1.

6 Social Institutions

1.6.1 Marriage

Meaning: Marriage is one of the universal social institutions. It is established by

the human society to control and regulate the sex life of man. It is closely
connected with the institution of family. In fact, family and marriage are
complementary to each other. As Gillin and Gillin have said, "Marriage is a
socially approved way of establishing a family of procreation". Marriage is an
institution of society which can have very different implications in different
cultures. Its purposes, functions and forms may differ from society to society, but
it is present everywhere as an institution.
Functions of Marriage:
i. Regulation of Sex Life: Marriage is the powerful instrument of regulating
the sex life of man. Sexual impulse is powerful in man. He is exposed to
its influence throughout his life. It is an urgent and an irresistible need of
man. It has to be controlled and regulated in a proper manner to avoid chaos
and confusion in society. Marriage has come to be such a regulative means.
Hence marriage is often called the licence for sex life. Marriage regulates
sex relations also. It prohibits sex relations between the closest relatives,
that is, between father and daughter, mother and son, brother and sister, etc.
Such a kind of prohibition is called "incest taboo". Marriage also puts
restrictions on the premarital and extra-marital set relations.

ii. Marriage leads to the Establishment of the Family: Sexual satisfaction

offered by marriage results in self-perpetuation. It means marriage insists
on the couple to establish a family of procreation. It is here the children are
born and bred up. It is the marriage which determines the descent of the
new born individual. Inheritance and succession follow the rule of descent.

iii. Provides for Economic Cooperation: Marriage makes division of labour

possible on the basis of sex. Partners of marriage distribute and divide work
among themselves and perform them. In some of the primitive tribes we
find a clear-cut division of work between the husband and wife. Even in
the modern industrial societies, we find husband and wife working outside
the family to get more income to elevate their economic status.
iv. Marriage Contributes to Emotional and Intellectual Interstimulation
of the Partners: Marriage brings life-partners together and helps them to
develop intense love and affection towards each other. It deepens the
emotions and strengthens the companionship between the two. It also helps
them to develop intellectual cooperation between them.

v. Marriage aims at Social Solidarity: Marriage not only brings two

individuals of the opposite sex together but also their respective families,
groups and kindreds. Friendship between groups is reinforced through
marriage. It is often suggested that by encouraging marriage between
different groups, castes, races, classes, religious, linguistic and other
communities, it is possible to minimise the social distance between groups
and strengthen their solidarity.

Forms of Marriage:

i. Polygyny: Polygyny is a form of marriage in which one man marries more

than one woman at a given time. Polygyny is more popular than polyandry
but not as universal as monogamy. It was in practice most of the ancient
civilisations. It prevailed among the ancient Hebrews, Assyrians,
Babylonians, Indians and others. At present, it is widespread among
primitive tribes but it is often simply confined to the wealthier classes.
Polygyny is in practice among the Eskimo tribes, Crow Indians, Hidatsa of
North America, African Negroes, the Nagas, Gonds and Baigas of India.
However, it is permitted in Muslim Community.

Types of Polygyny:

a. Sororal Polygyny: Sororal Polygyny is a type of marriage in which the

wives are invariably the sisters. When several sisters are
simultaneously, or potentially the spouses of the same man, the practice
is called 'sororate'. It is usually observed among the tribes which pay a
high bride price. The death of the wife or her childlessness is
compensated by supplying a new spouse who is generally the younger
sister of the deceased woman.

b. Non-Sororal Polygyny: Non-Sororal Polygyny as the term indicates,

is a type of marriage in which the wives are not related as sisters. For
social, economic, political and other reasons, both the types are
practised by some people.
ii. Polyandry: Polyandry is the marriage of one woman with several men. It
is much less common than polygyny. It is practised among the Tibetans,
Marquesan Islanders of Polynesia, the Bahama of Africa, the tribals of
Samoa and others. In India, the tribes such as Tiyan, the Toda, the Kota,
the Khasa and Ladakhi Bota also practise polyandry. The Nairs of Kerala
were polyandrous previously.

Types of Polyandry:

a. Fraternal Polyandry: When several brothers share the same wife, the
practice can be called alelphic or fraternal polyandry. This practice of
being mate, actual or potential, to one's husband's brothers is called
"levirate." It is prevalent among the Todas.

b. Non-Fraternal Polyandry: In this type, the husbands need not have

any close relationship prior to the marriage. The wife goes to spend
some time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her
husbands, the others have no claim over her. Nair polyandry was of this
type Tibetans too have this type. Both these types of polyandry must be
distinguished from "wife-sharing" or 'wife-lending', which is much
more common among the primitives. But in all cases, it is temporary.

iii. Monogamy: Monogamy is the form of marriage in which one man marries
one woman. This is the most widespread form of marriage found among
the primitives as well as the civilised people. If it was very popular during
the early times, it has almost become a universal practice at present. It is
practised among the tribals such as Kadars, Santals, the Khasis, the
Canella, the Hopi, the Iroquois, the Andaman Islanders, the Veddas of
Ceylon, the Sevangas of Malaya and others. Monogamy has a long history
of its own. Westermarck is of the opinion that monogamy is as old as
humanity. Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle had recommended only
monogamous marriage. Ancient Romans and Spartans also had given
recognition to it. Ancient Jews, Christians and Indians had given
importance to it. Ancient Hindus regarded monogamy as the most ideal
form of marriage.

iv. Group Marriage: Theoretically group marriage means the marriage of

two or more women with two or more men. But this arrangement is
 practically rare, Here the husbands are common husbands and wives are
common wives. Children are regarded as the children of the entire group
as a whole. Childres call men of such a group their fathers and all the
women their mothers. Some of the tribals in Australia, India, Tibet and
Ceylon are believed to have practised group marriage. Some writers have
said that group marriage is not in existence. If at all it is in practice, it is
clubbed with polyandry. For example, two Toda brothers marry two women
as their common wives.

v. Endogamy: Endogamy is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are

to be selected within the group It is marriage within the group, and the
group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village, religious group, etc. Thus,
we have caste endogamy, class endogamy, subcaste endogamy, race
endogamy, tribal endogamy and such other forms. Example. In caste
endogamy, marriage has to take place within the caste. Brahmin has to
marry a Brahmin. In subcaste endogamy, it is limited to the subcaste
groups. Here a Shivalli Brahmin has to marry within Shivalli subcaste, a
Gangadiagar Vokkaliga has to marry within his sub-caste group, and so on.
Endogamy prohibits marriage outside the group. Even today inter-caste
marriages are not encouraged.

vi. Exogamy: Exogamy is almost the opposite of endogamy. Exogamy is a

rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group.
It prohibits marrying within the group. The rule of exogamy insists that the
so-called blood relatives shall neither have marital connections nor sexual
contacts among themselves. Near relatives are not supposed to marry
among themselves. But the degree of nearness differs from community to
community. In Malenesia and Australia among some people, a son may
marry his father's wife if she is not his direct mother. Similarly, two or
marriage of cousins is allowed among Muslims.

Forms of Exogamy:

i. Gotra Exogamy: The Hindu practice of one marrying outside one's

own 'gotra' is gotra exogamy.

ii. Pravara Exogamy: Those who belong to the same pravara (uttering
the name of a common saint at religious functions) cannot marry
among themselves.
 iii. Village Exogamy: Many Indian tribes (Example: Naga, Garo,
Munda) have the practice of marrying outside their village.

iv. Pinda Exogamy: Those who belong to the same 'Pinda' (or sapinda)
cannot marry within themselves ('Pinda' means common parentage).

1.6.2 Family

Meaning: The word 'Family' has been taken over from Latin word 'Famulus'
which means a servant. In Roman Law the word denoted a group of producers
and slaves and other servants as well as members connected by common descent
or marriage. Thus, originally, family, consisted of a man and woman with a child
or children and servants.
M.F. Nimkoff says that "Family is a more or less durable association of husband
and wife with or without child, or of a man or woman alone, with children".
Functions of Family:
i. Satisfaction of sex needs: Satisfaction of sex instinct brings the desire for
life long partnership among males and females. The modern family
satisfies the sex needs in a greater degree.

ii. Production and rearing of children: The inevitable result of sexual

satisfaction is procreation. The task of race perpetuation has always been
an important function of the family. Family is an institution par excellence
for the production and rearing of children.

iii. Provision of home and minimum basic facilities: It is the responsibility

of the head of family to provide some minimum basic facilities to the
members of the family, namely, those of food, clothing and shelter. The
family members should cooperate with the head in using, sharing and
maintaining them. The desire for a home is a powerful incentive for man
as well as woman to live in and lead peaceful family life along with their
children.

iv. Giving love and sympathy: Family is in fact the most important
cooperative society where one member helps the others. All members of
family are supposed to solve each other's problems with a sympathetic and
 careful attitude. Children require love and affection from their parents.
Similarly, husband and wife want love from each other.

v. Socialisation: The main function of the family is socialisation. Family

transmits the moral ideas of group to its members. Socialisation is nothing
but acclimatisation of the children to the society. Through language and
their action, a child is able to learn about various customs and traditions of
the society. It is the family that socialises the new generation.

vi. Protection of young: The family has to protect the child as he cannot
protect himself and he is open to every risk and danger till he is in a position
to protect himself.

Theories of Origin of Family:

i. Theory of Sex Communism: According to L.H. Morgan, Spencer and G.J.

Frazer. there were no marriages and families in ancient human society. In
those days men and women live din groups and men and women, without
any restriction or hindrance, met each other for sexual purposes. Offering
a woman to a guest was considered a sign of hospitality. According to them,
family is an institution in the stage of social development.

ii. Matriarchal theory: Briffault and others believe that family originated
with the matter and the matriarchal family was prevalent in the past and
the beginning.

iii. Patriarchal theory: Greek political thinkers, Plato and Aristotle and
modern thinkers like Sir Henry Maine believe that family started with the
authority of patriarch. Westermark holds the view that man has and will
always be monogamous, that is, one man marries one woman.

iv. Theory of polygamy: Sociologists like Darwin, Zukerman, Malinowsky

and Westernmarch hold the view that in the beginning of society, powerful
male members thought it their dignity and honour to possess females
exclusively for themselves. This system gradually received social
recognition and subsequently became the basis of family.

v. Evolutionary or Multi-Factor Theory: Sociologists are of the opinion

that more than one reason contributed in the origin of the family over a
 long period. The important factors that lead to the establishment of the
institution of family are:

(1) Families were formed through marriage for the fulfilment of human
needs like sexual satisfaction.

(2) The desire of man to have permanent co-operation and offsprings to

perpetuate family.

(3) Economic needs of men and women made them both combine and
come together to satisfy economic requirements.

(4) The feeling of having a partner who could share joy and sorrow of life
and co-operation during old age.

(5) The desire and need for procreation and children.

(6) The fulfilment of the four purusharthas: dharma, artha,

kama and moksha.

Types of Family:

i. Matriarchal Family: The matriarchal family is also known as the mother-

centred or mother-dominated family. Here, the mother or the woman is the
head of the family and she exercises authority. She is the owner of the
property and the manager of the household. All the other members are
subordinated to her.

ii. Patriarchal Family: The patriarchal family is also known as father-

centred or father-dominated family. Here, the father or the eldest man is the
head of the family and he exercises authority. He is the owner and
administrator of the family property. On all family matters his is the final
voice and opinion.

iii. Nuclear family: A nuclear family is one which consists of the husband,
wife and their unmarried children. The children leave the household as
soon as they are married. This is a basic grouping of mates and their
offsprings. This is the smallest composite family unit. The solidarity of the
nuclear family is largely dependent upon the sexual attraction and
 companionship between husband and wife and between parents
and small children.

iv. Joint Family: Joint family is a group of people who generally live under
one roof, who eat food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common
and who participate in common family worship and are related to each
other as some particular type of kindred. Joint family consists of more than
one primary family. All the members are blood relations or close kins. The
joint family includes old parents, their sons, sons' wives and their children.
Joint family generally consists of three or more generations.

Changing Patterns of Family:

Some of the functions of family have radically changed today while some others
have received more attention of the public. A glance at these changes would
clarify this point.

i. The Sexual Regulation Function of the family has not changed much. The
family through its agent, marriage, still regulates the sexual impulse of the
people. Illicit sexual behaviour is fairly uncommon. But it is true that in
the Western societies pre-marital and extra-marital sex relations are on the
increase.

ii. The Reproductive Function of the family has suffered particularly in the
Western societies. In the Western societies, it is said, parents no longer
desire more children. Absence of children has become the most glaring
feature of the Western families. However, it is impossible to take away this
reproductive function of the family. The very survival of the human race is
based on reproduction.

iii. In the past fifty years the Parental and the Educational Functions of the
family have been shifted to certain external agencies like hospitals, out-
patient clinics for mothers, maternity homes, the baby clinics, nurseries,
kindergartens, etc. "The modern home is not equipped to train children for
their adult careers, because the specialised division of labour requires
specialised training, which only the specialised agency of the school can
supply". -A.W. Green

iv. The Protective Functions of the family have declined particularly in the
West. Families are no more the place of protection for the physically
 handicapped, mentally retarded, aged, diseased, infirm and insane people.
Other agencies have taken over this function. But, for the young children
it continues to provide physical and emotional protection.

v. The Economic Function of the family has been disturbed a great deal. The
family is no longer the economic unit, neither is it self-sufficient. It is no
longer united by shared work, for its members work separately. It is more
a consuming unit than a producing centre. However, the family is not
completely losing this function, but it is transforming this function to some
external agencies.

1.6.3 Kinship

Meaning: Kinship means relationship of the individual with the other members
due to either a bond of marriage or through blood. Kinship bonds are very strong.
Kinship beings with nuclear family. The kins found in this group are husband,
wife, son. daughter, brother and sister. Kinship is that part of culture which deals
with notions of, or ideas about 'relatedness' or relationship through birth and
through marriage.
Types of Kinship:
i. Consanguineal kinship: Consanguinity a relationship based on
supposedly common blood relationship. A consanguine is a relative who
was born in the family as well as one who was adopted in the family
concerned. The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The
relatives linked by blood or common ancestry or siblings are known as
consanguineal kins. For example, father, mother, son, daughter, brother,
sister, father's brother, father's brother's son. grandchildren, great
grandchildren and so on. The consanguineal kins form a common
ancestry and a common descent. Blood is not the only determinant factor,
but more significant role is of the social recognition of such kinds. For
example, the adopted child is also recognised as a real son. He shares
adopted father's surname and joins the descent.

ii. Affinal kinship: The relatives linked by marital bond are known as affinal
kins. For example, husband and wife. wife's mother, daughter's husband,
parents-in-law, son-in-law are all affines. After marriage a person becomes
not only a husband, but also becomes brother-in-law and son-in-law. etc.
 Similarly, a girl on marriage becomes not only a wife but also becomes
daughter-in-law, and also becomes 'chachi", 'bhabhi', 'devrani', etc.

Degrees of Kinship:

i. Primary kinship: Primary kinship relatives are those who belong to the
same nuclear family as a particular person-the individual's father, mother,
brother and sister in the family of orientation; and husband, wife, son and
daughter in the family of procreation. Dr. Dubey mentions eight such
primary kins (i) husband-wife; (ii) father-son; (ii) mother-daughter; (iv)
father-daughter; (v) mother-son; (vi) younger-elder; (vii) younger-elder
sisters; and (viii) sister-brother.

ii. Secondary kinship: Each of the primary relatives of the individual will
naturally have their own primary relatives and these are considered to be
his secondary relatives. That means for any individual, his father is a
primary relative, for his father, his father is his primary relative and for the
given individual his father's father would be his secondary relatives. In the
same way, for any individual his mother's brother, father's sister, wife's
father or son's wife would all be secondary relatives. According
to Murdock, there are thirty-three secondary kins of a person.

iii. Tertiary kinship: The primary relatives of any individual's secondary

relatives are tertiary kins. For instance, for an individual his father is
primary kin, his grandfather is secondary kin and his great-grandfather is
tertiary kin. Thus, the wife of brother-in-law, the brother-in-law of an
individual's brother are tertiary kins. According to Murdock, there are one
hundred fifty-one tertiary kins to a person.

Kinship Usages:

i. Avoidance: In avoidance, two kins should remain away from each other.
In relation of avoidance, we find that certain relationships are of restricted
nature. Such kins maintain a distance and avoid free interaction between
themselves. A man's relationship with his son's wife and with his younger
brother's wife are the examples of avoidance category of relationship.

ii. Joking relationship: Some of the usages, which have social sanction and
convention are considered necessary for keeping order and decorum in the
society. Joking relationship is an example of it. It indicates equality and
 mutual reciprocity between the two kins participating in it. Interaction
between the two kins is intimate and frank and have joking relationship
including use of obscene and vulgar references. Under it a relation is
permitted to tease or make fun of the other. Joking relationship between a
man and his wife's sister and between a woman and her husband's younger
brother are very common. The Joking relationship is the reverse of the
avoidance relationship

iii. Teknonymy: Teknonymy is a custom of addressing a person neither by

his/her name nor by the kinship term but by relationship to a child, i.e.,
some other term. The Latin term 'teknonymy' was used for the first time by
Tylor. A kin becomes the medium of reference between two kins. For
example, a person who is mother of a child is addressed as the mother of
the child. She is referred to as the mother of Guddu (Le., the name of the
child). One reason for this may be that a person becomes a full member of
the family, in which she or he is married, only after the birth of a child by
whose name she or he is addressed.

iv. Avunculate: When the maternal uncle has pre-eminent place in the life of
his nephews and nieces and has a prior right over their loyalties, it is called
avunculate. The maternal uncle (i.e. mama) comes first among all male
relatives exceeding their father.

v. Amitate: In amitate, the father's sister is given a special role and she gets
more respect than the mother.

vi. Couvade: Under the couvade usage, the husband is made to lead the life
of an invalid along with his wife whenever she gives birth to a child. He
refrains from active life and observes the same taboos which are observed
by his wife including taking sick diet.

Kinship and Descent:

'Descent' refers to the social recognition of the biological relationship that exists
between the individuals. The rule of descent' refers to a set of principles by which
an individual traces his descent. There are three basic rules of descent: patrilineal
descent, matrilineal descent and bilateral.

i. Patrilineal Descent: According to this rule, descent is traced through the

father's or male line. Here the descent criterion is restricted to males, and
 only descendants of a common ancestor in the male line will be recognised
as kin. These are known as agnatic or patrilineal kin.

ii. Matrilineal Descent: Here the descent of the individual is traced through
the mother or female exclusively. The descendants are called here uterine
or matrilineal kin. These two modes of tracing the descent are called
"unilineal", that, they select one "line" only either the male or female.
These principles or rules are not necessarily mutually exclusive within a
society.

iii. Bilateral Descent: This is a rule in which the descent is traced through
both the lines, the female line and also the male line for some or
the other purpose.

1.6.4 Political Parties and Voting Behaviour, Pressure Group, Welfare State

1. Political Parties:

Meaning: According to Maclver, “A political party is an association

organised in support of some principle or policy which by constitutional
means it endeavours to make the determinant of government.”

Essentials of Political Parties:

i. A group of people to constitute a political party, must be organised for

a political purpose.

ii. There should be similarity of principles helping to unite people.

iii. The political parties should have the main aim of attaining political
power.

iv. The parties should use peaceful and legitimate means for attaining
political power.

v. It becomes necessary for a political party to pronounce its main

principles in public and make equally known to the electorate its plans,
programmes and the course of action which it is going to follow.
 vi. The political parties which are found within the framework of the
national boundaries are expected to protect and promote the
national interests.

Main Functions of Political Parties:

i. Political parties have the basic task of propagating their ideals, policies
and programmes

ii. The second main task is to contest and win elections.

The political parties normally follow four main ways for attaining success in
their attempt obtaining political power.

i. Firstly, every political party strengthens its organisation by holding

regular meeting, rallies, training camps, orientation courses for the
workers, etc.

ii. Secondly, every political party tries its level best to increase its
membership.

iii. Thirdly, political parties encourage the electorate and supporters

through speeches, programmes and other means.

iv. Finally, political parties also impart political education to the voters.

2. Voting Behaviour:

In India also the voting behaviour of the people has undergone a tremendous
change. It is observed: "Given the level of literacy in India, political
consciousness is remarkably high. Since independence, levels of political
awareness and 1 participation have risen among all segments of the
population...." Political awareness is increasing even among the rural poor and
illiterate populations There is an increase in the identification with political
parties and leaders. Since the voting age is reduced to 18 years, even the
college-going students get an opportunity to exercise their vote. With each
election, millions of new voters enter the political arena as active participants.
 Voting behaviour is influenced in the Indian context by various factors such
as religion, carte, community, language, class, money, personal charisma of
the leaders and also by certain unforeseen or accidential factors.

Though majority of Indian voters are found to be illiterate and ignorant, they
are politically more alert than the educated persons. They take an active role
in voting. They have shown on some occasions appreciable political maturity
in unseating some of the inefficient state governments. Its because of their
faith in the democratic processes, interest in elections and active participation
in voting, India continues to be the largest democracy in the world with 50
years of history.

3. Pressure Group:

Some pressure groups through public opinion act to influence political

decisions and processes in the democratic States. The pressure groups are not
political parties but they are some kinds of associations or non-government
organisations (NGOs) which function to safeguard the social, economic and
cultural interests of its people. The pressure groups work with the objective of
occupying a powerful position in the national policies. With the increase of
education, economic position and political awareness, the pressure groups
emerge, especially when their constituent members realise that their interests
are being ignored by the group of people who currently occupy positions of
power. These pressure groups influence the decisions of the governments in a
democratic State.

4. Welfare State:

Meaning: G. D. H. Cole says, "The welfare state is a society in which an

assured minimum standard of living and opportunity becomes the possession
of every citizen."

Functions of the Welfare State:

i. Maintenance of Peace and Order: The welfare state ensures internal

peace and order and provides security to its citizens. It efficiently guards
its territory against external aggressions or threats. It maintains law and
order and establishes political stability. This reduces constant tension
and anxiety for its people.
 ii. Protects People's Rights and Provides Justice: The welfare state
assures for its people the inalienable fundamental rights. It assures right
to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness, equality, property, freedom of
thought and expression. It provides justice to all irrespective of class,
colour, creed, caste, religion or region.

iii. Conservation of Natural Resources: In the general interest of the

community the welfare state tries to conserve its natural resources
against the competitive private interests. It prevents the wasteful
consumption of the community's resources, its forests, fisheries, wild
life, minerals, art treasures, etc.

iv. Provision of Education: The welfare state gives high priority for
education. It creates opportunities for the individuals to develop their
personality. It encourages more the weaker sections of the society to
come up educationally and economically. Some states like India have
introduced free but compulsory education at primary and secondary
levels. The welfare state on its own provides for primary and secondary
schools, colleges, universities, research centres, libraries, art classes,
technical schools and institutes, medical and agricultural institutes, etc.

v. Arrangement of Public Utility Services: The modern welfare states

construct roads, railways and provide for irrigation, water-supply and
electric works. It provides for post and telegraph, radio, television,
telephone and other services. It makes arrangement for transport such
as buses, railways, aeroplanes and ships.

1.6.5 The Concept of Economic System, Social Importance of Work and

Occupation, Mechanization of Work and the Decline of Traditional Skills,
Property, Division of Labour as a Socio-Economic System, Social Consequences
of Division of Labour, Work and Alienation, Capitalism and Socialism as forms
of Economy Jajmani System, Social Determinants of Economic Development.

1. The Concept of Economic System:

Man is not only a social animal; he is also an economic being. He is incessantly

engaged in what are known as economic pursuits or activities. These economic
activities are so multifaceted, varied and complex that they constitute what is
known as an economy. The economy may be treated as a system or a sub-
 system. It is a sub-system in the wider social system. It is possible to view the
economy as the parent system, and analyse its constituent clusters of activities-
production, investment, innovation, and so on-as themselves constituting sub-
system. Then, within the economy, we could take a more concrete structure,
such as a bank, or a corporation and analyse it in terms of the basic functional
necessities of social systems.

2. Social Importance of Work and Occupation:

i. They Satisfy the Material Needs of Man: Work and Occupations are
a fundamental necessity in life. Society depends upon the production of
food, machine, various utensils and articles of daily use, newsprint, etc.
The very existence of man depends upon the production of necessities
of life. Work and Occupations are the means of producing them.

ii. People Work Not Just for Money: It is wrong to assume that man
always works or is in some occupation or the other, just for money. It is
true that in a subsistence economy money, or its equivalent economic
reward is of paramount importance-life in fact, depends on it. In this
case money is a key motivating factor. But when the situation improves
and money becomes sufficient or abundant, it loses its importance.
Security, good working conditions, opportunity for promotion. mental
satisfaction, status, etc., usually become more important. As Gisbert
writes: "Money, or the economic factor while remaining always a
reason, may not act at all in particular circumstance either as a motive
or as an incentive".

iii. Work-Occupation and Mental Health: Work and occupations have

great therapeutic qualities for mental illness. Men have often resorted
to external occupations in order to keep the mind healthy and free from
mischief. Dr. H. Simon, the Director of Gutersloh Mental Hospital in
Ger many recommended as a remedy for mental patients meaningful
work in order to link them with their community and break the isolation
both internal and external, with which the mental patients are
threatened. He stresses in particular- "The necessity of finding an
occupation especially suited the patient as an individual."

iv. Work in Industrial Society is a Major Key to Social Placement and

Evaluation: When we ask the question-what is he? - the kind of answer
we normally expect may be-He is an engineer or He is an advocate, or
 He is a professor. Such answers reveal not only the kind of technical
function a person fulfils in society, but they also indicate the social
placement or status of an individual. Hence in most studies of social
stratifications Occupation is used as a criterion of social class or status.
People do, in fact, use occupation as a means of classifying or ranking
people. Thus, a man's work may affect his social standing.

v. The Moral Evaluation of Work: The concept of work is invested with

varying degrees of moral evaluation. Jean Calvin, the founder of
Calvinism, emphasised that work is not only an eco- nomic need but
also a moral necessity. Calvin said that man, in order to prove worthy
of God's Creation, was morally obliged to work; that is, to work for the
production of wealth. Wealth, he asserted, was not for enjoyment but
for the investment, that is, for further production of wealth.
Accordingly, idleness and its synonyms are not merely the state of non-
working but are, in fact, also redolent with moral disapproval. The
Marxists have also stressed that "Work is the basis of social life, a co-
operative and creative activity that lifts man above the animals."

3. Mechanization of Work and the Decline of Traditional Skills:

Mechanization: There has been a revolutionary change in the nature of work

since the beginning of the 18th century. This is due to the Industrial Revolution,
an event of great historical importance. Industry may be defined as the
invention and use of tools in order to achieve material ends. Industry in this
sense is as old as man himself, as he has always been a user of tools. Industry
may be simple when very simple tools like the bow and arrow, or hoe are used;
and complex when the instruments used are more sophisticated. The former is
represented by the family economy, the guild system, the domestic system
while the latter by the modern industrial or factory system. The Industrial
Revolution of the 18th century, more than any other event of the age,
profoundly affected every aspect of human life. It changed the direction of
civilisation. It destroyed, or radically altered, the medieval customs, beliefs
and ideals. The simple rural life and small-scale home or cottage industry were
replaced by complex urban life and mass production of goods. It made the
traditional values of life and the knowledge of crafts superfluous. It made
thousands of people to flock to cities to work in factories and disappear into
the urban jungle. The factory system of production began and along with it the
process of mechanisation. The process of mechanisation refers to the
 application of ma- chines or mechanised power for the production of goods
which have economic value.

The Decline of Traditional Skills: Prior to the Industrial Revolution there

were handicraft industries in India and abroad. These had their own guild
organisations. Even during the Vedic period in India there was a clear-cut
division of labour. There were rules to regulate wages and working hours, and
sanctions in the form of fines to be imposed on those who violated the rules.
Even during the Mughal period Indian skills and handicrafts were well
appreciated. India was called The Workshop of the World. Indian textile
fabrics, cotton, silk, and other industrial goods like saltpetre and indigo were
exported to Europe and other parts of the world. The cottage industries served
local needs and produced goods such as coarse cloth, baskets, earthenware,
etc. In England Indian fabrics and muslins were described as light as women
and as slight as cobwebs.
The fall of the Mughal Empire and later the advent of industrialisation almost
put an end to the guild system and the traditional skills of the Indian artisans.
Indian cotton, silk and calicos could not be sold in England due to the
competition from the factory-made goods. The British tariff policy was also
against the Indian interests. Indian markets became flooded with cheaper
British goods. Indian hand-made goods lost the markets in the competitive
economic race. By 1880 the decline of handicrafts was an accomplished fact.
Many artisans had to find an alternative means of livelihood. They were forced
to become agriculturists or to sell their skills as labourers in the new industries,
railways or mines started by the British capital. India had been reduced to a
colonial agrarian appendage of British. Not only in India, in other countries
also wherever industrialism spread, traditional skills declined.

4. Property:

Meaning: Property is one of the basic institutions of society. In everyday

speech we think of ‘property’ as referring to an object or objects. Strictly
speaking, however, property refers not to an object but to the rights that the
owner of the object has in relation to others who are not owners of the object
Property rights are backed by the state and enforced through its
legal institutions.
 Characteristics of Property:

i. Transferability: Property can be transferred by its owner by way of

sale, exchange or gift. For example, one can sell one's house, or vehicle
or ornaments to another, or exchange it for an- other, or give away as
gift to another.

ii. Ownership and Possession of Property: From the legal point of view
a distinction can be made between the ownership of property and the
possession of the same. Property rights do not guarantee that the actual
owner always enjoys his properties. Property rights and the
actual use of the property do not always go together. For example, one
may have the ownership of a landed property, but in actuality, the tenant
who has its possession may have the direct access to its regular use and
enjoyment.

iii. Property rights are not absolute but only relative: Property not only
confers rights on the owner it may impose duties as well. Further, no
society permits unrestricted rights over property. For example, if one
has some land in a thick populated residential area of a city, one cannot
build a factory or a poultry farm or pig farm on it.

iv. Property and scarcity: Property exists because resources are very
scarce. If resources were to be as unlimited and inexhaustible as the air,
nobody would want to claim ownership.

v. Tangible and intangible nature of property: The things in which an

individual may hold property rights may be both tangible and
intangible. For example, the forms of property such as automobiles,
houses, ornaments and the like, are tangible in nature, whereas copy
rights of books or goodwill of a business are intangible.

5. Division of Labour as a Socio-Economic System:

Division of labour is one of the basic socio-economic institutions of human

society. It is as old as human groups or human society. Division of labour and
specialisation are the hallmarks of modem complex society. Division of labour
involves the assignment to each unit or group a specific share of a common
task. For Example, the principal, the teachers, attenders, office clerks, librarian
and other employees of a college do the specific tasks assigned to them and
 yet contribute to the fulfilment of the common purpose of running a college to
promote education. Every human society, however, large or small, establishes
some division of labour among its members. People are expected to specialise,
at least to some extent, in particular economic activities. In family, for
example, work is divided and shared by the father, mother and children. The
father looks after the outdoor work, the wife and children remain at home and
do the household work. The division of labour occurs in all societies, because
it is highly functional. It ensures that particular categories of people have
specific jobs to do. It helps them to become experts in their assigned activities.
Division of labour in this way contributes to the efficiency of economic life,
but it may have other far-reaching effects also.

6. Social Consequences of Division of Labour:

Durkheim’s Functionalist Perspective: It was Durkheim who developed his

theory of "division of labour" from a functional point of view. In his famous
book "Division of Labour in society" Durkheim tried to determine the social
consequences of the division of labour especially in modern societies.
Durkheim has stressed in all his major works the importance of shared social
norms and values in maintaining social cohesion and solidarity. He agreed that
the nature of this social solidarity depends on the extent of the
division of labour.

Distinction Between Two Types of Solidarity: Durkheim made a fundamental

difference between pre-industrial and industrial societies and in tune with that
also made a difference between two types of solidarity namely, 'mechanical
solidarity' and 'organic solidarity'.
i. Mechanical Solidarity: According to Durkheim, 'mechanical solidarity'
prevails in the simpler folk societies, where the division of labour is
restricted to family, to the village or small region. Here the individuals
do not differ much from one another. Here everyone does much the same
work, the members are all socialised in the same pattern, share the
experiences, and hold common values. These values, which are mainly
religious in nature, form a "collective consciousness" for the community,
a set of norms, beliefs, etc. shared by one and all. There is little scope
for individuality here. The society is harmonious and coherent because
there is little social differentiation and division of labour is
unspecialised.
 ii. Organic Solidarity: According to Drukhiem, the modern societies are
held together by a much looser bond which he calls "organic solidarity".
Here, the individuals who are the members of the same collectivity are
not similar, but different. Because these societies are large and people
engage in a variety of economic activities, the members have quite
different experiences. They hold different values and socialise their
children in many varying patterns. Here people think of themselves as
individuals first and as members of a kinship or wider social groups
second. “The basis for social solidarity and cohesion is no longer the
similarity of the members but rather their differences.”

7. Work and Alienation:

Work: Work has become an inseparable part of our life. It is not only a means
of making a living but a way of acquiring our social status in society. Work
helps to define the respective social roles of both the sexes. Though work has
assumed importance in our social life it cannot be generalised all that we do
as work is satisfying. When work becomes an enforced activity and not a
creative one, it may bring us dissatisfaction. This situation is very much
aggravated in capitalist economies and also in societies where technology has
advanced very much.

Alienation: One of the effects of advanced technology or capitalist economy

is that the labourer or the worker suffers from the process of what Marx calls
‘alienation’. The concept of 'alienation' was introduced to modern sociology
by Karl Marx. "Essentially, alienation refers to the sense of powerlessness,
isolation and meaninglessness experienced by human beings when they are
confronted with social institutions and conditions that they cannot control and
consider oppressive".

Three Elements of Alienation:

i. A feeling of powerlessness: the workers do not own the tools they use,
buy the resources they use, or sell the products they make;

ii. A feeling that work lacks meaning: the workers contribute only one
bit, such as checking the speedometer of a car to the final product, and
may lack contact with other workers;
 iii. estrangement from the job: many jobs do not provide opportunities
for promotion or advancement, a chance to spend time with friendly
workmates or a chance to create a product with pride and satisfaction.

Sources of Alienation:

i. According to Marx, alienation results from the lack of a sense of control

over the social world. The social world confronts, people as a hostile
thing making them 'alien' in the very social environment that they have
created.

ii. Another important sources of alienation which Marx speaks of is the

extreme division of labour in modern societies. Here each worker has a
specific, restricted, and limited role to play. He or she no longer applies
his or her total capacity for work. The worker here is reduced to the
level of a "mere cog in a machine".

iii. Marx predicted that the situation of 'alienation' would ultimately ripen
the mood of the workers for an outright conflict with the capitalists.

8. Capitalism and Socialism as forms of Economy:

Capitalism: Capitalism is an economy in which the means of producing are

largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the
accumulation of profits. In practice, capitalist systems vary in the degree to
which private ownership and economic activity are regulated by government.

Two Essential Qualities of Capitalism:

i. Personal Profits: As Max Weber remarked, the outstanding

characteristic of capitalism is production "for the pursuit of profit and
ever renewed profit". Seeking self-interest or profit is considered here
as normal, morally acceptable, and socially desirable. But this notion of
profit was unknown when exchange was affected by barter or by various
forms of gifts.

ii. Free Competition: Competition is regarded as necessary if the

capitalist system is to work effectively. John D Rockefeller, a multi-
millionaire of America had said that competition "is not an evil
 tendency in business. It is merely a working out of law of nature
and a law of God".

Socialism: Socialism is a type of economy in which the means of production

and distribution in a society are collectively rather than privately owned. Here
the basic objective of the economic system is to meet people's needs rather
than to maximise profits. It also believes that competition between different
firms producing similar products is a waste of resources.

Characteristics of Socialism:

i. In a socialist economy there is a common ownership of the means of

production and distribution.

ii. Here the economic activities are planned by the state and the market
plays virtually no role in the allocation of resources.

iii. Since there is no scope for private property social classes with wide
economic disparity do not appear.

iv. Since the legal system here is primarily concerned with administration,
it involves important changes in criminal and property law.

v. The structural changes mentioned above, contribute to the insignificant

role of religion. may even disappear, or its disappearance may be
hastened.

vi. Since private property has no scope here, human alienation

will not be found.

9. Jajmani System:

Meaning: The "Jajmani System" represents one of the types of exchange that
prevailed in India for a long time. As Prof. Yogendra Singh has said "The
Jajmani system is a system governed by relationships based on reciprocity in
intercaste relations in village."
 Characteristics of Jajmani System:

i. The jajmani system implies traditional occupational obligations

between castes: It forges interdependence of castes. The servicing
castes called " Kamins" and the recipients of the services called
'jajmans' are dependent on each other for the fulfilment of their
economic needs.

ii. The system establishes closer family links: The jajmani links are to
be found between families rather than between jatis. For example, a
farmer's family gets its wooden agricultural tools from a particular
carpenter family, and in return, the carpenter gets a share of the farmer's
crop at harvest.

iii. The jajmani relationship is durable: Here the link is inherited on both
the sides. Thus, the carpenter serves the same farmer family, that his
father and grandfathers served. In the same manner, the farmer family
gets its tools made and repaired by the descendants of the carpenters
family whose members made tools for their forefathers.

iv. The jajmani relationships are exclusive: For example, the farmer
family is supposed carry on transactions with a particular carpenter
family only. Reciprocally these carpenters are supposed to make tools
for their own 'yajman' families only. However they are free to make
some for sale in the market.

v. The Jajmani relationship are multiple: This relationship is not

restricted to economics exchange alone. Economic exchange is only one
facet of the jajmani relations. As Mandelbaum has pointed out "a family
of cultivators expects help on its ceremonial occasions from most of
associated families. There is also an expectation of mutual personal
support in family emergencies or fractional quarrels. Sometimes the
specialist families are pressurised to support the jati of the patrons when
that whole jati is embattled."

10. Social Determinants of Economic Development:

Economic development is very much influenced by various social factors. But

it should be noted that the social factors or forces causing underdevelopment
vary from country to country. It follows, then that the remedies for the
problems of underdevelopment must also vary.

i. The Role of People's Ability, Experience and Knowledge: Economic

development of any country hinges on the efficient employment of
factors of production (such as, land, labour, capital and organisation).
The employment of a factor of production is not just a matter of choice
but is very much conditioned by cultural and social factors. The people
must have the required ability, experience and knowledge to make the
best use of the facilities that are made available. Economic development
is, therefore, not a function of economic resources alone, but of social
and cultural factors as well.

ii. Adoption of Technology: Adoption of technology is not just governed

by simple mechanical considerations. Technology can yield results only
when appropriate social conditions are present. All types of technology
are not suitable to all types of societies. A particular type of technology
(say, Introduction of computers) that serves a purpose in a few societies
may prove to be meaningless or dysfunctional in some others - (say,
tribal societies or underdeveloped societies). Labour-saving machines
are more ideally suited to the more advanced Western societies. They
may be dysfunctional for societies wherein large number of
unemployed and unskilled workers are ready to work for very low
wages.

iii. Innovative Personality: Economic development requires innovative

personality. Early socialisation and the nature and contents of education
to which the child is exposed decide largely the emergence of
innovative personality. In some societies a child is taught to solve
problems independently and encouraged to be creative. In traditional
societies on the other hand, more importance is given to conformity.
Here the children are encouraged to accept uncritically the lore and
practices handed down from the previous generations. In such
traditional societies innovative personalities do not grow easily. Hence,
economic development in these societies would be very slow and
gradual.

iv. Explosive Growth of Population: The biggest social impediment for

economic growth is the explosive growth of the population that we see
in countries such as India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, etc. The Third
 World countries are all experiencing this problem. Explosive population
growth is dysfunctional to the economic growth. Professor Gill writes
in this connection thus: "population growth is not a stimulant to
development, but a depressant. Because of the lack of industrial capital,
the growing labour force cannot find jobs in the city and therefore adds
itself to the already congested rural area. Rapid population growth in
such "labour surplus" economies may mean that despise the attempts to
increase industrial employment, the absorption rate is sufficient and that
open and disguised unemployment increases as a percentage of the
labour force - the reverse of successful development.

1.6.6 Definition and Characteristics of Religion, Social Functions of Religion,

Structural aspects of Religion, Theories of Origin of Religion, Organization of
Religion- Church, Denomination, Sect, Cult

1. Definition and Characteristics of Religion:

Meaning: Religion is one of the important social institutions. Religion refers

to the most sublime of human aspirations. Religion has existed throughout the
history of human society. It is a part of human social life. It shapes human
behaviour in a moral fashion. Religion is a system of belief in the existence of
supernatural beings.

E.B. Tylor has defined religion as ‘a belief in supernatural being.’

Characteristics of Religion:

i. Religion is concerned with the sacred, which is the holy' and

supernatural and distinguishes from ordinary, the mundane or the
profane.

ii. Religion involves a body of beliefs contained in 'official' or basic

writings concerned with sacred and the supernatural.

iii. The beliefs are associated with emotional state of mind such as fear,
awe, happiness, reverence, etc.

iv. Religion is a group phenomenon though it is an individual matter in a

number of ways and it is ceremoniously practiced collectively.
 v. Religion has moral implications as it deliberately exerts influence on its
adherents in an attempt to make them behave modestly in prescribed
ways everywhere all the time in all situations.

2. Social Functions of Religion:

i. Religion is a source of conflict. Religious wars have been brutal and

bloody, because the commitment to a religion can lead to a struggle
where sometimes many people die. Religious differences within a
society often produce tension and conflict.

ii. Religion is a consoler of the dispossessed, hungry or the angry.

iii. Religion provides meaning to subjective experiences; it provides

meaning in a variety of situations or difficulties. It helps people grapple
with emotional crisis, with death and bereavement with uncertainties
and disappointment of all kinds.

iv. Religion is a response to the unknown such as birth, death, dreaming

and natural events such as seasons, tides, earthquakes and volcanoes.
These mysteries are attributed to the supernatural powers.

v. Religion is one of the means of social control. Religious belief can

influence the conduct of the believers through tolerance, forgiveness,
patience which are thought in religion. Religion possesses potentialities
for regulating man's conduct to a remarkable extent.

vi. Religion serves a reinforcement function in society to a degree that it

teaches and emphasizes the same norms and values which society
requires such as Love thy neighbours'. Though shall not kill, steal or
procreate illegitimate children', etc.

3. Structural Aspects of Religion:

i. Theologies and Creeds: Theology is the systematic explanation which

religious leaders work out to show man's relation to his God and to the
Universe. Almost all religions have their bodies of ideas, beliefs,
doctrines, dogmas, articles of faith, ideals and ideologies. These things
are systematized and rationalised in the form of theologies and creeds.
 Often this includes some account of the origin of the world, and of man,
like the stories of Creation in the Bible. The Hindu concept of the
Trinity, that is, God described in three forms-Brahma, the Creator;
Vishnu, the Preserver; and Shiva, the Destroyer, explains the creation,
the preservation and the destruction of the world. Theology represents
the creed, or body of beliefs and doctrines of the Church or the Temple.
The written words become the sacred scriptures.

ii. Ceremony and Ritual: Ceremony or ritual is a standardised and

accepted action directed towards some specific end, Ritual refers to
"symbolic actions concerning the sacred." Every religion has its own
practices and techniques or rituals and ceremonies in order to
communicate with the supernatural. Ritual expresses awe and
reverence, obedience and homage to the God, Sacrifices, sacred music,
drama, dances, hymns, prayers, feasting, fasting, reading scriptures,
writing, festivals, etc, represent various forms of rituals. They are found
in all religions but in different ways. These bring emotional unity
among people and secure for them some kind of security.
These rituals are relatively simple in some religions but complex and
elaborate in some others. However, rituals and ceremonies are not
confined to religion alone.

iii. Symbolism: "Throughout religion symbolism is important. Symbols

are substitutes for or representation of objects or situations. They may
be verbal or tangible. A religious symbol enables an individual to
identify himself with his fellow-beings. It thus promotes a sense of
social solidarity. A symbol may often come to represent not the
particular object or situation to which it was originally attached, but the
entire group and its culture. For example, the cross stands for
Christianity, the Crescent for Islam, the Swasthik for Hinduism.
Normally these symbols are emotion-charged.

iv. Religious Codes: 'Religious Code' refers to a body of rules prescribed

by a particular religion for its followers to observe and follow. The code
prescribes desirable conduct and prescribes undesirable behaviour. The
desirable behaviour brings rewards while the undesirable one brings
punishment to the individual. In religious terminology there is a close
connection between one's the soc behaviour and the probability of one's
attaining Heaven or going to Hell after one's death. The religious code
defines the way in which one has to maintain one's relation with the
 Supernatural and mental also with the fellow-beings. Buddhism thus
places emphasis on "Ashta Marg (Eight-Fold Path). Jainism on
"Triratnas" (Three- Jewelled Path), Islam on "Shariat" (Muslim
Personal Law), Hindu- ism on "Manu Smriti", Christianity on 'Ten
commandments' and so on Supernatural and mental also with the
fellow-beings. Buddhism thus places emphasis on "Ashta Marg (Eight-
Fold Path). Jainism on "Triratnas" (Three- Jewelled Path), Islam on
"Shariat" (Muslim Personal Law), Hinduism on "Manu Smriti",
Christianity on 'Ten commandments' and so on.

4. Theories of Origin of Religion:

i. Animism by E.B. Tylor: E.B. Tylor proposed the theory of animism' in

his book "Primitive Culture'. According to this theory, religion emerged
from the idea of soul (anima). It is belief that all objects, both animate
and inanimate are permanently or temporarily inhabited by spirits of
souls. The concept of soul (anima) first gave rise to religion and hence
the name of 'animism' is given to this theory. The spirits are conceived
of as beings with the existence distinct from the objects they inhabit.
i.e. the existence of some superphysical being within the body of every
living being. Often, all activities are believed to be caused by these
spirits. From the fact of death and the phenomenon of dreams, the idea
of soul that emerged in the minds of the primitive people was that the
soul after death transmigrates. During sleep, these transmigrated souls
interact with the body soul. Dream is the manifestation of this
Interaction. There is also a belief that other spirits exist in the world of
spirits and have power over the lives of men. The spirits inhabiting
objects of nature as well as those in the world of spirits may be
worshipped or treated with fear, or awe and respect. They believe that
the spirit of the dead exists and wanders irrespective of time and space.

ii. Magic by J.G. Frazer: J.G. Frazer explained the theory of magic in his
book The Golden Bough. According to Frazer, magic is an attempt of
people to control nature by force. This act presupposes the assertion of
greater power of the people than the power of nature. Later people
believed that the powers which control nature and human life are
superior to man, and this is considered as religion. The human thought
has evolved in the sequence, first, the magic stage, second, the religious
stage and third the scientific stage.
 iii. Naturalism by Max Muller: Max Muller proposed the 'naturism
theory' of the origin of religion. His theory is based on the intellectual
error of the primitive man. At the beginning, to the primitive man. the
nature appeared to be most surprising, fearful, marvellous. It was that
vast domain of surprise and of terror which made the man worshipper
of the nature. It is from the sensation of infinite that religion was
derived.

iv. Totemism by Emile Durkheim: Emile Durkheim stated that totemism'

is the most primitive form of religion found among the tribals in his
book "Elementary Forms of the Religious Life'. Totem' refers to a class
of objects, usually species of animals (sometimes a type of plant or
inanimate object) that is regarded by a clan. lineage or other social
group as having a special relationship to the social unit. For example, a
tribe is supposed to be related to a totem, believed to have supernatural
powers towards which they naturally behave in a reverent manner. They
adopt the totem's name and offer prayers to it. Members of a tribe
strangely believe that they have descended from that totem. They carve
out the representation of the totem over the doors of their houses. They
do not kill or eat the totem and they attach to it super empirical meaning.
Symbols are used to represent the totem.

The basic argument of Durkheim is that all religious ideas such as totem
have emerged from the social group, The deity, the righteous and
unrighteous, heaven and hell and totem are all collective representations
of the group itself.

The totem is treated sacred because it is a symbol of group life. People

respect totem because they respect social values. Totem represents
collective consciousness. In religion, collective ceremonials are held.
People's faith in religion reaffirms group solidarity. Ceremonies and
rituals bind people together in the community.

5. Organisations of Religion- Church, Denomination, Sect, Cult:

i. Church: The Church has broadly been designed as any stable, well
established, religious group. It is also designed as the organised central
religion, or religion of a society. Church is well established organisation
 It has a bureaucratic structure with hierarchy of office bearers from
among the believers The Catholic and the Protestant are such churches.

ii. Denomination: Denomination is sub-type of the Church.

Denomination is found in societies where there is a separation of
religion and state. A denomination is fairly large, integrated and
centralised. It does not monopolise territory. The major distinction
between a church and a denomination is that a denomination has
doctrinal difference with other denominations in the same church.

iii. Sect: A sect is a body of believers with similar religious attitudes and
interests. The group of believers may hold a common body of beliefs,
values and objectives.

iv. Cult: Cult is yet another religious organisation. It is formed around

ideology and thinking of a particular individual reader. The like-minded
people follow him. A person may follow a Cult principle and adhere to
any other religion. The cult is still smaller and has a shorter life than
sect. Cult is almost formlessly religious organisation. It is temporary in
nature. The beliefs of the cult are generally in conflict with the
established churches and sects.