JAWAHAR HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL, NEYVELI

BIOLOGY PROJECT

POLLINATION IN PLANTS

NAME : KAMESHVARAR V.M

REGISTRATION NUMBER:
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
NAME : KAMESHVARAR V.M

CLASS : XII 'D'

SUBJECT :
BIOLOGY

REGISTRATION NUMBER :

This is to certify that the above-mentioned student of Class XII – D section,

Jawahar Higher Secondary School, Neyveli has completed the BIOLOGY project
during the academic year 2024 - 2025 for the AISSCE as prescribed by CBSE.

Submitted on:

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to our Principal, Mrs. M. Sethumani for

providing all facilities to complete this project successfully.

I extend my hearty thanks to our BIOLOGY Teacher, Mrs. R. Subbulakshmi, for her
valuable guidance and support in completing this project work.

I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to my parents and friends who
helped me with their valuable suggestions and guidance in project completion.
 INDEX

1. INTRODUCTION

2. PROCESS OF POLLINATION

3. FERTILISATION

4. TYPE OF POLLINATION

5. MECHANISM OF POLLINATION

6. POLLEN VECTOR

7. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

8. CONCLUSION

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 INTRODUCTION
Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred to the female
reproductive organs of a plant, thereby enabling fertilization to take place. Like
all living organisms, seed plants have a single major purpose: to pass their
genetic information on to the next generation. The reproductive unit is the seed,
and pollination is an essential step in the production of seeds in all
spermatophytes (seed plants). For the process of pollination to be successful, a
pollen grain produced by the anther, the male part of a flower, must be
transferred to a stigma, the female part of the flower, of a plant of the same
species. The process is rather different in angiosperms (flowering plants) from
what it is in gymnosperms (other seed plants). In angiosperms, after the pollen
grain has landed on the stigma, it creates a pollen tube which grows down the
style until it reaches the ovary. Sperm cells from the pollen grain then move
along the pollen tube, enter the egg cell through the micropyle and fertilise it,
resulting in the production of a seed.
A successful angiosperm pollen grain (gametophyte) containing the male
gametes is transported to the stigma, where it germinates and its pollen tube
grows down the style to the ovary. Its two gametes travel down the tube to where
the gametophyte (s) containing the female gametes are held within the carpel.
One nucleus fuse with the polar bodies to produce the endosperm tissues, and the
other with the ovule to produce embryo Hence the term: "double fertilization".

In gymnosperms, the ovule is not. contained in a carpel, but exposed on the

surface of a dedicated support organ, such as the scale of a cone, so that the
penetration of carpel tissue is unnecessary. Details of the process vary according
to the division of gymnosperms in question. Two main modes of fertilization are
found in gymnosperms. Cycads and Ginkgo have motile sperm that swim directly
to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm that are
unable to swim but are conveyed to the egg along a pollen tube.
The study of pollination brings together many disciplines, such as botany,
horticulture, entomology, and ecology. The pollination process as an interaction
between flower and pollen vector was first addressed in the 18th century by
Christian Konrad Sprengel. It is important in horticulture and agriculture, because
fruiting is dependent on fertilization: the result of pollination. The result of
pollination by insect in known as anthecology.
 PROCESS OF POLLINATION

Pollen germination has three stages; hydration, activation and pollen tube
emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced
enabling it to be more easily transported from flower to flower. Germination
only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does
not take place in the anther. Hydration allows the plasma membrane of the
pollen grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective
osmotic membrane. Activation involves the development of actin filaments
throughout the cytoplasm of the cell, which eventually become concentrated at
the point from which the pollen tube will emerge. Hydration and activation
continue as the pollen tube begins to grow.

In conifers, the reproductive structures are borne on cones. The cones are either
pollen cones (male) or ovulate cones (female), but some species are monoecious
and others dioecious. A pollen cone contains hundreds of microsporangia
carried on (or borne on) reproductive structures called sporophylls. Spore
mother cells in the microsporangia divide by meiosis to form haploid
microspores that develop further by two mitotic divisions into immature male
gametophytes (pollen grains). The four resulting cells consist of a large tube cell
that forms the pollen tube, a generative cell that will produce two sperm by
mitosis, and two prothallial cells that degenerate. These cells comprise a very
reduced microgametophyte, that is contained within the resistant wall of the
pollen grain.
The pollen grains are dispersed by the wind to the female, ovulate cone that is
made up of many overlapping scales (sporophylls, and thus mega sporophylls),
each protecting two ovules, each of which consists of a megasporangium (the
nucellus) wrapped in two layers of tissue, the integument and the cupule, that
were derived from highly modified branches of ancestral gymnosperms. When a
pollen grain lands close enough to the tip of an ovule, it is drawn in through the
micropyle (a pore in the integuments covering the tip of the ovule) often by
means of a drop of liquid known as a pollination drop.
The pollen enters a pollen chamber close to the nucellus, and there it may wait
for a year before it germinates and forms a pollen tube that grows through the
wall of the megasporangium (nucellus) where fertilisation takes place. During
this time, the megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form four haploid
cells, three of which degenerate. The surviving one develops as a megaspore
and divides repeatedly to form an immature female gametophyte (egg sac). Two
or three archegonia containing an egg then develop inside the gametophyte.
Meanwhile, in the spring of the second year two sperm cells are produced by
mitosis of the body cell of the male gametophyte. The pollen tube elongates and
pierces and grows through the megasporangium wall and delivers the sperm
cells to the female gametophyte inside. Fertilisation takes place when the
nucleus of one of the sperm cells enters the egg cell in the megagametophyte's
archegonium.

In flowering plants, the anthers of the flower produce microspores by meiosis.

These undergo mitosis to form male gametophytes, each of which contains two
haploid cells, Meanwhile, the ovules produce megaspores by meiosis, further
division of these form the female gametophytes, which are very strongly
reduced, each consisting only of a few cells; one of which is the egg. When a
pollen grain adheres to the stigma of a carpel it germinates, developing a pollen
tube that grows through the tissues of the style, entering the ovule through the
micropyle. When the tube reaches the egg sac, two sperm cells pass through it
into the female gametophyte and fertilisation takes place.
 FERTILIZATION

Fertilization in plants is the pivotal event in sexual reproduction, a process that

ensures the continuation of plant species. It involves the fusion of male and
female reproductive cells to create a genetically unique offspring. In flowering
plants, which comprise the majority of plant species, fertilization occurs within
the structure of the flower. The male gametes, contained within pollen grains
produced by the anthers, must reach the female gametes, housed within ovules
located in the ovary of the flower. Pollination facilitates this transfer, which can
be achieved through various agents like wind, insects, birds, or other animals.
Once a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower, it may germinate, forming a
pollen tube that grows down through the style toward the ovary. Within the
ovule, one sperm cell fuses with the egg cell, forming a zygote, while another
sperm cell fuses with two other nuclei to form the endosperm. The zygote
develops into the embryo, and the ovule matures into a seed containing the
embryo and endosperm. The ovary, in turn, develops into a fruit, protecting the
seeds and aiding in their dispersal. Upon favourable conditions, the seed
germinates, initiating the growth of a new plant. Fertilization ensures genetic
variation by combining genetic material from two different parent plants,
contributing to the resilience and adaptability of plant populations .
 TYPES OF POLLINATION

Depending on the source of pollen, pollination can be classified into 2 types -

Self-pollination and Cross Pollination (Xenogamy)

Self-Pollination is further divided into Autogamy and Geitonogamy.
Depending on agent of Pollination, pollination can be classified into abiotic
pollination and biotic pollination.
• Self pollination is the type of Pollination in which pollen grains are
transferred from anther to the stigma of the same flower (Autogamy) or
pollen grains are transferred from anther to the stigma of different flower of
the same plant (Geitonogamy).
• Cross Pollination or Xenogamy is the type of pollination in which pollen
grains are transferred from anther to the stigma of a different plant.

On the basis of polling agent:

• Abiotic pollination refers to situations where pollination is mediated without
the involvement of other organisms The most common form of abiotic
pollination, anemophily, is pollination by wind. Wind pollination is very
imprecise, with a minute proportion of pollen grains landing by chance on a
suitable receptive stigma, the rest being wasted in the environment. This
form of pollination IS used by grasses, most conifers, and many deciduous
trees. Hydrophily is pollination by water, and occurs in aquatic plants which
release their pollen directly into the surrounding water. About 80% of all
plant pollination is biotic. In gymnosperms, biotic pollination is generally
incidental when it occurs, though some gymnosperms and their pollinators
are mutually adapted for pollination. The best-known examples probably are
members of the order Cycadales and associated species of beetles.

Of the abiotically pollinated species of plant, 98% are anemophilous and

2% hydrophilous, their pollen being transported by water. It is thought that
among angiosperms, entomophily is the primitive state; this is indicated
by the vestigial nectaries in the wind-pollinated Urtica and other plants,
and the presence of fragrances in some of these plants. Of the
 angiosperms, grasses, sedges, rushes and catkin-bearing plants are in
general wind pollinated. Other flowering plants are mostly biotic, the
pollen being carried by animal vectors. However, a number of plants in
multiple families have secondarily adopted wind pollination in contrast to
other members of their groups. Some plants are intermediate between the
two pollination methods. common heather is regularly pollinated by
insects, but produce clouds of pollen and some wind pollination is
inevitable, and the hoary plantain is primarily wind pollinated, but is also
visited by insects which pollinate it.

• Biotic: More commonly, the process of pollination requires pollinators:

organisms that carry or move the pollen grains from the anther of one flower
to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil (stigma) of another. This is biotic
pollination. The various flower traits (and combinations thereof) that
differentially attract one type of pollinator or another are known as
pollination syndromes. At least 100,000 species of animal, and possibly as
many as 200,000, act as pollinators of the estimated 250,000 species of
flowering plants in the world. The majority of these pollinators are insects,
but about 1,500 species of birds and mammals have been reported to visit
flowers and may transfer pollen between them. Besides birds and bats which
are the most frequent visitors, these include monkeys, lemurs, squirrels,
rodents and possums. Entomophily, pollination by insects, often occurs on
plants that have developed coloured petals and a strong scent to attract
insects such as, bees, wasps and occasionally ants (Hymenoptera), beetles
(Coleoptera), moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera), and flies (Diptera).

Pollination in Plant

Self Pollination Cross Pollination

The existence of insect pollination dates back to the dinosaur era. In

zoophily, pollination is performed by vertebrates such as birds and bats,
particularly, hummingbirds, sunbirds, spiderhunters, honeyeaters, and fruit
bats.
Ornithophily or bird pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by birds.
Chiropterophily or bat pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by bats.
Plants adapted to use bats or moths as pollinators typically have white petals,
strong scent and flower at night, whereas plants that use birds as pollinators
tend to produce copious nectar and have red petals. Insect pollinators such as
honey bees (Apismellifera), bumblebees (Bombusterrestris), and butterflies
(Thymelicusflavus) have been observed to engage in flower constancy, which
means they are more likely to transfer pollen to other conspecific plants. This
can be beneficial for the pollinators, as flower constancy prevents the loss of
pollen during interspecific flights and pollinators from clogging stigmas with
pollen of other flower species. It also improves the probability that the pollinator
will find productive flower easily accessible and recognisable by familiar clues.
 MECHANISM OF POLLINATION
Pollination can be accomplished by cross-pollination or by self-pollination.
Cross-pollination, also called allogamy, occurs when pollen is delivered from
the stamen of one flower to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same
species. Plants adapted for cross-pollination have several mechanisms to
prevent self-pollination; the reproductive organs may be arranged in such a way
that self-fertilisation is unlikely, or the stamens and carpels may mature at
different times Modes of Cross Pollination:
The agencies which transfer pollen grains from anthers of one flower to the
stigma of a different flowers are as follows: WIND (Anemophily),
WATER (Hydrophily), INSECTS (Entomophily), BIRDS (Ornithophily)
and BATS (Cheiropterophily).

Anemophily:

Anemophilous plants produce enormous amount of pollen grains: A single

plant of Mercurialis annually has been estimated to produce 1,352,000,000
pollen grains. Anemophilous plants bear small and inconspicuous flower.
The pollen grains are small, light, smooth and dry. Pollen of some plants
are said to be blown to 1 ,300 km. In some plants as Pinus, pollen grains
are winged.

The flowers are usually unisexual in some plants e.g. Mulberry is borne in
independent catkins which can sway freely and shake off their pollen in air. The
flowers may be borne on long axis (as in grasses much above the leaves.

The anther is versatile so as to oscillate in all directions at the tip of filament.

In Urticaceae filaments are very long. Anempohilous flowers have adequate
devices to catch the air-borne-pollen grains with utmost efficiency. For this the
stigma is usually large and feathery (as in grasses) and brush like as in Typha.
 Adaptations for wind pollination
WIND POLLINATED FLOWER

Anthers hang outside

Hydrophily:
It is of two types :
➢ Hypohydrogamy
➢ Epihydrogamy

• Hypohydrogamy: Includes plants which are pollinated inside the water, e.g.
Ceratophyllum, Najas.

• Epihydrogamy:
Vallisneria spiralis (ribbon weed) is a submerged dioecious plant. The flowers
are borne under water. When mature, the male flower gets detached from the
parent plant and float on the surface of water. The pistillate flowers also
develop under water, at the time of pollination, they are brought to the surface
by their long and slender stalks. As it arrives on the surface it forms a cuplike
depression. If male flowers floating on water get lodged into the depression, the
pollination takes place. After pollination, the stalk of the pistillate flower
undergoes spiral torsion bringing the pollinated flower under water once more.

Entomophily:
Some of the insects which help in pollination are bees, flies, wasps, moths and
beetles. Bees, flies and beetles visit flowers which open after sunset. Bees
probably carry out 80% of all pollination done by insects. Bee pollinated
flowers are coloured, possess special smell and/or produce nectar. Pollen grains
are sticky or with spinous exine. Also the stigma is sticky and bees are colour
blind for red.
Ornithophily:
Tiny birds like humming birds and honey thrushes (hardly 1 inch long) feeds on the nectar of flower like
Bignonia, Erythrina is visited by crows.

Chiropterophily:
Bauhinia megalandra of Java and Anthocephalus are pollinated by bats.
Malacophily:
Many aroids which are usually pollinated by Diptera are also pollinated by
snails.

• Self-pollination occurs when pollen from one flower pollinates the same
flower or other flowers of the same individual. It is thought to have evolved
under conditions when pollinators were not reliable vectors for pollen
transport, and is most often seen in short-lived annual species and plants that
colonize new locations. Self-pollination may include autogamy, where
pollen is transferred to the female part of the same flower; or geitonogamy,
when pollen is transferred to another flower on the same plant. Plants adapted
to self-fertilize often have similar stamen and carpel lengths. Plants that can
pollinate themselves and produce viable offspring are called self fertile.
Plants that cannot fertilize themselves are called self-sterile, a condition
which mandates cross-pollination for the production of offspring.

• Cleistogamy is self-pollination that occurs before the flower opens. The

pollen is released from the anther within the flower or the pollen on the anther
grows a tube down the style to the ovules. It is a type of sexual breeding, in
contrast to asexual systems such as apomixis. Some cleistogamous flowers
never open, in contrast to chasmogamous flowers that open and are then
pollinated. Cleistogamous flowers are by necessity found on self-compatible
or self-fertile plants. Although certain orchids and grasses are entirely
cleistogamous, other plants resort to this strategy under adverse conditions.
Often there may be a mixture of both cleistogamous and chasmogamous
flowers," sometimes on different parts of the plant and sometimes in mixed
inflorescences. The ground bean produces cleistogamous flowers below
ground, and mixed cleistogamous and chasmogamous flowers above.
 POLLEN VECTOR

Biotic pollen vectors are animals, usually insects, but also reptiles, birds,
mammals, and sundry others, that routinely transport pollen and play a role in
pollination. This is usually as a result of their activities when visiting plants for
feeding, breeding or shelter. The pollen adheres to the vector's body parts such
as face, legs, mouthparts, hair, feathers, and moist spots; depending on the
particular vector. Such transport is vital to the pollination of many plant species.
Any kind of animal that often visits or encounters flowers is likely to be a
pollen vector to some extent. For example, a crab spider that stops at one flower
for a time and then moves on, might carry pollen incidentally, but most pollen
vectors of significant interest are those that routinely visit the flowers for some
functional activity. They might feed on pollen, or plant organs, or on plant
secretions such as nectar, and carry out acts of pollination on the way. Many
plants bear flowers that favour certain types of pollinator over all others. This
need not always be an effective strategy, because some flowers that are of such
a shape that they favour pollinators that pass by their anthers and stigmata on
the way to the nectar, may get robbed by ants that are small enough to bypass
the normal channels, or by short-tongued bees that bite through the bases of
deep corolla tubes to extract nectar at the end opposite to the anthers and
stigma.
Some pollinator species can show huge variation in pollination effectiveness
because their ability to carry pollen is impacted by some morphological trait.
This is the case in the white-lined sphinx moth, in which short-tongued morphs
collect pollen on their heads but long-tongued morphs do not carry any pollen.
Some flowers have specialized mechanisms to trap pollinators to increase
effectiveness. Other flowers will attract pollinators by odour. For example, bee
species such as Euglossa cordata are attracted to orchids this way, and it has
been suggested that the bees will become intoxicated during these visits to the
orchid flowers, which last up to 90 minutes. However, in general, plants that
rely on pollen vectors tend to be adapted to their particular type of vector, for
example day-pollinated species tend to be brightly coloured, but if they are
pollinated largely by birds or specialist mammals, they tend to be larger and
have larger nectar rewards than species that are strictly insect-pollinated. They
also tend to spread their rewards over longer periods, having long flowering
seasons; their specialist pollinators would be likely to starve if the pollination
season were too short.

Advantages and disadvantages of self-pollination

Advantages:
1. In self- pollination, there is no diversity in the genes and therefore the
purity of the race is maintained.

2. The plants do not depend on external factors for pollination and even
smaller quantities of pollen grains produce have a good success rate in
getting pollinated.

3. Self- pollination ensures that recessive characters are eliminated.

Disadvantages:

1. Since there is no mixing up of genes, there are no new characters or features

that are introduced into the lineage of the offsprings.

2. Self- pollination is said to reduce the vigor and vitality of the race as there
are no new features introduced.

3. Without new characters introduced, the resultant offsprings

immunity to diseases reduces.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cross-Pollination

Advantages:
1. Cross-pollination is beneficial to the race of the plant as it introduces new genes into the lineage as a
result of the fertilization between genetically different gametes.

2. Cross-pollination improves the resistance of the offsprings to diseases and changes in the environment.

3. The seeds produced as a result of cross-pollination are good in vigor and vitality.

4. If there are any recessive characters in the lineage, they are eliminated as a result of genetic
recombination.

5. It is the only way unisexual plants can reproduce.

Disadvantages:

1. There is a high wastage of pollen grains that need to be produced to ensure fertilization occurs.

2. There are high chances that the good qualities may get eliminated and unwanted characteristics may get
added due to recombination of the genes.
 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the study of pollination encompasses a vast array of processes,

mechanisms, and interactions that are essential for the reproduction and
continuation of plant species. From the intricate steps of pollen germination and
tube emergence to the pivotal event of fertilization, each stage plays a critical
role in ensuring the genetic diversity and survival of plants. The types of
pollination, whether self or cross, and the agents involved, whether abiotic like
wind or biotic like insects, contribute to the rich tapestry of plant reproduction
strategies.
The mechanisms of pollination, whether through wind, water, insects, birds,
or bats, showcase the intricate adaptations that plants have evolved to ensure
successful reproduction. These adaptations include flower morphology,
colour, scent, and nectar production, all of which serve to attract specific
pollinators and optimize the transfer of pollen.
Moreover, the advantages and disadvantages of self-pollination and
crosspollination highlight the importance of genetic diversity in plant
populations.
While self-pollination ensures reproductive success under certain conditions,
it can lead to a lack of genetic variation and decreased resilience in offspring.
On the other hand, cross-pollination introduces new genes, enhances disease
resistance, and promotes the vigor and vitality of plant populations.
Overall, the study of pollination is not only a fascinating exploration of
biological processes but also holds significant implications for agriculture,
horticulture, and ecosystem health/ Understanding the mechanisms and
dynamics of pollination is crucial for the conservation of plant biodiversity
and the sustainability of ecosystems worldwide.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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