BCH-303: Sugar and Alcohol Technology

Unit 1: Introduction to Sugar

1. Sugar History Etymology, Ancient and Modern History

2. Sugar Chemistry Composition constituents of sugar and related

polymers

3. Sources and Types Sugar producing countries, Types and sources of

Sugar, Sugar beet, Sugar cane

4. Forms and consumption Forms of Sugar, Health effects of Sugar, Blood

glucose level, Obesity and Diabetes
Sugar History
Part 1 of Unit 1: Introduction to Sugar
Sugar: Etymology …(1/3)

• Etymology, a branch of linguistics, enables words to deliver past facts and its development and
relationships. This also reflects the spread of commodity.

• Majority of etymologists claim that word “Sugar” was originated from Sanskrit word “śarkarā”
(शर्करा ), meaning "ground or candied sugar” with the variant Sha-Kera. Its popular vernacular
form became Shak-Ker.

• This entered Arabic as Al-Shakker, changing into Al-Sukker, pronounced as "Assuker." Muslims in
Spain gave the Spanish word of Sugar i.e. Assuker = Azucar (Spanish). Sukker, the real Arabic
word, entered Old French as Suker-e, Italian as Zuker-o or Zucckero, and German as Zucker.
Travelling to further north to England, "kk” of Sukker mutated into "g." Sukker then changed into
Sugar with the "s" further mutating into “Sh," giving the final form Shugar of English, written as
“Sugar”.
Sugar: Etymology …(2/3)

• Very few etymologists claim that Sanskrit word “śarkarā” (शर्करा ) was came from Chinese
term Sha-Che, literally "Sand-Sugar plant," signifying a sand-like product from the sugar
plant, which is sugar. Sha-Che underwent the following phonetic changes: Sha-Che = Sha-
Ke = Shar-Ker = Sharkera, which became the Sanskrit word for sugar.

• Initially, ‘Jaggary’ or unpurified (brown) form of sugar was available to use. When sugar
reached to China, Chinese people started to make purified white form of Sugar. Then this
refined sugar found its way back to India and named Cheeni (चीनी), hindi word for sugar.
Egyptians later on produced big crystalline form of purified white sugar which is called
Mishri (मिश्री). (Hypothesis 1: Yule, Burnell; Hobson-Jobson, London: 1903)
Sugar: Etymology …(3/3)

• Mishri (मिश्री) is mutated from Chinese word Mishali. Where Mi = Honey, Sha =
Gravel/Sand, Li = Glass/Glassy substance. Above three terms give MiShaLi which
signifies “a sweet glassy substance of the size of pebbles”. Then Mishali easily mutated to
Misri in India. (Hypothesis 2: S. Mahdihassan, AJCM, 1981, 187-192)

• It’s Sukker form are represented in most other European languages too such as Serbian
cukar, polish cukier, Russian sakhar etc.
Sugar: Ancient History …(1/3)

• Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and its cultivation
spread from there into modern-day Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass.

• The first reference to 'sugar' is observed in an Ancient Indian treatise 'Pratimoksha' dealing
with Buddhists' code of conduct written two thousand six hundred years back.

• Charak and Sushrut Samhitas the standard works on the Hindu science of medicine
'Ayurved' dating back to 2nd or 3rd Century B.C. mention besides sugarcane and its
product sugar, the medicinal usage of sugar.

• Arthshastra of Kautilya the mentor and minister of emperor Chandragupta Maurya show
the importance of sugar as taxable commodity
Sugar: Ancient History …(2/3)

• Sugar making was known in India as early as 3000 B.C. in the form of Gaura, an old
Indian word for sugar.

• Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th
century CE. In the local Indian language, these crystals were called khanda (Devanagari:
खण्ड, Khaṇḍa), which is the source of the word candy.

• Indian sailors, who carried clarified butter and sugar as supplies, introduced knowledge of
sugar along the various trade routes they travelled. Whereas, traveling Buddhist monks
took sugar crystallization methods to China.

• Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, to obtain
technology for sugar refining.
Sugar: Ancient History …(3/3)

• Companions of Alexander the Great, knew of sugar during the year 325 BC, because of
their participation in the campaign of India led by Alexander and called it “honey without
bees”. This is how Sugar was introduced to Europe as an article of luxury until the
Crusaders brought sugar to Europe during their campaigns in Arab where they encountered
“sweet salt”.

• Sugar became easily available to Europe when Madeira and Canary Islands were
introduced to sugarcane.
Sugar: Modern History …(1/2)

• In August 1492, Christopher Columbus introduced sugar cane to the New World.

• Many sugar mills had been constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s.

• The Portuguese took sugar cane to Brazil. By 1540, there were 800 cane-sugar mills in Santa
Catarina Island and another 2,000 on the north coast of Brazil, Demarara, and Surinam.

• Beet sugar was a German invention, since, in 1747, Andreas S. M. announced the discovery of
sugar in beets and devised a method using alcohol to extract it.

• Sugar, being so popular in 19th century, as an essential food ingredient resulted in major economic
and social changes.

• Demand drove, in part, the colonization of tropical islands and areas where labor-intensive
sugarcane plantations and sugar manufacturing facilities could be successful.
Sugar: Modern History …(2/2)

• After slavery was abolished, the demand for workers in European colonies in the
Caribbean was filled by non-paid contracted laborers from the Indian subcontinent.

• Until the late nineteenth century, sugar was purchased in loaves, which had to be cut using
implements called sugar nips.

• In later years, granulated sugar was more usually sold in bags. Sugar cubes were produced
in the nineteenth century (1841).

• Currently, there are many types, sizes, shapes of sugar available in day to day life.
Sugar Chemistry
Part 2 of Unit 1: Introduction to Sugar
Sugar & Carbohydrates
• Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates (Sugar, Starch and
Fiber), many of which are used in food.

• Carbohydrates (CH2O)n, or saccharides (saccharo is Greek for “sugar”) are polyhydroxy

aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis.

• The term “carbohydrate” comes from

the observation that when you heat
sugars, you get carbon and water
(hence, hydrate of carbon).
Sugar Chemistry: Classification …(1/3)

• Saccharides (Sugars) can be classified into 4 major categories based on number of

monomeric units with two broad categories i.e. Sugars and Non-Sugars.
1. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
2. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or double sugars, are molecules made of
two bonded monosaccharides; common examples are sucrose (glucose + fructose),
lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (two molecules of glucose).
3. Oligosaccharides contain from 3 to 10 monosaccharide units (e.g. raffinose,
stachyose, and verbascose). Available in relatively abundant levels in legumes, whole
grains (wheat, rye etc.), some cruciferous vegetables (cabbage, garlic, white onion
etc.), and some fruits (Bananas, water melon etc.). (mild sweetness)
Sugar Chemistry: Classification …(2/3)

• Saccharides can be classified into 4 major categories based on number of monomeric units
with two broad categories i.e. Sugars and Non-Sugars.

4. Polysaccharides contain very long chains of hundreds or thousands of

monosaccharide units, which may be either in straight or branched chains (e.g.,
cellulose, glycogen, starch). (Non-sugars category/Sugar Polymers)
Sugar Chemistry: Classification …(3/3)

• The white stuff we know as sugar is sucrose (a disaccharide), a molecule composed of 12 atoms of
carbon, 22 atoms of hydrogen, and 11 atoms of oxygen (C12H22O11). Sugars are the most abundant
biomolecule on earth.

• Sucrose is actually two simpler sugars stuck together: fructose and glucose (both
monosaccharides).

• Bakers/explorers are not concerned with polysaccharides but rather with the monosaccharides and
disaccharides. Most oligosaccharides have a mildly sweet taste, making it as a partial substitute for
sugars to improve texture.

• The Monosaccharaides and disaccharides both sweeten, but they cannot be used interchangeably
because they have different effects on the end product.

• Sugar names often end in “ose”: sucrose, dextrose, maltose, lactose, etc. Sucrose is the chemical
name for sugar that comes from the cane and beet sugar plants.
Sugar Chemistry: Monosaccharides …(1/6)

• The monosaccharides are the simplest of the carbohydrates, since they contain only one
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit.

• The most abundant monosaccharide in nature is the six-carbon sugar D-glucose, sometimes
referred to as dextrose.

• Monosaccharides are classified according to the number of carbon atoms

they contain:
Sugar Chemistry: Monosaccharides …(2/6)

• Monosaccharides are also classified as aldoses or ketoses.

• Those monosaccharides that contain an aldehyde functional group are called aldoses; those
containing a ketone functional group on the second carbon atom are ketoses.

• Combining these classification systems gives general names that indicate both the type of
carbonyl group and the number of carbon atoms in a molecule.

• Thus, monosaccharides are described as aldotetroses, aldopentoses, ketopentoses,

ketoheptoses, and so forth.

• Glucose (Monosaccharide) is the primary carbohydrate our bodies use to produce energy.

• Monosaccharides cannot be broken down to smaller carbohydrates.

Sugar Chemistry: Monosaccharides …(3/6)

• Glucose and Fructose are specific examples of an aldohexose and a ketohexose,

respectively.

• Monosaccharides have the general formula Cn(H2O)n, where n is a whole number 3 or

greater.
Monosaccharides: Properties …(4/6)

• Most monosaccharides have a sweet taste (fructose is sweetest; 73% sweeter than sucrose).

• They are solids at room temperature.

• They are crystalline in nature and optically active.

• Generally they are available in straight/open chain form but in solution, they usually exist
in ring/cyclic form. They exist in solution either as 5 membered ring (Furanose ring) or as
6 membered ring (Pyranose ring).

• They are extremely soluble in water:

• Despite their high molecular weights, the presence of large numbers of OH groups make the
monosaccharides much more water soluble than most molecules of similar MW.
Monosaccharides: Properties …(5/6)

• In solution, for D-glucose; an alcohol group can add into the carbonyl group in the same
molecule to form a pyranose ring containing a stable cyclic hemiacetal structure.
Monosaccharides: Properties …(6/6)

• Monosaccharides have an OH group on the carbon next to the carbonyl group (Aldehydes
and ketones) react with a basic solution of Cu2+ (Benedict’s reagent) to form a red-orange
precipitate of copper(I) oxide (Cu2O).

• Sugars that undergo this reaction are called “reducing sugars”. (All of the monosaccharides
are reducing sugars.)
Important Monosaccharides …(1/2)
Important Monosaccharides …(2/2)
Sugar Chemistry: Disaccharides …(1/4)

• Two monosaccharides can be linked together through a glycosidic linkage to form a

disaccharide.
• The most abundant
disaccharides are sucrose,
lactose and maltose.

• Can be further classified

into:

1. Homodisaccharides
Ex: Maltose (2 α-D-glucose),
Isomaltose (2 α-D-glucose),
celebiose (2 β-D-glucose) etc.
Sugar Chemistry: Disaccharides …(2/4)

• Two monosaccharides can be linked together through a glycosidic linkage to form a

disaccharide.

2. Heterodisaccharides

Example:
1. Sucrose: α-D-glucose + β-D-fructose; Table
sugar, Cane sugar, beet sugar
2. Lactose: β-D-galactose + β-D-glucose; Milk
sugar
Sugar Chemistry: Disaccharides …(3/4)
• Disaccharides can be hydrolyzed into their monosaccharide building blocks by boiling
them with dilute acids or reacting them with the appropriate enzymes.

• Disaccharides that contain hemiacetal groups are reducing sugars.

Disaccharides: Sucrose …(4/4)
• Also known as table sugar. Both anomeric carbons of glucose and fructose are tied together
in the glycosidic linkage; thus neither ring can open, and sucrose is not a reducing sugar.

• Sucrose is found in fruits, nectar, sugar cane, and sugar beets; maple syrup contains about
65% sucrose, with glucose and fructose present as well.

• Caramel is the solid residue formed from heating sucrose.

• A flavoring agent called invert sugar is produced by the hydrolysis of sucrose under acidic
conditions, which breaks it apart into glucose and fructose; invert sugar is sweeter than
sucrose because of the fructose.

• Some of the sugar found in honey is formed in this fashion; invert sugar is also produced in
jams and jellies prepared from acid-containing fruits.
Saccharides: Relative sweetness
Sugar Chemistry: Sugar Polymers …(1/8)

• Polysaccharides are the sugar polymers comprised of many (hundreds to thousands)

monosaccharide monomers.

• Plant and animals use polysaccharides, such as starch and glycogen, for the longer-term
storage of energy. These can be readily hydrolyzed by enzymes to simple sugars.

• Polysaccharides are not reducing sugars, since the anomeric carbons are connected through
glycosidic linkages.

• The type of polymer formed depends on the monosaccharide subunits involved and the
bonding arrangement between them.
 Sugar Chemistry: Sugar Polymers …(2/8)

• Nomenclature:
• Homopolysaccharide- A
polysaccharide is made up of one
type of monosaccharide unit. Ex:
Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose (all of
which are polymers of D-glucose)
etc.
• Heteropolysaccharide- A
polysaccharide is made up of
more than one type of
monosaccharide unit. Ex:
Peptidoglycans (polymer of
peptides and sugar molecules),
Agarose, Glycosaminoglycans etc.
Sugar Polymers: Starch …(3/8)

• Starch is a polymer consisting of D glucose units and mainly found in plants.

• Starches (and other glucose polymers) are usually insoluble in water because of the
high molecular weight.
• Because they contain large numbers of OH groups, some starches can form thick
colloidal dispersions when heated in water (e.g., flour or starch used as a thickening
agent in gravies or sauces).

• Starch is a storage compound in plants, and made of glucose units.

• There are two forms of starch: amylose and amylopectin.
Sugar Polymers: Starch …(4/8)
Amylose
• Amylose consists of long, unbranched chains of glucose (from 1000 to 2000 molecules)
connected by α (1  4) glycosidic linkages.

• 10 - 20% of the starch in plants is in this form.

• The amylose chain is flexible enough to allow the molecules to twist into the shape of a
helix. Because it packs more tightly, it is slower to digest than other starches.

• Amylose helices can trap molecules of iodine, forming a characteristic deep blue purple
color. (Iodine is often used as a test for the presence of starch)
Sugar Polymers: Starch …(5/8)
Amylopectin
• Amylopectin consists of long chains of glucose (up to 105 molecules) connected by α (1 
4) glycosidic linkages, with α (16) branches every 24 to 30 glucose units along the chain.

• 80-90% of the starch in plants is in this form. Possess longer chain than amylose.

• Amylopectin causes a red-violet colour change on reaction with iodine.

 Sugar Polymers: Glycogen …(6/8)

• Glycogen , also known as animal starch , is structurally similar to amylopectin, containing

both α (14) glycosidic linkages and α (16) branch points . Glycogen is even more highly
branched, with branches occurring every 8 to 12 glucose units.

• Glycogen is abundant in the liver (up to 10%) and muscles (up to 2%); on hydrolysis it forms
D glucose , which maintains normal blood sugar level and provides energy.

• Glycogen is stored energy for the animal organism.

• Like amylopectin, glycogen gives a red-violet color with iodine.

 Sugar Polymers: Cellulose …(7/8)

• Cellulose is a polymer consisting of long, unbranched chains of D glucose connected by β

(14) glycosidic linkages; it may contain from 300 to 3000 glucose units in one molecule.

• Because of the β linkages, cellulose has a different overall shape from amylose, forming
extended straight chains which hydrogen bond to each other, resulting in a very rigid
structure.
• Cellulose is the most important structural
polysaccharide, and is the single most
abundant organic compound on earth. It is
the material in plant cell walls that provides
strength and rigidity; wood is 50% cellulose.
Other biologically important polysaccharides
Name of the Composition Occurrence Functions
Polysaccharide

Insulin Polymer of fructose In roots and tubers Storage of reserve

(like Dahlia) food

Pectin Polymer of Plant cell wall Cell wall matrix

galactose and its
derivatives
Hemi cellulose Polymer of Plant cell wall Cell wall matrix
pentoses and sugar
acids
Gums and Polymers of sugars Gums - bark of Retain water in dry
mucilages and sugar acids trees. Mucilages - seasons
flower
Sugar Chemistry: Sugar Alcohol …(1/2)

• Sugar alcohols are organic compounds which are derived from the sweet tasting soluble
carbohydrates and contain one -OH group attached to each carbon atom of the molecule.
• Reduction of Aldoses takes place at C-1 to form sugar alcohol whereas for ketoses
reduction takes place at C-2 to form sugar alcohol.

• They have following general chemical formula: HOCH2(CHOH)nCH2OH

Sugar Chemistry: Sugar Alcohol …(2/2)

• Sugar alcohols are white, water soluble solid compounds.

• Sugar alcohols come under the class polyols as they contain many hydroxyl groups.
• They can occur naturally and can be synthesized by various methods at industrial level.
• On consumption, sugar alcohol gives a sweet taste and contributes fewer calories than
other sugars. That is why they are extensively used in the food industry.
• Xylitol, Mannitol and Sorbitol are common examples of sugar alcohols.

Xylitol Mannitol Sorbitol

Sugar Sources and Types
Part 3 of Unit 1: Introduction to Sugar
 Sugar production: Global
• Currently, the global production of sugar is about 180 million metric tons annually.
• Sugar is almost completely extracted from two crops – sugar cane and sugar beet.
• Some two billion metric tons of sugar cane were produced worldwide in 2021, of which
more than 715 million metric tons came from Brazil alone.
• Brazil, India, China, Thailand, and Pakistan rounded off the five leading sugar cane
producing countries.
• Whereas, approximately 270 million metric tons of sugar beets were produced worldwide in
that year, with Russia, France, and U.S. producing the largest amount.
• For 2022/2023, India had the highest sugar consumption worldwide amounting to
approximately 29.5 million metric tons. The global sugar consumption exceeded 180 million
metric tons that period.
Sugar producing countries

*Foreign Agricultural Service/USDA

Global Market Analysis, May 2023
Sugar consuming countries

*Foreign Agricultural Service/USDA

Global Market Analysis, May 2023
 Types of Sugar …(1/4)

• There are several sources and types of sugar such as fruits, fruit juice concentrate, cane
sugar, beet sugar, molasses, nectar, honey, corn sweetener, brown sugar, invert sugar etc.
Maple Syrup:
• It is made by cooking down the sap from maple trees; the sap contains 5% sucrose, with the
remainder being comprised of other sugars (oligosaccharides).
• When it is condensed into the syrup form, it is made of 88-99% sucrose.
• A serving of maple syrup offers various vitamins and minerals, including calcium,
potassium, and trace amounts of B vitamins, manganese, magnesium, and zinc.
Molasses:
• It is the syrup (plant juice) separated from raw sugar beet or sugar cane during its processing
into sucrose, and it is a by-product of sugar making.
 Types of Sugar …(2/4)

Molasses:
• The predominant sugar is sucrose, which becomes more invert sugar with further
processing.
• It contains very low levels of the minerals, calcium, and iron, although blackstrap molasses
is the product of further sugar crystallization and contains a slightly higher mineral content.
Starch Syrup Derivatives:
• Hydrogenation of glucose syrups results in products which, since they are nonfermentable
and are less cariogenic, are used in manufacturing of sweet commodity products.
• Alkaline isomerization of maltose gives maltulose, which is sweeter than maltose, while
hydrogenation yields maltitol in a mixture with maltotriose.
 Types of Sugar …(3/4)

Glucose-Fructose Syrup (High Fructose Corn Syrup, HFCS) :

• Glucose-fructose syrup is made by the enzymatic isomerization of glucose.
• Since an isomerization of only 42% is achieved, the production of higher concentrations
(e.g., 55%) requires the addition of fructose.
• The fructose is obtained from the syrup by chromatographic enrichment. As a result of a
comparable sweetening strength, HFCS replaces sugar in many sweet food.
Table Sugar:
• The most important sweeteners (prevalent natural sweetener) is sucrose which called also
table sugar, it is a disaccharide composed of one molecule glucose and one molecule
fructose, typically got from sugar cane or sugar beets and refined to a white crystalline end
product, and used as standard for the measurement of sweetness.
 Types of Sugar …(4/4)

Honey:
• Honey mainly consists of the carbohydrates fructose and glucose, and additionally contains
approximately other 200 substances (other sugars, enzymes, amino acid and minerals).
• Several of these enzymes are related to the antimicrobial properties of honey, such as
glucose oxidase and bee defensin-1 produced.
• Honey produces from the nectar, collected from flowers by honeybees.
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Sugar Alcohol
Natural sources of Sugar
Natural sources of Sugar
Forms and Consumption
Part 4 of Unit 1: Introduction to Sugar
Sugar: Forms …(1/4)

• Sugar provide the body with the energy that our organs and muscles need to function.

• Sugars such as sucrose, glucose and fructose, are formed during the photosynthesis process
(i.e. when plants use the energy of the sun to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars).

• There are other natural forms of sugars, like lactose, maltose and galacto-oligosaccharide,
which are found in human milk.

• Apart from this natural form of sugar, there are some industrially developed form of sugars
available based on their crystal size, color, process of development etc.

• These industrial form of sugar is added to foods and beverages to help enhance flavor,
color, texture, and shelf life.
Sugar: Forms …(2/4)

Crystal Size
• Sugars of various crystal sizes provide unique functional characteristics that make the sugar
suitable for different foods and beverages.

• Coarse-grain sugar (1-3 mm), also known as sanding sugar, composed of reflective crystals. Used
atop baked products and candies, it will not dissolve when subjected to heat and moisture.

• Granulated sugar (about 0.6 mm crystals), also known as table sugar or regular sugar, is used to
sprinkle on foods, hot drinks and in home baking. It is also used as a preservative to prevent micro-
organisms from growing.

• Milled sugars are ground to a fine powder and used for dusting foods and in baking and
confectionery. (Powdered, Ultrafine crystal size form)
Sugar: Forms …(3/4)

Shape
• Sugar cubes (sometimes called sugar lumps) are white or brown granulated sugars lightly
steamed and pressed together in block shape. They are used to sweeten drinks.

• Sugarloaf was the usual cone-form in which refined sugar was produced and sold until the
late 19th century. This shape is still in use in Germany, Iran and Morocco.

Liquid Sugar

• Honey, Syrup, Molasses etc.

• Sugar syrup dissolved in water in 1:1 ratio. Often used in drinks.

• Invert sugar comprising equal parts of glucose and fructose.

Sugar: Forms …(4/4)

Color
• Sugar color is primarily determined by the amount of molasses remaining on or added to
the crystals, giving pleasurable flavors and altering moisture. Heating sugar also changes
the color and flavor (yum, caramel!). (White, brown color form)

• Brown sugars are granulated sugars, either containing residual molasses, or with the grains
deliberately coated with molasses to produce a light- or dark-colored sugar. They are used
in baked goods, confectionery, and toffees.

• Light brown sugar (Molasses ~3.5%), dark brown (Molasses ~6.5%), Non-centrifugal cane
sugar, Jaggery
Sugar: Terminology
• Total sugars: This includes all sugars, whatever their food source (whether added or
naturally present in foods), i.e. all monosaccharides and disaccharides.

• Free Sugars: Kind of added sugar to a food or drink and sugar that is already honey, fruit
juice. They are free because they are not inside the cells of the food we eat.

• Added Sugars: Sugars and syrups added to foods during home preparation or food
processing. e.g. sugars mentioned in the ingredients list of a food product.

• Intrinsic Sugars: Sugars naturally found within the cellular structure of a food e.g. within
whole fruits and vegetables.

• Extrinsic sugars: Sugars that are not found within the cellular structure of food, e.g. sugars
naturally found in milk and fruit juice as well as added sugars.
Sugar: Added Sugar
• Added sugars aren’t always clearly written in ingredient lists. Some examples of hidden
sources of added sugar include:

Agave Nectar Coconut Sugar Honey Palm Sugar

Barley Malt Syrup Corn Syrup Invert Sugar Raw Sugar

Brown Sugar Corn Syrup Solids Malt Syrup Rice Syrup
Brown Rice Syrup Evaporated Cane Juice Maltodextrin Turbinado Sugar

Cane Juice Evaporated Corn Sweetener Maple Syrup White Granulated

Cane Sugar High Fructose Corn Syrup Molasses Sugar

Sugar: Health effects
• As with any nutrient, excessive consumption can have a negative health impact. Therefore, sugars
should be eaten in moderation within balanced diets and alongside active lifestyles that promote a
healthy body weight.

• European guidelines advise that 45-60% of our daily energy intake should come from
carbohydrates, including sugars.

• In 2010, the European Food Safety Authority (‘EFSA’) concluded that “the available evidence is
insufficient to set an upper limit for intake of (added) sugars based on their effects on body weight”
and on non-communicable diseases like Type-2 diabetes, dental caries and cardiovascular risk
factors.

• But it is recommended that free sugars should not make up more than 5% of the energy (calories)
you get from food and drink each day.
 Sugar: Health effects
• The World Health Organization (‘WHO’) in 2015 developed a set of recommendations calling for:
• A reduced intake of free sugars throughout the life-course (strong recommendation).
• In both adults and children reducing the intake of free sugars to less than 10% of total energy intake (strong
recommendation).
• A further reduction of the intake of free sugars to below 5% of total energy intake. WHO classifies this
recommendation as a conditional recommendation, and as such, clarifies that there is a need for substantial
debate and involvement of stakeholders before this recommendation can be translated into action.

• Above recommendation roughly suggests that free sugar intake for: Adult no more than 30g, children
(7-10 years) no more than 24g, Children (4-6 years) no more than 19g and no set limit for children
under the age of 4 years but recommended to avoid free sugars.
• Eating too much sugar can make you gain weight and can also cause tooth decay (because of
fermentable carbohydrates).
 Sugar: Health effects
Obesity and Metabolic syndrome
• A 2003 technical report by the World Health Organization (WHO) provides evidence that
high intake of sugary drinks (including fruit juice) increases the risk of obesity by adding
to overall energy intake.

• By itself, sugar is not a factor causing obesity and metabolic syndrome, but rather – when
over-consumed – is a component of unhealthy dietary behavior.

• Meta-analyses showed that excessive consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages increased

the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome – including weight gain and
obesity – in adults and children.
 Sugar: Health effects
Hyperactivity
• A 2019 meta-analysis found that sugar consumption does not improve mood, but can lower
alertness and increase fatigue within an hour of consumption.

• Some studies report evidence of causality between high consumption of refined sugar and
hyperactivity.

• One review of low-quality studies of children consuming high amounts of energy drinks
showed association with higher rates of unhealthy behaviors, including smoking and
excessive alcohol use, and with hyperactivity and insomnia, although such effects could
not be specifically attributed to sugar over other components of those drinks such as
caffeine.
 Sugar: Health effects
Tooth decay
• The 2003 WHO report stated that "Sugars are undoubtedly the most important dietary
factor in the development of dental caries".

• A review of human studies showed that the incidence of caries is lower when sugar intake
is less than 10% of total energy consumed.

Nutritional displacement
• The "empty calories" argument states that a diet high in added (or 'free') sugars will reduce
consumption of foods that contain essential nutrients.

• This nutrient displacement occurs if sugar makes up more than 25% of daily energy intake, a
proportion associated with poor diet quality and risk of obesity.
Sugar: Blood Sugar Level
• Blood glucose, or blood sugar, is the main sugar found in your blood. It is your body's
primary source of energy. It comes from the food you eat. Your body breaks down most
of that food into glucose and releases it into your bloodstream.

• When your blood glucose goes up, it signals your pancreas to release insulin. Insulin is
a hormone that helps the glucose get into your cells to be used for energy.

• Diabetes is a disease in which your blood glucose levels are too high. When you have
diabetes, your body doesn't make enough insulin, can't use it as well as it should, or
both. Too much glucose stays in your blood and doesn't reach your cells.
 Before a meal: 80 to 130 mg/dL
 Two hours after the start of a meal: Less than 180 mg/dL …end of Unit 1