the need for intermediaries and reducing human error. 2. **Transparency**: The
main network (mainnet). **Ethereum Testnets**: 1. **Ropsten**: A proof-of-work computers that participate in the blockchain network, maintaining copies of the terms and conditions of smart contracts are visible and verifiable by all participants,
testnet similar to the Ethereum mainnet. 2. **Rinkeby**: A proof-of-authority blockchain and validating transactions. 2. **Ledger**: The distributed digital ledger ensuring trust and reducing disputes. 3. **Security**: Smart contracts use
testnet designed for testing. 3. **Goerli**: A cross-client proof-of-authority that records all transactions in the blockchain. 3. **Block**: A collection of cryptographic principles to secure transactions, making them resistant to tampering
testnet. transactions that is added to the blockchain. Each block contains a header and a list and fraud. 4. **Efficiency**: By automating processes and eliminating
of transactions. 4. **Chain**: The sequence of blocks linked together in intermediaries, smart contracts can significantly speed up transactions and reduce
chronological order, forming the blockchain costs.