Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.

Sci (2020) Special Issue-11: 2265-2287

International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences

ISSN: 2319-7706 Special Issue-11 pp. 2265-2287
Journal homepage: http://www.ijcmas.com

Review Article
Role of Micronutrients in Crop Production

Rihana Rahman1*, Javid Ahmad Sofi1, Insha Javeed2,

Tajamul Hussain Malik1 and Shemoo Nisar3
1
Department of Soil Science, 2Department of Vegetable Science,
3
Department of Fruit Science; Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and
Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar, Srinagar-190025, Jammu and Kashmir, India
*Corresponding author

ABSTRACT

Micronutrients are abundantly present in the soil but plants usually acquire them in
relatively trace amounts; hence, regarded as tracer element. B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Mo
and Ni are such micronutrients required in minute amounts by plants but inexorably
play an eminent role in plant growth and development. Plant metabolism, nutrient
regulation, reproductive growth, chlorophyll synthesis, production of
carbohydrates, fruit and seed development, etc., are such effective functions
performed by micronutrients. These tracer elements when present at adequate level,
elevate the healthy growth in plant physiological, biochemical and metabolic
characteristics while their deficiency promotes abnormal growth in plants.
Prevalence of micronutrient deficiency has become more common in recent years
and the rate of their reduction has further been increased by the perpetual demands
of modern crop cultivars, high soil erosion, etc. (Dubey et al., 2015). Indian soils
Keywords
are extensively deficient in micronutrients and 5.4% soils of India recorded Cu
Micronutrients, deficiency (Shukla et al., 2014). Copper fertilization significantly increased the
Role of
micronutrients, growth and yield parameters of rice crop in Cu deficient soils while the soils with
Growth, Quality, adequate or high Cu status showed declining response (Silviya, 2017). Application
Yield
of Zn significantly increase the plant growth parameters viz plant height, number of
branches per plant and chlorophyll content of Okra (Lata et al., 2018). Obaid et al.,
2013 reported that the application of Zn at 3% combined with Mn at 60 mg/l gave
highest fruit set and significantly increased the yield. Application of one kg Mo/ha
significantly increased fresh and dry weight of nodules in Cluster bean (Yadav,
2017). It was determined that foliar applications of iron showed positive effect on
yield, fruit number which significantly resulted in an increase in marketable yield
in Tomato (Denden et al., 2016). The foliar application of Ni significantly
increased the yield attributes viz., number of ear pot−1, number of grains ear−1,
straw yield, grain yield and weight of 1000 grains of barley (Kumar et al., 2018).
Application of chlorine significantly increased fresh ear yield in corn (Zenda et al.,
2017). Application of boron during flowering increased the growth of the pollen
tube at flowering stage. Boron foliar sprays to boron deficient fruit trees under dry
conditions delayed bloom and increased fruit set and final fruit number per tree
(Dar, 2017).

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Introduction micronutrients and 5.4 per cent soils of India

recorded Cu deficiency. The total Cu content
Micronutrients or Trace elements are in Indian soils ranged from 1.8 to 960 mg kg-
essential for plant growth and development 1 and the available Cu content ranged from
but it is needed in very small quantities in the 0.10 to 378 mg kg-1. More than 25 per cent
plant system. It includes Fe, Cu, Cl, Mn, B, of Cu deficiency was recorded high in the
Ni, Zn and Mo. The accumulation of these soils of Tamil Nadu (Shukla et al., 2014).
micronutrients by plants generally follows the Incidence of micronutrient deficiencies in
order of Mn>Fe>Zn>B>Cu>Mo. This order crops has increased markedly in recent years
may change among plant species and growth due to intensive cropping, loss of top soil by
conditions (e.g.; flooded rice). They is erosion, losses of micronutrients through
usually found in association with larger leaching, liming of acid soils, decreased
molecules such as cytochromes, chlorophyll proportions of farmyard manure compared
and protein (usually enzymes). with chemical fertilizers, increased purity of
chemical fertilizers, and use of marginal
Micronutrients may be minor in terms of the lands for crop production. Micronutrient
amounts needed by the crop, but they can be deficiency problems are also aggravated by
major in terms of their impact on crop high demand of modern crop cultivars (Bell,
growth. Whenever the supply of one or more 2006). Plant acquisition of micro- nutrients is
of these elements is inadequate, yields will be affected by numerous soils, plant, microbial,
reduced and the quality of crop products and environmental factors. Factors such as
impaired, but crop species and cultivars vary pH, redox potential, biological activity, SOM,
considerably in their susceptibility to cation exchange capacity, and clay contents
deficiencies. Micronutrients play a vital role are important in determining availability of
in crop growth, crop productivity, soil micronutrients in soils.
fertility and human nutrition (Patel et al.,
2015). Arnon and Stout (1939) proposed that, Plant factors such as root and root hair
Cu is an essential element for plant growth. morphology (length, density, surface area),
Among the micronutrients, Cu plays an root induced changes (secretion of H+, OH-,
important role in the crop growth by HCO3-), root exudation of organic acids
increasing the tillering and pollen viability of (citric, malic, tartaric, oxalic, phenolic),
the crop (Das, 2014). Copper is a component sugars, and non-proteinogenic amino acids
of large number of proteins and enzymes like (phytosiderophores), secretion of enzymes
plastocyanin, diamine oxidase and ascorbate (phosphatases), plant demand, plant species/
oxidases and Cu containing enzymes play an cultivars, and microbial associations
important role in photosynthesis, respiration (enhanced CO2 production, rhizobia,
and in lignin formation. It acts as a structural mycorrhizae, rhizobacteria) have profound
element in regulatory proteins and involves in influences on plant ability to absorb and
photosynthesis electron transport, utilize micronutrients from soil (Clark and
mitochondrial respiration, stress responses, Zeto, 2000). After decades of continuous
cell wall metabolism and hormone signaling. cropping, the nutrients extracted from the soil
The cereal crops show white tips as Cu by both crops have reduced soil fertility
deficiency symptoms and the deficiency of dramatically in some areas. It has also
such micronutrient has been identified as the increased pest pressures and nutrient mining
main limiting factor for crop yield, food (which occurs when nutrients are mined and
quality and human health (Alloway, 2008). transported long distances and lost
Indian soils are extensively deficient in permanently for the sub-region).As a result,

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yields have stagnated or declined in many Management tools to help with decision
areas. Soil organic content could be improved making
by incorporating crop residue into the soil,
but the burning of crop residue negates this Take soil and plant tissue samples from the
approach and increases environmental affected and unaffected areas within the same
pollution. Water shortages are another field for a complete comparative analysis.
problem, as access to groundwater has This service is available from most soil
diminished in several areas. It showed that a testing laboratories. Call the laboratory for
small amount of nutrients, particularly Zn, sampling details for a complete comparative
Fe, and Mn applied by foliar spraying test.
increases significantly the yield of crops
(Sarkar et al., 2007). As people are concerned Keep good field records: know which fields
about the environment and plant leaves had previous problems with micronutrients;
uptake nutrients better than soil application, soil test annually; and monitor each crop for
foliar spraying was created (Bozorgi et al., symptoms. The amount of micronutrients
2011). needed varies by crop. Geo-reference
micronutrient deficient areas within a field to
Importance of micronutrients in crop make site-specific management easier.
production Micronutrients are expensive in comparison
to macronutrients, so site-specific
Increases quality and yield because most management makes economic sense.
micronutrients act as cofactors in various
enzymes taking part in the various metabolic If all indications point to a micronutrient
activities of the plant like protein metabolism, deficiency, then foliar apply a plant available
carbohydrate metabolism, photosynthetic rate form of the micronutrient in strips across the
etc. therefore there will be increase in protein affected field at the appropriate crop stage to
content, TSS and other quality parameters see if the micronutrient fertilizer corrects the
which results improving the quality and other deficiency. Alternatively, soil apply the
micronutrients like iron, it is important for micronutrient to a test strip across the field in
chlorophyll formation, photosynthesis will question at the beginning of the next crop
also increase and thus increase in yield. season, and monitor crop response over more
than one season. Assess the yield of treated
In legumes, it influences N2-fixationbecause and untreated areas to see if the yield
micronutrients like Fe and Mo is an important response is economic. As over applying
constituent of Nitrogenous enzymes which micronutrients can lead to toxicity levels
helps in leghaemoglobin formation(O2 resulting in yield loss, caution is necessary,
scavenger). especially with the micronutrient B.

Effect of micronutrient concentrations in What should you do when your soil test
planting seed on the vigour of next season’s shows a marginal level for a micronutrient? A
crop. marginal level for a composite sample would
imply patches in a field may be deficient. A
Major economic impact of micronutrient marginal level should be treated as a flag to
concentrations in a farming operation is tell you to monitor the field more closely for
through the increased efficiency of the micronutrient deficiency. It can be
macronutrient fertilizer use. considered that marginal soil test levels do

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not exist, as a soil is either sufficient or High demand of modern crop cultivars
deficient. A measure of need may be made by
proving an economic yield response to the Since there is need to develop new crop
application of a micronutrient. The best cultivars which have high potential yield and
suggestion is to apply a test strip to verify have high quality parameters to meet the
whether a micronutrient is going to give a market demand. These modern crop cultivars
positive yield response, and also verify require more nutrients i.e. deplete the soil of
whether the returns are economical. micronutrients.

If a producer decides to apply a micronutrient Losses of top soil by erosion

to an entire field, leaving a “no micronutrient
applied” check strip will be beneficial in It is due to precipitation, heavy wind etc. thus
determining whether there was an economic deficiency will occur.
response.
Losses of micronutrients through leaching
If a micronutrient recommendation based on
a soil and/or a tissue test is made for a field Excessive rainfall results in leaching of
that has no history of a micronutrient micronutrients in the deeper layers of soils,
deficiency, then further investigation, thus there is deficiency of micronutrients in
including crop scouting and another soil and the rhizosphere.
tissue test, would be advisable. Use of marginal lands for crop production
Crop symptoms occur when micronutrient Use of poor soils which have less fertility for
deficiencies are moderate to severe. crop production (Nayyar, 1999).

Micronutrient deficiencies that do not display Factors affecting availability of

symptoms but reduce the yield of a crop are micronutrients
referred to as “hidden hunger.” Know the
field when assessing for “hidden hunger.” Soil pH

If soil tests over a number of years indicate Soil pH influences solubility, concentration
that a micronutrient level is decreasing into in soil solution, ionic form, and mobility of
the marginal range for that crop, then micronutrients in soil, and consequently
consider applying the micronutrient - but first acquisition of these elements by plants. As a
in test strips to see if there is a positive yield rule, the availability of B, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn
response and if that yield response is usually decreases, and Mo increases as soil
economical. On the other hand, applying pH increases. These nutrients are usually
micronutrients when they are not needed may adsorbed onto sesquioxide soil surfaces.
reduce yields and/or economic returns. Boron is the only micronutrient to exist in
solution as a nonionized molecule over soil
Causes of micronutrient deficiencies pH ranges suitable for the growth of most
plants.
Intensive cropping
Organic matter
Crops are grown intensively on a piece of
land which results in depletion of Soil organic matter may be grouped into
micronutrients. water-insoluble (humic acids or humin) and

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water-soluble (fulvic-acids and small activity and CO2 production to increase the
molecular weight microbial products) severity of Fe deficiency (Moraghan and
compounds. Humic acids contain many Mascagni, 1991)
anionic oxygen groups (phenolic hydroxyl
and carboxyl, aliphatic carboxyl, alcoholic Moisture
hydroxyl), which may interact with metal
cations. Predominant reactions between When moisture content decreases, colloidal
humic acids and metals are ionic-bonding or particles may become immobilized as a
complexation reactions. The increases in result, micronutrient adsorption on surface of
humification of organic matter increased soil particles, but when moisture content
these reactive groups and enhanced the increases, leaching occurs. Excess soil
potential for reaction with metallic cations. moisture can restrict diffusion of O2 within
Metal complexation with humic substances soils and favor Mn reduction. At lower soil
normally forms strong metal complexes, redox potentials, high levels of Fe2+ may also
while ionic bonding with low molecular be formed which could lead to Mn-Fe
weight organic acids (acetic acid, malic acid, antagonisms. Manganese deficiency has
citric acid) form relatively weak bonds. Both rarely been observed in rice grown under
types of bonding normally result in the flooded conditions, and Mn toxicity was
enhancement of metal mobility and/or plant aggravated in alfalfa grown under hot dry
availability, but some complexes are not conditions.
readily available to plants.
Role and deficiency symptoms of micro-
Temperature nutrients

Availability of most micronutrients tends to Zinc

decreases at low temperature because root
activity and microbial activity gets reduced Zinc has been the micronutrient most often
and low rates of dissolution and diffusion of needed by western crops. It is common for
nutrients. Temperature can affect Citrus crops to be given foliar zinc treatments
mobilization /immobilization reactions to one or more times per year. Other tree crops,
decrease /increase solubility of organically grapes, beans, onions, tomatoes, cotton, rice,
bound soil Cu and its acquisition by plants and corn have generally required zinc
(Moraghan and Mascagni, 1991). e.g. Iron fertilization.
deficiency, which occurs predominantly in
calcareous and alkaline soils, is commonly Unlike other metal ions such as copper, iron,
enhanced by low soil temperature and high and manganese, zinc is a divalent cation
water (wet) and /or poorly aerated conditions (Zn++) that does not undergo valence changes
(Marschner, 1995). Low soil temperatures and therefore has no redox activity in plants.
reduce root growth and metabolic activity High concentrations of other divalent cations
and increase HCO3- levels in the soil solution such as Ca++inhibit zinc uptake somewhat.
to increase the severity of Fe deficiency with Zinc acts either as a metal component of
the increased solubility of CO2 in soil enzymes or as a functional, structural, or
solutions. On the other hand, high soil regulatory cofactor of a large number of
temperature may decrease Fe acquisition by enzymes. More than 80 zinc-containing
increasing the microbial decomposition of proteins have been reported. The rate of
organic materials to stimulate microbial protein synthesis and the protein content of

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zinc-deficient plants are drastically reduced. toxicity is not well understood, there is
The accumulation of amino acids and amides substantial evidence that zinc affects
in these plants demonstrates the importance phosphorus metabolism in the roots and
of zinc for protein synthesis. Zinc is an increases the permeability of the plasma
essential component of RNA polymerase and membranes of root cells to phosphorus and to
if the zinc is removed, the enzyme is chloride. Zinc stabilizes biomembranes and
inactivated. Zinc is also a constituent of may therefore have specific function in the
ribosomes and is essential for their structural structural orientation of macromolecules
integrity. The decrease in protein content of within membranes and thus in membrane
zinc-deficient plants is also the result of integrity. Zinc deficiency is widespread
enhanced rates of RNA degradation. Higher among plants grown in highly weathered acid
rates of RNase activity are a typical feature of soils and in calcareous soils. In the latter
zinc deficiency (Rehm, 2010). case, zinc deficiency is often associated with
iron deficiency. The low availability of zinc
Large applications of phosphorus fertilizers in calcareous soils of high pH results mainly
to soils low in available zinc may induce zinc from the adsorption of zinc to clay or CaCO3.
deficiency and increase the zinc requirement In addition, zinc uptake and translocation to
of plants. Part of the induced deficiency may the shoot are strongly inhibited by high
be due to the inhibition of uptake by other concentrations of bicarbonate (HCO3-). In
divalent cations or a dilution of plant zinc due contrast to iron deficiency, zinc deficiency
to increased growth from the added can be corrected fairly easily by the soil
phosphorus. Soil chemical processes may application of zinc salts such as ZnSO4
cause enhanced zinc adsorption to hydroxides (Lohry, 2007).
and oxides of iron and aluminum and to
CaCO3. Several experimental results indicate Symptoms of zinc deficiency in plants
that there are additional phosphorus-zinc include
interactions in plants, including inhibition of
zinc translocation from the roots to the shoot Decrease in stem length and shortening of
and “physiological inactivation” of zinc internodes, rosetting of terminal leaves.
within the shoots. The latter suggestion is
based on the observation that symptoms of Reduced fruit bud formation.
zinc deficiency are related to the
phosphorus/zinc ratio rather than to the zinc Mottled leaves, interveinal chlorosis.
concentration in the shoots. Phosphorus-zinc Sometimes, a red spot-like discoloration
interactions in soil are complicated by the (caused by anthocyanins) on the leaves often
infection of roots with vesicular arbuscular occurs. Symptoms of chlorosis and necrosis
mycorrhiza. Infected roots take up more zinc on older leaves ofzinc-deficient plants are
than noninfected roots. Mycorrhizal infection most likely the result of phosphorus toxicity.
of roots is strongly depressed by an increase
in phosphorus supply. There is some Dieback of twigs after the first year.
evidence that zinc may have a role in
mitigating phosphorus toxicity. Experimental Striping or banding on corn leaves (Jain,
results with ochra showed toxic levels of 2007).
phosphorus in leaves of plants grown without
adequate zinc. Although the connection There was significant increase in the plant
between zinc deficiency and phosphorus growth parameter viz. plant height at 45 DAS

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and at harvest, number of branches per plant two mechanisms specific to iron absorption.
and chlorophyll content of okra with The first (characteristic of dicots and non-
application of 7.5 kg zinc per ha but remained graminaceous monocots) acidifies the
at par 5.0 kg zinc per ha as per table number rhizosphere by extruding protons. Ferric iron
1. These findings clearly indicated that zinc is reduced to ferrous iron by an inducible
played a significant role and enhancing the Fe3+reductase enzyme at the plasma
growth of okra. Improvement in plant height membrane. The reduced iron is transported
at 45 DAS (95.46 cm) and at harvest (118.23 across the membrane by Fe2+ specific ion
cm), number of branches per plant (2.58) and transport system. The second mechanism
chlorophyll content (1.60 mg/g) with the (characteristic of corn, barley, and oat)
application of zinc might be due to supply of involves the extrusion of siderophores (Greek
micro nutrients, availability and uptake meaning “iron carriers”) by the roots. No
nutrients from soil due to favorable reduction to ferrous iron takesplace. Crops
conditions (Kumar and Sen., 2004). often affected by iron deficiency are corn,
sorghum, certain soybean varieties, turf, and
Iron certain tree crops and ornamentals (Cannolly,
2002).
Iron (Fe) is required for the formation of
chlorophyll in plant cells. It serves as an Symptoms of iron deficiency include
activator for biochemical processes such as
respiration, photosynthesis and symbiotic Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves. Veins
nitrogen fixation. (Reddy,2004) Iron remain green except in severe cases.
deficiency can be induced by high levels of
manganese or high lime content in soils. Iron Twig dieback.
is taken up by plants as ferrous (Fe2+) or
ferric (Fe3+) ions. The function of iron in In severe cases, death of entire limbs or
plants depends on the ready transitions plants (Jain, 2007).
between its two oxidation states in solution.
Plants store iron as ferritin, a protein that The yield per plant was affected by iron
encapsulates ferric iron. Under aerobic soil treatments (Table 2). Specifically, the total
conditions, iron is largely insoluble as a yield was greatest in 1000 mg-1 FeSO4 and
constituent of oxides and hydroxides. Ferric then decreased as the concentration
iron tends to be tied up in organic chelates. increased. The yield of small fruits was
Hence, the concentration of free iron in the greatest in 2000 mg-1 FeSO4, but was lowest
soil solution is exceedingly low in many in the 1000 mg.-1. The medium size fruit
soils. Plants have mechanisms to mobilize yield was greatest in 1000 mg.-1 FeSO4,
iron and make it available for absorption by which was more than 43% of the control, and
their roots. Some of these mechanisms are was lowest in 2000 mg.-1 FeSO4. Large fruit
not specific to absorption of iron. Roots yield was mainly observed in 1000 mg.-1
extrude protons and thereby lower the pH of FeSO4. As a result, marketable yield in
the rhizosphere: the lower the pH, the higher response to the 1000 mg.-1 treatment was
the solubility and availability of iron. Roots more than 40% of the control, while the yield
also release organic acids into the soil. That at 2000 mg.-1 was less than 22 % of the
has a dual effect on the availability of iron: it control. The1000 mg.-1 FeSO4 was most
lowers the external pH and the acids may effective at promotion of yield, followed by
form soluble complexes with iron. There are the 500 mg.-1 FeSO4. However, the 1500

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and 2000 mg.l-1 treatments were inhibitory Symptoms of manganese deficiency

and resulted in greatly reduced. include

Promotional effects of iron on fruit weight Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves.

have been reported in several studies. Foliar Gradation of pale green coloration with
application of iron has led to significant darker color next to veins. No sharp
increases in mean fruit weight in strawberry, distinction between veins and Interveinal
as well as fruits number and yield per tree of areas as with iron deficiency.
lemon. Similar results were founded in
pomegranate. Our results indicated that Development of gray specks (oats),
1000ppm was the optimum level for tomato interveinal white streaks (wheat), or
production based on the yield of medium and interveinal brown spots and streaks in barley
large fruits. (Jain, 2007).

Manganese Data concerning the effect of treatments on

fruit set (%), fruit weight (g) and yield (kg)
Manganese serves as an activator for during the two experimental seasons are
enzymes in growth processes. It assists iron listed in Table 3. The data cleared that, zinc
in chlorophyll formation. It is part of the and manganese spray significantly increased
system where water is split and oxygen gas is fruit set compared with the control at both
liberated. The splitting of water is an seasons. Moreover, spraying zinc at 3%
oxidation, namely 2 H2O → O2 + 4 H++ 4 e-. combined with manganese at 60 mg/L was
The other protein in which manganese is an more effective than the other treatments,
integral constituent is the manganese- which gives the highest fruit set of 49.34 and
containing superoxide dismutase. This 50.69 % for both seasons, respectively This
enzyme is widespread in aerobic organisms. result may be due to the use micronutrient
elements are needed in relatively very small
The function of this enzyme is to provide quantities for adequate plant growth and fruit
protection from free oxygen radicals formed production. Results also indicated that,
when O2 receives a single electron. control treatment was the highest in fruit
Superoxide dismutases convert this highly weight Perhaps due to the role of these
toxic free radical into hydrogen peroxide elements in increasing the number of perfect
(H2O2) which is subsequently broken down to flowers and increase fruit set, leading to
water (Millaleo, 2010). increased the number of fruits and therefore
increase food competition. Moreover,
High manganese concentration may induce spraying zinc and manganese exhibited
iron deficiency. Manganese uptake is favorable effect on increasing yield (Kg) in
primarily in the form of Mn++. Manganese is the two experimental seasons. The highest
generally required with zinc in foliar spraying yield value was recorded by spraying zinc at
of citrus. Other tree crops may show 3% combined with manganese at 60 mg/L.
deficiencies, but otherwise there is no
common recognition of requirements for this Boron
element. There is a growing body of
knowledge suggesting that manganese Boron functions in plants in differentiation of
additions may enhance glyphosate resistant meristem cells. The general consensus is that
soybean yield. its major function has to do with the structure

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of the cell wall and the substances associated the author explains the increase in yield
with it. It is necessary for sugar translocation through soil application of boron to be due to
and helps in pollen grain germination. It is increase in fruit size and through increase in
present in soil solutions with a pH less than 8 fruit number in case of foliar spray. Besides
mainly as un- disassociated boric acid increasing fruit set and yield Wojcik et al.,
(B(OH)3), the principle form taken up by (2008) reported an increase in total soluble
roots, and disassociates to B(OH)4- only at solids as well as total acidity due to soil
higher pH values (Gupta, 1993). boron application. This can be because of
transportation of higher amount of assimilates
Boron deficiency into fruit tissues.

Boron deficiency is a widespread nutritional Chlorine

disorder. Under high rainfall conditions
boron is readily leached from soils as B Chlorine is a strange mineral nutrient. Its
(OH)3. Boron availability decreases with normal concentration in plants is more typical
increasing soil pH, particularly in calcareous of a macronutrient and yet the chlorine
soils and soils with high clay content. requirement for growth is more like a
Availability also sharply decreases under micronutrient. Chlorine is ubiquitous in
drought conditions, probably because of both nature and it occurs in aqueous solutions as
a decrease in boron mobility by mass flow to chloride (Cl-).
the roots and polymerization of boric acid.
Symptoms of boron deficiency in the shoots Evidence indicates that it is highly mobile
are noticeable at the terminal buds or and its main higher plant functions relate to
youngest leaves, which become discolored charge compensation and osmo-regulation.
and may die. Because chlorine is usually supplied to plants
from various sources (soil reserves, rain,
Internodes are shorter, giving the plants a fertilizer and air pollution) there is much
bushy or rosette appearance. Deficiency is more concern about toxic levels than about
found mainly in the youngest plant tissues. deficiency. Nonetheless, a few cases have
Interveinal chlorosis on mature leaves may been noted of positive responses to the
occur, as might misshapen leaf blades. Drop application of chloride as a fertilizer for
of buds, flowers, and developing fruits is also wheat.
a typical symptom of boron deficiency. With
boron deficiency, cells may continue to Symptoms of chlorine deficiency include
divide, but structural components are not
differentiated. Boron also apparently A blue-green shiny appearance of young
regulates plant metabolism of carbohydrates. leaves.
Boron is non-mobile in plants, and a
continuous supply is necessary at all growing Wilting, followed by chlorosis.
points.
Excessive branching of lateral roots.
Dar et al., 2017 observed that pre bloom
foliar application of boron to apple trees Bronzing of leaves.
(Table 4) increases fruit set as well as yield
moreover soil application of boron also Chlorosis and necrosis in tomatoes and barley
increases yield but to a lesser extent. Further (Jain, 2007).

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Copper that the yield of grain and straw was

significantly increased with the application of
Copper is present in plants in complexed graded Cu doses (Table 5). The fourth
form. Like other potentially toxic heavy location which was with minimum initial soil
metals, copper in excess is bound to Cu content recorded the highest yield of grain
phytochelatins (Greek meaning “plant and straw (6.23 and 7.47 t ha-1), respectively.
claws”) and sulfur containing peptides. The lowest yield of grain and straw was
Copper in solution is present as cuprous recorded in L12, where the initial soil Cu
(Cu+) and cupric (Cu++). Cuprous copper is status was high. Among different treatments,
readily oxidized to cupric and so cuprous the treatment with 1.50 kg ha-1of Cu (T4)
copper is only found in complexed forms. registered the highest yield of 6.50 and 7.74 t
Cuprous complexes are usually colorless, ha-1 of grains and straw respectively, and the
whereas the cupric complexes are often blue yield increase being 30.2 and 25.7 per cent
or brown. Copper is an activator of several respectively over control was noted. The
enzyme systems in plants and functions in lowest mean yield was recorded in the control
electron transport and energy capture by treatment with 4.54 t ha-1 of grains and 5.75 t
oxidative proteins and enzymes. It may play a ha-1 of straw.
role in vitamin A production (Rehm,2009). A
deficiency interferes with protein synthesis. Molybdenum
Native copper supply has been recognized
only rarely as needing supplementation. Although molybdenum is a metal, it occurs in
Some tree crops grown on organic soils or aqueous solution mainly as molybdate anion.
sands may need supplementation. Copper can Molybdate seems to be relatively mobile in
be toxic at low levels so a need should be plants and higher concentrations can be found
firmly established prior to supplementation. in roots than leaves when supplies are
Deficiency symptoms vary greatly among limited. Leaf concentrations may rise as
species. molybdenum supplies increase. The
molybdenum requirement is lowest of any
Symptoms of copper deficiency include mineral except, in certain species, nickel. The
functions of molybdenum as a plant nutrient
Leaves may be chlorotic or deep blue-green are related to the valency changes it
with margins rolled up. undergoes as a metal component of enzymes.
Only a few enzymes have been found to
The bark of trees is often rough and blistered, contain molybdenum in plants. In higher
and gum may exude from fissures in the bark. plants two molybdenum containing enzymes,
nitrogenase and nitrate reductase, are of vital
Young shoots die back. importance in crop production. All biological
systems fixing N2 require nitrogenase. Each
Flowering and fruiting may fail to develop in nitrogenase molecule contains two
annual plants and they may die in the molybdenum atoms, which are associated
seedling stage. with iron. Therefore, the root nodule
requirement is relatively high. As would be
Stunted growth. expected, the growth of plants relying on N2
fixation is particularly stimulated by the
Formation of gum pockets around central pith application of molybdenum to deficient soils.
in orange. Silviya and Stalin 2017 studied The response of root nodule activity to

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molybdenum is spectacular and indirectly Symptoms of molybdenum deficiency

reflects the increase in the capacity for N2 include
fixation brought about by molybdenum
additions(Gungula,2006). In soils with low Interveinal chlorosis. Veins remain green
molybdenum availability, the effect of producing a mottled appearance.
application of molybdenum to legumes
depends on the form of nitrogen supply (fixed Stunting and lack of vigor. This is similar to
N2 or added inorganic N fertilizer). The yield nitrogen deficiency due to the key role of
enhancement of adequately rhizobial infected molybdenum in nitrogen utilization by plants.
soybeans from added molybdenum will be
higher when fertilizer nitrogen is not added Marginal scorching and cupping or rolling of
because N2 fixation is facilitated by leaves (Jain, 2007).
molybdenum. Molybdenum serves as a
cofactor for the enzyme nitrate reductase. Yadav et al., (2017) studied that the
Molybdenum deficiency reduces the nitrate Application of 1.0 kg Mo/ha increased seed
reductase activity, which inhibits the plant’s yield by 22.1 and 8.0 per cent, respectively,
ability to synthesize proteins. There are over control and 0.5 kg Mo/ha table 6. The
conflicting reports as to whether there is any results on seed and straw yields thus
molybdenum requirement for plants supplied confirmed the trend observed in growth and
exclusively with reduced N such as yield attributing characters with application
ammonium or urea. Conventional wisdom is of molybdenum, Shivkumar and Kumutha
that plants supplied a mixed N regime thrive (2003).
best (therefore establishing a molybdenum
requirement) (Kaiser, 2005). Choosing a micronutrient application

Molybdenum deficiency is widespread in Neither the treatment nor prevention of

legumes and certain other plant species micronutrient deficiencies is complicated or
grown in acid mineral soils with a large expensive. The drag on yield and waste of
content of reactive iron oxide hydrates. time and resources caused by the deficiency
Liming may increase molybdenum costs plenty. Knowing how micronutrients
availability to the point where luxury behave in plants and soils will help determine
consumption occurs. This may be dangerous if you need to take remedial or preventative
to ruminant livestock, which are very action. It really depends on how and when
sensitive to excessive concentrations of you make a diagnosis. Soil applications are
molybdenum. Plants generally have a wide nearly always more effective and economical
range of acceptable molybdenum than foliar. However, if a problem expresses
concentrations. High, but nontoxic, itself after the crop is emerged, then foliar
molybdenum concentration in seeds ensures treatment is the logical remedy. Tissue tests
proper seedling growth and higher final grain offer additional evidence of a problem but
yield. There is an inverse relationship may not paint a complete picture. They will
between seed molybdenum content and yield augment the soil test. Unfortunately, soil tests
response to added molybdenum fertilizer. will not provide a completely accurate
Uptake rate of molybdenum is extremely low representation either. Generally,
in the first 4 weeks after germination. Thus, micronutrient soil tests will provide an
the molybdenum requirement has to be met indicator of the potentially available nutrient
by retranslocation from the seed. or give the total amount found. They usually

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have not been subjected to the correlation and more efficient than broadcast. One of the
calibration effort that the macronutrients have easiest ways to band fertilizer is as starter
been subjected to. This is not to say that they (fertilizer applied with the planter unit).
are wrong or totally inaccurate, but the will Broadcasting of some micronutrients is not
serve better as guidelines and verifiers of a recommended because the use rates are so
field’s capabilities. Finally, soil micronutrient low. However, broadcasting may be the only
concentrations have been shown to vary alternative in some systems. You can expect
widely in a field. It is important to obtain that chelated forms (where available) are
representative soil samples for analysis. likely to move in the soil more than non-
There are a myriad of micronutrient products chelated. This may be especially important in
available. Each may claim a stake in how no-till systems where starter is not used. This
available the product is but the true test is scenario is likely to be rare since the value of
how well it works in your field. Chelates are starter has been shown to be great in no-till
not better because they are chelated (more on systems (Epstein, 2005).
chelates to follow). An example would be
chelated manganese. Manganese chelates, Factors associated with supply and
when applied to soils high in iron are usually acquisition
ineffective because the available iron replaces
the Mn in the chelate. Manganese is kicked Sufficient concentrations and available forms
out into the soil chemical complex and is of micronutrients must be at or near root
rendered unavailable. Sometimes, an surfaces to meet plant acquisition needs.
efficiency factor is applied to a chelate. Nutrient supplies to plants are governed by
Authors (including universities) will such factors as concentrations inside plants
recommend using a fraction of the and in soil solution, supply and chemistry at
recommended rate. These efficiency factors root surfaces or in the rhizophere, and
are often based on economics rather than interactions of one nutrient with another At
agronomics. Efficiency factors may be any given time, concentrations of nutrients in
appropriate in certain circumstances, but the solution immediately adjacent to roots
don’t be fooled into thinking you bought 40 appear to be one of the best measures for
pounds of nutrient in a ten-pound container. assessing absorbtion potential, although plant
There is evidence that there are differences in and rhizosphere factors may influence the
plant availability of different products. rates of absorption (Frageria et al., 1997).
Researchers in Colorado did greenhouse
studies to investigate whether there was a Deficiencies and toxicities
relationship between plant available zinc and
the amount of water-soluble zinc in various Micronutrient deficiencies and toxicities are
fertilizers. widespread and have been documented in
various soils throughout world. The
They found that plants grown in zinc deficiency of essential micronutrients induces
deficient soils increased yield and absorbed abnormal pigmentation, size and shape of
zinc directly in proportion to the degree of plant tissues, reduces leaf photosynthetic
water-soluble zinc in the fertilizer material. In rates, and leads to various detrimental
this case, the greenhouse study is applicable conditions (Masoni et al.,; 1996) Specific
to field conditions and verifies a positive deficiency symptoms appear on all plant parts
relationship. Efficiency is also related to but discoloration of leaves is most commonly
application method. Generally, banding is observed.

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Table.1 Effect of zinc on growth, yield and yield attributes of okra

S.No Characters Zinc levels (kg/ha)

Control 2.5kg 5.0 kg Zn 7.5 kg Zn CD (P=
Zn(Zn1) (Zn2) (Zn3) 0.05)
1 Plant 87.29 89.05 92.09 95.46 5.29
height(cm) at 45
DAS
2 Plant height at 102.57 105.05 113.09 118.23 6.46
harvest(cm)
3 Leaf area(cm2) 98.31 105.77 113.97 116.80 5.04
4 No. of branches 2.31 2.36 2.50 2.58 0.10
5 Chlorophyll 1.40 1.48 1.53 1.60 0.09
content (mg/g)
6 Fruit length 8.15 10.05 11.13 11.70 0.42
(cm)
7 No. of 19.35 20.91 21.90 22.33 1.23
fruit/plant
8 Fruit yield/plant 60.07 187.40 224.84 233.67 10.30
(g)
9 Fruit yield/plot 1.44 4.50 5.40 5.61 0.25
(kg)
10 Fruit yield/ha 33.37 104.11 124.91 129.81 5.72
(q)

Table.2 Cumulative fruit yield of tomato per plant as affected by various concentrations of
FeSO4

Yield(g/plant)
Fe SO4 (ppm) Small Medium Large Total
(<100g) (100-200g) (>200g)
Control 2064 4113 1903 8080
500 1874 5962 2320 10156
1000 2385 7268 2913 11869
1500 2150 4038 1777 7965
2000 1688 3195 1472 7052

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Table.3 Effect of spraying Mn and Zn on fruit set and yield of pomegranate trees

Zn (%) Mn (mg/l) Fruit set (%) Yield (kg)

0 0 43.25 23.56
20 45.19 23.63
40 45.47 23.81
60 46.08 23.98
1.5 0 43.87 24.59
20 45.89 24.95
40 47.11 25.07
60 48.80 25.40
3 0 46.34 25.71
20 48.00 25.97
40 49.45 26.56
60 50.55 26.77
CD at 5% level 2.94 2.40

Table.4 Effect of boron on fruit set, yield and quality in apple

Treatment Fruit set(%)DAF Yield Mean TSS(%) Acidity(%)

(kg/tree) fruit
14 28 42 weight(g)
Soil 36.2 15.3 7.2 4.3 226 13.6 0.7
application
Foliar 40.2 25.3 15.2 6.8 191 12.5 0.65
application
Control 39.4 11.4 6.9 3.1 188 12.4 0.63

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Table.5 Effect of copper on grain yield(t/ha) of rice

Cu levels L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L11 L12

(kg/ha)
Control 3.85 4.05 4.16 4.38 4.45 4.58 4.63 4.70 4.77 4.84 4.98 5.07
0.50 4.77 5.12 5.28 5.61 5.58 5.72 5.92 5.88 5.85 5.80 6.21 6.07
1.00 5.97 6.21 6.38 6.25 6.00 6.38 6.68 6.60 6.44 6.38 5.60 5.45
1.50 6.83 6.83 7.05 7.28 7.14 6.87 6.47 6.40 6.17 6.07 5.50 5.42
2.00 6.55 6.70 6.80 6.98 6.93 6.66 6.40 6.25 5.92 5.85 5.32 5.28
2.50 6.53 6.69 6.75 6.90 6.90 6.54 5.75 5.70 5.40 5.22 5.12 5.10
CD (5%) 0.08 0.16 0.11 0.15 0.10 0.14 0.13 0.53 0.09 0.12 0.09 0.09

Table.6 Effect of molybdenum application on seed yield and straw yield of cluster bean

Treatments Seed yield (kg/ha) Straw yield (kg/ha)

Control 1278 2938
0.5 kg/ha Mo 1444 3209
1.0 kg/ha Mo 1560 3482
1.5 kg/ha Mo 1614 3569
CV (%) 8.1 8.9

Table.7 Critical micronutrient concentration (mg kg-1) in soil for some field crops

Critical concentration
Element Crops Extracting solution
Range Mean
B Alfalfa, sugarbeet Hot water 0.1-2 0.8

Cl Wheat, Barley, Oats Water >22

0.01M Ca(No3)2
0.05M K2So4
CaO
Cu Maize and small grains NH4HCO3-DTPA 0.12-2.5 0.8
Mehlich-1 0.1-10 3
Fe Sorghum and soyabean NH4HCO3-DTPA 2.5-5 4.8
Sorghum DTPA-TEA 4.5
Mn Soyabean, Mehlich-1 4-8 7
Small grains NH4HCO3-DTPA 1-2 1.4
3
3.9
Mo Forages, Legumes NH4-oxilate 0.1-0.3
Zn Beans, Maize NH4HCO3-DTPA 0.25-2 0.8
Rice,Sorghum Mehlich-1 0.5-3 1.1
Maize 0.1M HCl 2-10 5
Maize 0.86
Rice 1
[Source : Cox, 1987]

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Table.8 General description of mineral toxicity symptoms on plants

B : High B may induce some interveinal necrosis, and severe cases turn leaf
margins straw color (dead) with distinct boundaries between dead and green
tissue. Roots appear relatively normal.
Cl : High Cl results in burning leaf tips or margins, reduced lead size, sometimes
yellowing, resembles K deficiency, and root tips die.
Cu : High Cu may induce Fe deficiency (chlorosis). Light colored leaves with red
streaks along margins. Plants become stunted with reduced branching and
roots are often short or barbed (like wire). Laterals may be dense and
compact.
Fe : Excess Fe is a common problem for plants grown in flooded acidic soil. May
induce P, K and Zn deficiencies. Bronze or blackish-straw colored leaves
extending from margins to midrib. Roots may be dark red and slimy.
Mn : Excess Mn may cause leaves to be dark green with extensive reddish-purple
specks before turning bronze yellow, especially interveinal tissue. Uneven
distribution of chlorophyll. Margins and leaf tips turn brown and die.
Sometimes Fe deficiency appears, and main roots become stunted with
increased number and density of laterals.
Mo : Excess Mo induces symptoms similar to P deficiency (red bands along leaf
margins), and roots often have no abnormal symptoms.

Zn : Excess Zn may enhance Fe deficiency. Leaves become light colored with

uniform necrotic lesions in interveinal tissue, sometimes damping off near
tips. Roots may be dense or compact and may resemble bared wire.
Ni : High Ni results in white interveinal banding alternating with green
semichlorotic areas with irregular oblique streaking,dark green veins and
brown patches. Yellowing of leaves may resemble Fe or Mn deficiency.
Co : Pale green leaves with pale longitudinal stripes.
[Source : Clark and Baligar, 2000]

Table.9 Crop and soil conditions under which micronutrient deficiencies may occur

Micronutrient Soil Crop

Boron Sandy soils or highly weathered Alfalfa and clover
soilslow in organic matter
Copper Acid peats or mucks with pH <5.3 and Wheat, oats, corn
black sands
Manganese Peats and mucks with pH > 5.8, black Soyabeans, Wheat,
sands and lakebed/depressional soils Oats, Sugarbeets,
with pH > 6.2 Corn
Zinc Peats, mucks and mineral soils with pH Corn and Soyabeans
> 6.5
Molybdenum Acid prairie soils Soyabeans
[Source : Kelling, 2005]

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Table.10 Micronutrient sources commonly for correcting micronutrient deficiencies in plants

Micro-
Common fertilizer sources
nutrients
B Sodium tetraborate (14-20%B), Solubor(20%B), Liquid boron (10%B),
Boric acid (17% B)
Fe Ferrous ammonium sulfate(14%Fe),Ferrous ammonium phosphate (29%Fe)

Zn Zinc sulfate (23-36%Zn), Zinc ammonium complex (10%Zn), Zinc oxide

(50-80%Zn), Zinc chelate(9-14%Zn)
Cu Copper sulfate(13-35%Cu),Copper oxides (75-89%Cu)
Cl Potassium chloride (47%Cl), Sodium chloride (60% Cl), Ammonium
chloride (66%Cl), Calcium chloride (64%Cl), Magnesium chloride (74%Cl)
Mn Manganese sulfate (23-25%Mn), Manganese oxide (41-68%Mn)

Mo Ammonium molybdate (54%Mo), Sodium molybdate (39%Mo),

Molybdenum trioxide (66%Mo), Molybdic acid(53%Mo)
Ni Nickle chloride (25%Ni), Nickle nitrate (20%Ni), Nickle oxide (79%Ni)
[Source : Singh, 2004]

Table.11 Methods of correcting micronutrient deficiencies

Micro-
Soil application Foliar application
nutrients
B 0.75-7 kg Borax/ha 0.1-0.25%B solution
Cl 20-50kgKCl/ha Unknown
Cu 1-20kg CuSO4/ha(every 5- 0.1-0.2% solution CuSO4.5H2O or 0.1-4kg Cu/ha
10 years) as CuCl2.2H2O, CuSO4.5H2O or CuO
Fe 30-100kg FeSO4 or 2% FeSO4.7H2O or 0.02-0.05%FeEDTA solution
FeEDDHA/ha (need annual (several sprays needed)
treatment of 0-10 kg/ha)
Mn 5-50kg MnSO4/ha 0.1% MnSO4 H2O solution or 3-6kgMn/ha
Mo 0.01-1kg ammonium 0.07-0.1% Na or ammonium molybdate
molybdate or lime to pH 6.5 (100gMo/ha)
Zn 0.5-35kg ZnSO4 0.1-0.5% ZnSO47H2O solution (0.17-1.5 kg/ha)
orZnEDTA/ha
[Source : Baligar and Jones, 1997]

Deficiency and toxicity symptoms may be description of deficiency (already discussed

confused with drought, disease, insect and in previous) and toxicity symptoms
other damage so correct diagnosis may be associated with many crop plants in Table 8
difficult without experience. Critical has been provided.
concentration ranges of micronutrients in soil
for important field crops (Table 7). Some

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Supply and uptake off or dead materials from microorganisms

and roots, and chemical properties that are
Micronutrient uptake by roots depends on markedly different from the bulk soil.
nutrient concentrations at root surfaces, root
absorption capacity, and plant demand. The chemistry of the rhizosphere has
pronounced effects on the availability of
Micronutrient acquisition includes dynamic micronutrients. An example of rhizosphere
processes in which mineral nutrients must be activity is mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizae
continuously replenished in soil solution from associated with crop plants are primarily
the soil solid phase and transported to roots arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF).
as uptake proceeds. Mineral nutrient transport Interactions with other elements
to roots, absorption by roots and translocation
from roots to shoots occur simultaneously, The understanding of micronutrient
which means that rate changes of one process interactions between and among the various
will ultimately influence other processes mineral nutrients is important for balancing
involved in uptake (Frageria, 1997). In soil nutrient supplies to plants, improving growth
systems mineral nutrients move to plant roots and yields of plants, and eliminating
by mass flow, diffusion, and root deficiencies and toxicities imposed on plants.
interception. Mineral interactions are generally measured
in term s of growth responses and changes in
Oxidation and reduction mineral nutrient concentrations in plants.

Oxidation –Reduction reactions occur when Method of application

electrons are transferred from a donor to an
acceptor. The donor loses electrons to The best method of micronutrient application
increase in oxidation number, and the depends on the element and when the
acceptor gains electrons to decrease in deficiency is being addressed.
oxidation number.
Soil application
Redox reactions with various forms of
Mn(Mn2+ and Mn4+),Fe (Fe2+and Fe3+), and For deficiencies known at the start of the
Cu (Cu+ and Cu2+)are common in soils season, soil application is preferred to foliar
(Lindsay,1979). Redox reactions in soils can application for most nutrients. Micronutrients
also be influenced by organic metabolites banded with starter fertilizers at planting time
produced by roots and microorganisms. usually are more effective over a longer
period than foliar-applied micronutrients.
Rhizosphere This method also gets the nutrient to the plant
at the earliest opportunity. Soil-applied
The rhizosphere is defined as the zone of soil micronutrients also may be broadcast, but a
immediately adjacent to plant roots in which concentrated band near the plant allows lower
the kinds, numbers, and/or activities of use rates of sometimes expensive materials.
microorganisms differ from those of the bulk Manganese should only be banded, because
soil. of the ability of most soils to strongly “fix”
this element. However, boron should not be
This zone usually contains fungi, bacteria, banded as high concentrations near the seed
root and microorganism secretions, sloughed can be toxic.

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sulfate decompose readily in soils and

Foliar application provide good agronomic effectiveness.
Chelates are fertilizers in which the
Foliar application is especially useful for micronutrient is combined with an organic
some elements that are not used efficiently molecule to increase its stability and
when applied to the soil, such as iron. This effectiveness in the soil. Chelates such as Zn-
method also is useful for quick uptake in EDTA are more stable and more effective in
emergency situations when deficiencies are correcting Zn deficiency than other forms of
noted or in cases where other materials are applied Zn. These synthetic chelates are more
being sprayed. Like banding, foliar effective and less variable than natural
applications generally have lower use rates, organic complexes such as lignosulfates,
but more than one application may be phenols and polyflavonoids (Stevens, 2002).
needed. However, because the crop partially
develops prior to foliar application, Future Strategies of Research
irreversible damage may have occurred
before the needed nutrient is supplied. Screening and/or breeding of micronutrient
efficient crops and their cultivars should be
Broad-spectrum micronutrient applications done on a priority basis, and more
are not recommended to treat a single importantly, nutrient efficient crop rotations
micronutrient deficiency, as this approach is should be recommended to farmers of the
expensive and potentially harmful to the crop. State, particularly those on deficient soils.
The harm can occur because of potential Systematic studies to monitor micronutrient
toxicities, or because the presence of deficiencies in different crop rotations and
additional nutrients may interfere with the soils should be carried out using GIS. The
uptake of the needed nutrient. Achieving a entire state may be covered once in 2 to 3
uniform spread pattern is important to correct years and repeat survey should be done after
deficiencies, regardless of whether the 4 to 5 years to monitor the trends. In addition,
material is liquid or solid, banded or critical limits for main crops of the State
broadcast, or preplant or foliar applied. should be refined for different soils. Limited
information is available on emerging
Selecting micronutrient sources deficiencies of B and Cu in the State and on
the response of different crops to application
There are three main classes of micronutrient of Cu and B in deficient soils. More field
fertilizers: inorganic, synthetic chelates and experiments should be initiated to generate
natural organic complexes. information on response, critical limits and
their efficient management under field
Inorganic sources consist of oxides, conditions (Sadana et al., 2010)
carbonates and metallic salts such as sulfates,
chlorides and nitrates. Sulfates are the most Micronutrients are required in very small
common metallic salts used in the fertilizer quantities by the plant for their function.
industry because of their high water solubility Since they are involved in various enzymatic
and plant availability. Less soluble oxides activities, their deficiencies causes
must be ground finely or partially acidulated malfunctioning of the plant activities. To
with sulfuric acid to form oxysulfates in order manage these micronutrient deficiencies
to increase their effectiveness. Metal- spraying of suitable chemicals at
ammonia complexes such as ammoniated Zn recommended levels by foliar application will

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alleviate the deficiency. Increases in crop Bozorgi, H.A., Azarpour, E., Moradi, M.
yields from application of micronutrients 2011. The effects of bio, mineral
have been reported in many parts of the nitrogen fertilization and foliar Zinc
world. Factors such as pH, redox potential, spraying on yield and yield
biological activity, SOM, cation –exchange components of Faba bean. Journal
capacity, and clay contents are important in World Application Science. 13(6) :
determining the availability of micronutrients 1409-1414.
in soils, Further, roots –induced changes in Clark, R.B. and Baligar, V.C. 2000. Acid and
the rhizosphere affect the availability of alkaline soil constraints on plant
micronutrients to plants. Major root induced mineral nutrition. In : “Plant
changes in the rhizosphere are pH, reducing Environmental Interactions,” 2nd
capacity, redox potentials, and root exudates edition.(R.E. Wilinson, Ed.), Dekker,
that mobilize sparingly soluble mineral New York, pp. 133-177.
nutrients. Root exudates may make elements Clark, R.B. and Zeto, S.K. 2000. Mineral
like Fe more available, but they may also acquisition by arbuscular mycorrhizal
produce water –soluble metal chelating plants. Journal Plant Nutrition. 23:
agents which reduce metal activity with roots. 867-907.
Micronutrient application rates range from Connolly, E.L. and Guerinot, M.L. 2002. Iron
0.2-100kg/ha, depending on the stress in plants. Genome Biology
micronutrient, crop requirement and method 3(8): 1024.1-1024.4.
of application. Higher rates are required for Cox, F.R. 1987. Micronutrient soil tests:
broadcast than for banded applications on soil Correlation and caslibration. In : “Soil
or as foliar sprays. The development Testing: Sampling, Correlation,, and
micronutrient-efficient and/or tolerant- Calibration ant interpretation” (J.R.
resistant genotypes appear promising for Brown. Ed), pp.97-117. Soil science
improving future crop production. society America, Madison, WI.
Dar,G.A. 2017. Impact of Boron Nutrition in
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