Civil Engineering Procedures

Civil engineering procedures is an indispensable guide which describes and explains

the stages of works for a project from first consideration through to completion of
construction and then beyond to handing over the resulting structure and services for use.
 Concept & promotion
 Feasibility studies
 Procurement and contract strategy
 Design and building information modelling
 Planning and control of construction
 Construction management organization
 Testing, commissioning and handover
 Operation, maintenance and asset management.
Design and construction terms
Cement
Cement is a binding adhesive material used in the construction industry. It is used in
the manufacture of cement mortar, concrete and other cement products.
Curing
Is the process of maintaining the internal moisture added to cement based products
such as cement mortar and concrete.
Foundation
Foundation is the substructure that is constructed below the ground level in which the
superstructure is erected. The foundation transmit the loads of the super structure to the hard
strata without exceeding the limit of the load bearing capacity of the soil.
Partition wall
Partition wall is defined as a wall that is designed as a non-load bearing wall and only
function primarily for providing partition between two interior spaces.
Ground Level
Ground level refers to the average level of the ground around the building. (0level)
other levels are directly or indirectly affected by the ground.
Floor Level
Floor level can also be considered to as plinth level. It is the surface of your damp
proof course. Flooring such as tiles, marbles terrazzo are been done on the floor level.
Plinth Level
Plinth level is define as the top of the foundation including the damp proof course, the
substructure ends at the plinth level and the superstructure starts at the plinth level. The plinth
level should be 0.60mm above the ground level.
Window Sill Level.
The window sill level is define as the level in which the window frame is installed
above the window finished floor level. The standard sill level is determined by the type of
window you want to installed, for French windows its installed at the floor level.
Lintel Level
The lintel level is defined as the top level of the doors and windows. It is the bottom
of the lintel beam. The standard lintel level should be 2100mm(2.1meters) for residential and
2300mm(2.3m) for commercial buildings.
Slab Level
The slab level as the level at which either the RCC slab is placed or cast. The standard
lintel should be 2.9meters for residential building and 3.35 meter for the commercial
buildings.
Form work
Formwork is defined as a temporary mould erected for casting structural components
of the building such as columns, beams, lintels etc.
Scaffolding
Scaffolding is defined as a temporary structure created on the elevation of a building
that works as a platform for the workers to work. It provides a stable, protected platform for
workers to comfortably work at high heights.
Cantilever
Cantilever is define as a structural member that is embedded into the structure form
one end and the other end is protruded to support the overhanging structure of the building.
eg. House canopies, balcony, window canopies, porches, etc.
RCC
The term stands for reinforced cement concrete. It is a composite building material
made up of steel reinforcement.
PCC
Plain cement concrete
Cement plaster
Cement plaster is a protective coating on the wall with the cement mortar. Most brick
masonry work is plastered to ascertain a uniform level surface and to protect the brick work
from deterioration.
The plaster functions are
a. It provides a protective layer on the exposed wall surface and prevents the entry of
water moisture.
b. It provides smooth surface and levels out any undulating in the wall surface.
Grouting
Grouting is define as the process of injecting a cement slurry called grout into
cavities, cracks etc. Some admixtures can be added to the grout to enhance desired properties
and effectiveness of the grouting work.
Sub-structure
Substructure is referred to the part of the structure that is below the ground level.
This levels include, column footings PCC bed, damp proof course, etc.
Super-structure
Super structure is referred to as a part of a building structure above the plinth level, it
entails, your columns, walls, slab, windows, doors, roof level, etc.
DPC( Damp Proof Course)
The DPC is a layer of waterproof material to prevent the rise of moisture from
underground substructure into the superstructure. The DPC acts as a barrier and protects the
superstructure.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is referred to the placement of steel bars into the concrete structures.
The composite material of concrete and reinforcement is called RCC. The main function of
reinforcement is to improve the tensile strength of the concrete. Reinforcement are designed
by structural engineers for specified design loads and technical specification.
General consideration of civil engineering
SITE INVESTIGATION
Site investigation is the process of investigating a proposed construction site for the purpose
of collecting, assessing and reporting information and data regarding the site.
Purpose and Objectives of Site Investigation
In A Client's Guide to Site Investigation, the AGS states that adequate site investigation is of
importance to the civil engineer for the successful completion of any building project,
The design of a structure which is economical and safe to construct, is durable and has low
maintenance costs, depends upon an adequate understanding of the nature of the ground. This
understanding comes from an appreciation of the distribution of the materials in the ground,
and their properties and behaviour under various influences and constraints during the
construction and lifetime of the structure. An adequate and properly structured site
investigation is therefore an essential part of any civil engineering or building project.
Association of Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Specialists.
The primary objective of a site investigation is to determine as accurately as may be required-
 The nature and sequence of strata;
 The ground water conditions at the site;
 The physical properties of soil and rock underlying the site;
 The mechanical properties, such as strength and compressibility of different soil or
rock strata, and
 Other specific information, when needed, such as the chemical composition of the
groundwater, and the characteristics of foundations of the adjacent structure.
Site investigation should be organized to obtain all possible information toward a thorough
understanding of the subsurface condition and probably foundation behavior.
Background Information before Subsurface Investigation. Before actual field investigation is
started, the information should, whenever possible, be collected on:
1. The type of structure to be built, its intended use;
2. Characteristics of the structure;
3. Starting date;
4. Intended construction method;
5. The estimated period of construction;
6. The probable soil condition at the site, by geological, geotechnical or aerial analysis;
7. The behavior of existing structures adjacent to the site, as well as other facts available
through local experience.
The Extent of Soil Investigation
Subsurface condition at a site may be relatively uniform or extremely variable and will
largely determine the complexity of the problems to be faced in both design and construction
of the foundations. The subsurface investigation must, therefore, be of sufficient extent to
provide enough information for a thorough understanding of the interaction of proposed
foundations and supporting soil or rock on which to base a safe and economical design.
Depth of Site Investigation
The site investigation should be carried to such a depth that the entire zone of soil or rock
affected by the changes caused by the building or the construction will be adequately
explored. This may be taken as depth at which vertical stress induced by the new construction
is smaller than 10% of the existing overburden stress at that level.
Where the depth of investigation cannot be related to background information, the following
guidelines are suggested.
 It is good to have at least one boring carried to bedrock, or to well below the
anticipated level of influence of the building.
 For light structures, insensitive to the settlement, the boring should be to a depth equal
to four times the probable footing width or to a depth of 6m below the lowest part of
the foundation, whichever is deeper.
 For more heavily loaded structures, such as multistory structures and for framed
structures, at least 50% of the borings should be extended to a depth equal to 1.5 times
the width of the building below the lowest part of the foundation, and
 Bedrock should be proved by coring into it to a minimum depth of 3m.

Stages of Site Investigation

The approach adopted for a particular site investigation, its extent and the techniques used
will all depend upon the site-specific circumstances, and the experience and judgment of
those involved. There is no single way to carry out an investigation, and inevitably different
advisors will adopt different approaches for any particular project. However, it is usual for
the site investigation to be a phased exercise.

Association of Geotechnical and Geo environmental Specialists

For any project soil investigation is usually performed in several stages, i.e., during feasibility
and planning stage, before construction and during construction (if required). These are
termed as:
1. Preliminary investigation;
2. Detailed investigation;
3. Supplementary investigation and construction control.
Preliminary Site Investigation
This phase includes gathering information such as the type of structure to be constructed and
its future use, the requirements of local building codes, and the column and load bearing wall
loads. Considerable savings in the exploration program can sometimes be realized if the
geotechnical engineer in charge of the project thoroughly reviews the existing information
regarding the subsoil conditions at the site under consideration. Useful information can be
obtained from the following sources.
1. Geologic survey maps.
2. County soil survey maps prepared by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the soil
conservation service.
3. Soil manuals published by the state highway department.
4. Existing soil exploration reports prepared for the construction of nearby structures.
5. The engineer should visually inspect the site and the surrounding area. In many cases,
the information gathered from such a trip is invaluable for future planning.
The type of vegetation at a site may in some instances the type of subsoil that will be
encountered. Open cuts near the site provide an indication about the subsoil stratification.
Cracks in the existing wall of nearby structures may indicate settlement from the possible
existence of soft clay layers or the presence of expansive clay soils.
Detailed Site Investigation
This phase consists of making several test boring at the site and collecting disturbed and
undisturbed soil sample from various depths for visual observation and for laboratory test. No
hard and first rule exists for determining the number of borings or the depth to which the test
boring is to be advanced. For most buildings, at least one boring at each corner and one at the
center should provide a start. Depending on the uniformity of the subsoil, additional test
borings may be made. The test borings should extend through unsuitable foundation materials
to firm soil layers.
Supplementary Investigation and Construction Control
The following supplementary investigation is made to give a full picture of the site
investigation of soil as well as the structure.
1. Any special features such as the possibility of each quake or climatic factors such as
flooding, seasonal swelling, and shrinkage, permafrost, or soil erosion.
2. The availability and quality of local constructional materials such
as concrete aggregates, building and road stone, and water for constructional
purposes.
3. For maritime or river structures information on normal spring and neap tide ranges,
extreme high and low tidal ranges and river levels, seasonal river levels and
discharges, the velocity of the tidal and river currents and other hydrographic and
meteorological data.
 4. Results of laboratory tests on soil and rock samples appropriate to the particular
foundation design or construction problems.
5. Results of chemical analysis of soil, fill materials, and groundwater to determine
possible deleterious effects on foundation structures.
6. Results of chemical and bacteriological analysis of contaminated soils, fill materials
and emissions to determine health hazard risks.

SITE ORGANISATION
Definitions
Site organisation is a detailed and well thought out process which ensures a healthy and safe
construction site throughout its build. An organized construction site establishing a well co-
ordination system among different parts, and performing a good site layout planning.
 Increases safety,
 Enhances productivity,
 boosts profits.
Site organisation
In general, involves many tasks, such as
 site investigation before construction process starts,
 material delivery and procurement management,
 keeping better site records,
 keeping good site communication and high level of information flow,
 monitoring performance regularly,

ELEMENTS OF SITE ORGANISATION

In Construction Site Organisation the Following Sections are important.
1. Site Administration,
2. Field Controls,
3. Field Engineering,
4. Field Material Control,
5. Construction Supervision (Subcontractor Management),
6. Safety (Site),
7. Quality (Quality Control And Inspection),
 8. Pre-commissioning Team and Hand-over Team

IMPORTANCE OF SITE ORGANISATION

Many companies today are complex systems that require more than ad hoc design and
management. In this presentation, we highlighted some of the effective site organizational
management.
 Minimising hazards for workers and visitors
 Barrier control
 risk-minimisation
 Effective site communication
 Construction efficiency

SITE PERSONNEL, MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING

Site management; of construction projects requires knowledge of modern management as
well as an understanding of the design and construction process.
Construction projects have a specific set of objectives and constraints such as a required
 Time frame for completion.
 Quality
 Cost
 Scope (range or extent of operation)

Site planning; A site layout plan shows a detailed layout of the whole site and the
relationship of the proposed works with the boundary of the property, nearby roads and
neighbouring buildings. Most applications should include an existing
Site layout plan These temporary facilities range from simple laydown areas to warehouses,
 Security
 Space available
 Site accommodation and welfare facilities
 Temporary services such as water, drainage, power
 Access to the site, impact on traffic
 Storage of materials
 Plant: Required temporary facilities and their areas are depending in many factors
including project type, scale, design, location, and organization of construction work.
Contractor's Organisational Arrangements A civil engineering contractor's organisation is
usually subdivided into two main sections - technical and non-technical. The responsibilities
of the technical section are likely to include the following:
 1. All civil engineering services, including the preparation of designs for temporary and
permanent structures and the planning and programming of work;
2. Estimating and tendering, preparation of specifications and quantities, interpretation
and application of contract conditions, and negotiations with the engineer;
3. Supervision of constructional work, monitoring of progress, preparation of reports,
liaison with the engineer, purchasing of materials and equipment, and preparation of
monthly valuations;
4. Quality control, research and development, site investigations and geotechnical
processes;
5. Operation of central plant and transport depots with workshops and repair facilities,
routine inspection of plant and equipment, and purchases and sales of plant; and
6. Staff training.
The non-technical section deals with a wide range of activities including:
a. Secretarial and legal matters;
b. Finance, accounts, audits, payments, cash and payroll checks;
c. Insurance, licences and taxation returns;
d. Orders, monitoring deliveries and checking invoices;
e. Cost records and analyses;
f. Plant and transport records and registers;
g. General correspondence and records;
h. Labour relations; and
i. Staff training and development.
Site Personnel
The contractor should send sufficient experienced technical and clerical staff to the site at the
start of the contract to ensure that all necessary preparatory work is undertaken on the site.
The full complement of site staff on a large project can be extensive and the principal
members of staff and their main functions are now described.
Agent
An agent, or project manager as he is sometimes called, is normally appointed to control the
contractor's site organisation. He is usually an experienced engineer and he is generally given
wide discretionary powers by the contractor. In addition to sound engineering and contractual
experience, he must possess good qualities of leadership and integrity. The agent's main
duties are to ensure that the works are administered effectively and that construction is
carried out economically, in accordance with the contract documents and that they satisfy the
requirements of the engineer's representative.
Agent's Staff
The agent is supported by both technical and non-technical staff with their numbers and
duties dependent on the size of the project. For instance, the personnel might comprise an
engineer, general foreman, plant and transport foreman, cashier, timekeeper and storekeeper.
Larger contracts require proportionately larger staffs. The allocation of duties will be
influenced by many factors, including the locality and nature of the work, the amount of
assistance from head office and the experience and capability of the available personnel. The
allocation of duties should seek to ensure smooth and effective communication and the ability
to introduce checks at critical points.

TEMPORARY WORKS EARTHWORKS

Examples of temporary works in construction include earthworks, such as trenches,
excavations and temporary slopes; or structures, like formwork, falsework, types of
cofferdam and cofferdam installations, scaffolding and temporary bridges.
Types of temporary works
 Scaffolding
 Façade retention
 Crane supports
 Falsework
 Formwork
 Trench support
 Timber supports
 Trench boxes
 Trench sheets

CONSTRUCTION MACHINARIES AND EQUIPMENTS

There is several equipment that is been used in the Construction Industry. These are used for
both large and small scale purposes. Various types of Equipment are been used for Building
& structural Construction, Road construction, underwater and other marine construction work
Power projects etc. There are various operations that are involved in construction projects ,
whether it‟s a large scale or a small scale; Excavation and digging of large quantities of earth,
Placement of construction materials (eg:-Bricks, concrete) Compacting and levelling, Dozing,
Grading, Hauling etc…
Construction equipment can be categorized in to 4 main sections based on purpose and use,
They are:
1. Earth Moving equipment
2. Construction vehicle
3. Material Handling Equipment
4. Construction Equipment

EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT

i. Excavators; An excavator is a construction vehicle used to excavate or move large
objects. An Excavator is basically made up of 2 parts: a driving base associated a
powerful boom arm with an attachment designed for excavating. The operator sits
within a small cab connected to the base and controls the arm. The excavator uses a
Hydraulic system to generate a Hydraulic force to control the mechanical arm of the
 machine. It also uses a chain wheel system for it‟s movement. Excavators are been
used in large and small scale constructions. They are used for small housing projects to
do a cut and fill, used in road construction, used in marine structures to place armors
and large rocks, and also been used in larger sites to excavate, move construction
material, remove construction waste etc.
There are several types of excavation, which are classified on use, brand and purpose.
 Digging of trenches, holes, foundations
 Demolition
 Material handling
 General grading/landscaping
 Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments
 Forestry work
 Lifting and placing of pipes
 Mining, especially, but not only open-pit mining
 River dredgingators which are classified on use, brand and purpose.

ii. Graders
A grader is a construction machine with a long blade used to create a flat surface. It is
commonly called in names such as road grader, a blade, a maintainer and motor grader
Graders are mostly been use d in road construction for construction and maintenance of dirt
roads and gravel roads. The grader typically consists of three axles, with the engine and cab
situated top, the rear axles at one end of the vehicle and a third axle at the front end of the
vehicle, with the blade in between. In the construction of paved roads they are used to prepare
the base course to create a wide flat surface for the asphalt to be placed on.
They are also used to set native soil foundation pads to finish grade prior to the construction
of large buildings. Many countries use grader for the flatting process that is done before the
placing of Asphalt. Graders too have various types; some consist a large fork front, and some
consist of a flat blade front, w hich vary from different sizes.
iii. Loaders
A loader is a heavy equipment machine frequently used in construction industry, mainly used
to Load material (such as demolition waste, feed, gravel raw minerals, used material, rock,
and plywood) into or onto another type of machinery (such as a dump truckload). Loaders
have a very higher productivity and a lower maintenance cost unlike most of the other large
scale construction machines.
The Loader has a large bucket with a shorter moving arm. Large quantities of material such
as soil, construction material, etc can be moved from this. The loader consists of four large
wheels for its movement. Loaders are best suited for earth moving, road construction,
agricultural purposes, and also in large and small scale constructions which include marine
structures. Loaders too are available in various types based on its use and brand.
 iv. Skid loader
A skid loader or skid-steer loader is a small rigid frame, engine-powered machine with lift
arms used to attach a wide variety of labor-saving tools or attachments. Though occasionally
they are equipped with tracks, skid-steer loaders are typically four-wheel vehicles with the
wheels mechanically locked in synchronization on each side, and the left-side drive wheels
can be driven independently of the right-side drive wheels.
v. Crawler loaders
The crawler loader combines the stability of the crawler tractor with the abilities of a wheel
loader. However, to construct a reliable crawler loader it requires more than simply attaching
a loader bucket onto a crawler tractor. It must be considered with its specific purpose in mind
to ensure. It has the strength to survive heavy excavating. The introduction of hydraulic
excavators reduced the market for the crawler loader because it was incapable to match the
excavator‟s lifting power and fl exibility.
crawler loaders are capable of maneuvering across the entire construction site under its own
power, whereas most hydraulic excavators require towing or transport. While crawler tractors
are still being manufactured today.
vi. Backhoe
A backhoe, also known a rear actor or back actor, is a section of excavating equipment or
digger consisting of a digging bucket on the end of a two-part articulated arm. They are
typically mounted on the back of a tractor or front loader.
The section of the arm nearby to the vehicle is known as the boom, and the section which
carries the bucket is known as the dipper or dipper stick (the terms “boom” and “dipper”
having been used previously on steam shovels). The boom is attached to the vehicle through a
pivot known as the kingpost, which allows the arm to slew left and right, usually through a
total of around 200 degrees. Modern backhoes are powered by hydraulics.

vii. Bulldozers
A bulldozer is a crawler (continuous Tracked tractor) with a substantial metal plate used
(known as blade) fitted to push large amounts of soil, sand, dirt or other materials when
construction or remodeling and usually push on the back with a claw mechanism (Known as
ripper) to loosen densely-compacted materials.

viii. Trenchers
It is sometimes called as Ditchers or Trenches, are similar to excavators in the sense that
penetrate the soil, break soil and rock, and from the earth.They differ from excavators in that
the soil is removed in one continuous movement. Digging trenches for pipes used specifically
for, but other machines have been improvised in the past in order to serve this purpose.
 Trenchers can come in two types
 Ladder trenchers
Wheel trenchers; can dig trenches at speeds that other machines cannot compare to.
ix. Scrapers
The scraper is a large piece of equipment used in mining, construction, agriculture and other
earth moving applications When the hopper is full it is raised, and closed with a vertical blade
(other name: apron). The scraper can carriage its load to the fill area where the blade is
raised, the back panel of the hopper, or the ejector, is hydraulically pushed forward and the
load tumbles out. Then the empty scraper returns to the cut site and repeats the cycle.
x. Wheeled loading shovels
Loading shovels are loaded where it counts, pushing the front end bucket loader efficiency
higher. From mini loaders to large production machines, find the right fit for the work in load
and carry operations, civil & building construction, earth moving, waste handling, recycling,
landscaping, quarrying, aggregates, block handling, lumber yards, agriculture and more.
A shovel‟s work cycle, or digging cycle, consists of four phases:
 digging
 Swinging
 Dumping
 Returning

2. CONSTRUCTION VEHICLE
i. Tippers
A truck or lorry the rear platform of which can be raised at the front end to allow the load to
be discharged by gravity also called tip truck. Tippers are suited for the rough and tumble of
mining & quarrying operations, as well as for carrying bulk loads in construction and
infrastructure industries. Complete manoeuvrability, high performance and long-term
endurance are common to all trucks, resulting in lower operational costs.
ii. Dumbers
A dump truck is a vehicle designed to transport bulk material, often in construction. It has a
open jump ahead with the driver seat, and consist of a large box like body to contain
materials. A dumper usually has 4 Wheels, where the entire load and the movement depends
on. The jump can tipped to be the load dump; This is where the name “dumper” comes. They
are usually diesel engine. A towing eye is equipped for use as a tractor secondary site.
Modern dumpers have payloads up to 10 tons and usually articulate perform in the middle of
the housing. There are various sizes of dumpers in the present construction industry. Apart
from using them for construction, they are also been used in Large mining tunnels and gem
excavations to remove soil and other substances.
iii. Trailers
A trailer is generally an unpowered vehicle towed by a powered vehicle. It is commonly used
for the transport of goods and materials. Sometimes recreational vehicles, travel trailers, or
mobile homes with limited living facilities, where people can camp or stay have been referred
to as trailers. In earlier days, many such vehicles were towable trailers.
Commonly, the term trailer refers to such vehicles used for transport of goods and materials
in construction or other related field.
iv. Tankers
A tank truck (USA usage) or road tanker (UK usage) is a motor vehicle designed to carry
liquefied loads, dry bulk cargo or gases on roads. The largest such vehicles are similar to
railroad tank cars which are also designed to carry liquefied loads. Many variants exist due to
the wide variety of liquids that can be transported. In construction its use for carrying
concrete mixed

3. MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

a. Crane
A crane is a type of machine commonly used in construction, generally equipped with an
elevator, ropes or chains and sheaves that can be used both to move and to lift and lower
materials horizontally. It is mainly used for heavy lifting and transport to other locations.
One or more simple machines are used to provide a mechanical benefit and thus to move
loads on the normal ability of a person. Cranes are commonly employed in the transport
industry for the loading and unloading of goods for the movement of materials and
manufacturing industries for mounting agricultural machinery, in the construction industry.
b. Conveyors
A conveyor system could be a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that moves
materials from one location to a different. Conveyors are especially useful in applications
involving the transport of heavy or bulky materials. Conveyor systems allow quick and
efficient transport for a wide sort of materials, which make them very popular within the
material handling and packaging industries
c. Hoists
Hoist is a device for raising or lowering a load by means of a drum or wheel lift to which
wraps the rope or chain. It can be operated by hand, is driven electrically or pneumatically,
and the chain or wire rope fibers are used as lifting device. The load connected to the lifting
means of a lifting hook, Also known as a man-lift, Buck-hoist, temporal lift, builder forklifts,
lift or elevator, is this kind of lift is often in large construction projects large as tall buildings
or large hospitals. There are many other uses for the elevator. other industries use the buck
hoist for full-time operations. The purpose is to transfer its personnel, material and equipment
between the ground and the upper floors, or between plants in the middle of a structure.

d. ForkLifts
A forklift truck (lift truck, fork truck, forklift,tow-motor) is a powered industrial truck used to
lift and transport materials. Forklift trucks are available in many variations and load
capacities. In a typical warehouse setting most forklifts used have load capacities between
one to five tons. Larger machines, up to 50 tons lift capacity are used for lifting heavier loads.
4.CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
a. Concrete Mixture
A Concrete (Cement Mixer) is a machine that combines cement evenly to form aggregates
such as sand or gravel and water to concrete. A typical concrete mixer using a rotating drum
for mixing the components. For smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are regularly
used for concrete, can be produced at the site, so that workers have enough time to use the
concrete before it hardens time.
Special trucks for transporting concrete produced and ready-mix concrete to the construction
site. They can be charged with dry materials and water, with the mixing occurring during
transport. With this method, the material was mixed. The concrete truck transportation of
liquid mixture maintained material by movement or rotation of the drum to the delivery.
b. Compactors
A compactor is a machine or mechanism used to material soil through compaction in
construction industry. In construction, there are three main types of compactor: Plate
compactor, Jumping Jack, Road roller. The roller type compactors are used for compacting
crushed rock as the base layer underneath concrete or stone foundations or slabs. The plate
compactor has a large vibrating base plate and is suited for creating a level grade, while the
jumping jack compactor has a smaller foot.
The jumping jack type is mainly used to compact the backfill in narrow trenches for water or
gas supply pipes etc. Road rollers may also have vibrating rollers.
c. Pavers
A paver (paver finisher, asphalt finisher, paving machine) is an engineering vehicle used to
lay asphalt on roadways. It is normally fed by a dump truck. A separate machine, a roller, is
then used to press the hot asphalt mix, resulting a smooth, even surface. The sub-base being
prepared by use of a grader to trim crushed stone to profile after rolling
d. Road Rollers
Road roller (sometimes called a roller-compactor, or just roller) is a compactor type
engineering vehicle used to compact soil, gravel, concrete, or asphalt in the construction of
roads and foundations, similar rollers are used also at landfills or in agriculture.

5. TUNNELING EQUIPMENT
 Road Headers
A road header machine called a boom type road header. Road headers are advanced, self
forced and extremely powerful rock cutting machines are designed to excavate roadways,
tunnels and compartments continuously without using volatile. Powered electro
hydraulically, they produce no fumes and are used extensively in mineral mining, coal
mining and underground construction projects, where their capacity to excavate the desired
profile without causing damaging vibrations is highly valued for both safety environmental
reasons.
It is a piece of excavating equipment consisting of a boom mounted cutting head, a loading
machine usually involving a conveyor and a crawler travelling track to move the whole
machine forward into the rock face. The road header also includes separate part, multi
purpose hydraulic cutting heads for increasing on excavators.
The cutting head can be a general purpose rotating drum mounted in line or perpendicular to
the boom or can be particular function heads such as jack hammer like spikes, compression
fracture micro wheel heads like those on larger tunnel boring machines like a gigantic chain
saw for dicing up rock or simple jaw like buckets of traditional excavators.
 Construction road headers
Road headers for construction are set with powerful, transverse cutter heads proven to give
the best cutting performance in a wide range of rock formations. Subway tunnels, shaft
sinking, rehabilitation of existing tunnels, road tunnels and excavation of underground
caverns are some examples where these machines have established their great flexibility.
 Mining road headers
Road headers for mining are prepared with powerful, transverse cutter heads proven to give
an unparalleled cutting performance in a wide range formation of rock. Mounted on an
extremely robust hydraulic boom they are reliable, rugged, highly creative result for both
development and direct production duties.
 Hydraulic cutting heads
Hydraulic cutting heads are designed to be increase on suitable excavators quickly and easily.
With transverse cutting structures, tried, geometrically optimized and tested on some of the
world‟s most rocky mining and tunneling machines, they are well organized, multi use tools
for various applications including scaling, production, tunnel treatment, roadway leveling,
trenching and demolition.
 Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM)
Bored tunneling by using a Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) is frequently used for excavating
long tunnels. Tunneling Boring Machine (TBM) are all the time more used for tunneling with
difficult and complex geological environment, including rock and soil mixed and interfaced
grounds, bursting rocks, squeezing and swelling grounds, highly rocks fractured, shear and
fault zones and grounds under high in situ stress and water pressure.
Tunnel Boring Machine may be suitable for excavating tunnels which contain competent
rocks that can provide adequate geological stability for boring a long section tunnel without
structural support. However, very hard rock can cause major wear of the TBM rock cutter
and may slow down the progress of the tunneling works to the point where TBM becomes
useless and uneconomical and may take longer time than the drill and blast tunneling method.
Bored Tunneling Benefits
 Possible environmental impacts in terms of dust, noise and visual on sensitive
receives are much reduced and are restricted to those located near the launching and
retrieval shafts
  Compared with the cut and cover approach, trouble to local traffic and associated
environmental crash would be much reduced

ELEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION (in building)

The element of constructions can be seen as used in domestic (residential), industrial and
multi-storey buildings structures. Elements mainly considered in building construction in
foundation, floor, walls, staircase, roofing and covering frames, space construction and fire
protection.
When designing a building, an architect plans for spatial, environmental and visual
requirements. Once these requirements are satisfied, it is necessary to detail the fabric of the
building. The choice of materials and the manner in which they are put together to form
building elements, such as the foundation, walls, floor and roof, depend largely upon their
properties relative to environmental requirements and their strength. The process of building
construction thus involves an understanding of: the nature and characteristics of a number of
materials; the methods to process them and form them into building units and components;
structural principles; stability and behaviour under load; building production operations; and
building economics.
The limited number of materials available in the rural areas of Africa has resulted in a limited
number of structural forms and methods of construction. Different socio-economic conditions
and cultural beliefs are reflected in varying local building traditions. While knowledge of the
indigenous building technology is widespread, farmers and their families normally can erect a
building using traditional materials and methods without the assistance of skilled or
specialized craftsmen. However, population growth and external influences are gradually
changing people‟s lives and agricultural practices, while some traditional materials are
becoming scarce.
Hence, a better understanding of traditional materials and methods is needed to allow them to
be used more efficiently and effectively. While complete understanding of the indigenous
technology will enable architects to design and detail good but cheap buildings, new
materials with differing properties may need to be introduced to complement the older ones
and allow for new structural forms to develop.

Loads on building components

Loads are usually divided into the following categories:
Dead loads, which result from the mass of all the elements of the building, including
footings, foundation, walls, suspended floors, frame and roof. These loads are permanent,
fixed and relatively easy to calculate.
Live loads, which result from the mass of animals, people, equipment and stored products.
Although the mass of these loads can be calculated readily, the fact that the number or
amount of components may vary considerably from time to time makes live loads more
difficult to estimate than dead loads. Live loads also include the forces resulting from natural
phenomena, such as wind, earthquakes and snow.
Where wind velocities have been recorded, the following equation can be used to determine
the expected pressures on building walls:

FOUNDATIONS
A foundation is necessary to support the building and the loads within or on the building. The
combination of footing and foundation distributes the load on the bearing surface, keeps the
building level and plumb, and reduces settling to a minimum. When properly designed, there
should be little or no cracking in the foundation, and no water leaks. The footing and
foundation should be made of a material that will not fail in the presence of ground or surface
water. Before the footing for the foundation can be designed, it is necessary to determine the
total load to be supported. If, for some reason, the load is concentrated in one or more areas,
this will need to be taken into consideration. Once the load is determined, the soil-bearing
characteristics of the site must be studied.
There are two type of foundations which are the shallow and deep foundations,

Shallow foundation:
Continuous or strip foundations; may be used either as basement walls or as curtain walls.
A continuous wall for the basement of a building must not only support the building but also
provide a waterproof barrier capable of resisting the lateral force of the soil on the outside.
However, because of the structural problems and the difficulty of excluding water, it is
recommended to avoid basement constructions in all but a few special circumstances.

Deep foundations; are foundations that extends deeper into the soil.
Pier foundations; are often used to support the timber frames of light buildings with no
suspended floors. They require much less excavation and building material. The stone or
concrete piers are usually set on footings. However, for very light buildings, the pier may
take the form of a precast concrete block set on firm soil a few centimetres below ground
level. The size of the piers is often given by the weight required to resist wind uplift of the
whole building.

Pad and pole foundations consist of small concrete pads poured in the bottom of holes,
which support pressure-treated poles. The poles are long enough to extend and support the
roof structure. This is probably the least expensive type of foundation and is very satisfactory
for light buildings with no floor loads and where pressure-treated poles are available.
A floating slab or raft foundation consists of a poured-concrete floor in which the outer
edges are thickened to between 20 cm and 30 cm and reinforced. This is a simple system for
small buildings that must have a secure joint between the floor and the sidewalls.

FLOORS
Floor can be defined as the horizontal structure which carries imposed and live loads in a
building and divides a building into storeys. It plays an important role in a building.
Building floors may be as simple as compacting the soil present on the site before the
building is constructed, or as complex as attractively finished hardwood parquet. A well-
chosen, well-built floor offers protection from vermin and rodents, is easy to clean, and is
dry, durable and a valuable asset to a building. For special circumstances, it may be designed
to be washable, particularly attractive, thermally insulated, sloped to a drain or perfectly
smooth and level. For farm buildings, including homes, simple floors offering hard, durable
surfaces at ground level (grade) are probably adequate for the vast majority of situations.
Floors may be built at ground level, i.e. on the soil within the building, in which case they are
called „solid‟ or „grade‟ floors, or they may be supported on joists and beams, in which case
they are called „suspended‟ or „above-grade‟ floors. The finished level of a solid floor should
be at least 150 mm above the outside ground level as a protection against flooding. The
topsoil should be removed and replaced with coarse material before the actual floor slab is
constructed.
Functional Requirements of Floor
• Adequate strength and stability to support the loads that comes on it.
• Resistance to sound penetration
• Resistance to moisture penetration
• Thermal resistance
• Fire resistance
• Durability
• Hard wearing
WALLS
This is usually the vertical continuous part of a building which encloses or protects the
buildingor divides the building into rooms and compartments. It is made up of blocks,
concrete, mortar,stones, metals etc
Walls may be divided into two types according to loads:
(a) Load-bearing walls that support loads from floors and roof in addition to their own
weight and resist side-pressure from wind and, in some cases, from stored material or objects
within the building.
(b) Non-load-bearing walls that carry no floor or roof loads.
Each type may be further divided into external or enclosing walls, and internal dividing walls.
The term „partition‟ is applied to walls, either load-bearing or non-load-bearing, that divide
the space within a building into rooms.
Good-quality walls provide strength and stability, weather resistance, fire resistance, thermal
insulation and acoustic insulation.

TYPES OF WALLS
While there are various ways to construct a wall and many different materials can be used,
walls can be divided into four main groups.
Masonry walls, where the wall is built of individual blocks of materials such as brick, clay,
concrete block or stone, usually in horizontal courses bonded together with some form of
mortar. Several earth-derived products, either air-dried or fired, are reasonable in cost and
well suited to the climate.
Monolithic walls, where the wall is built of a material placed in forms during construction.
The traditional earth wall and the modern concrete wall are examples. Earth walls are
inexpensive and durable if placed on a good foundation and protected from rain by rendering
or wide roof overhangs.
Frame walls, where the wall is constructed as a frame of relatively small members, usually
of timber, at close intervals, which, together with facing or sheathing on one or both sides,
form a load-bearing system. Offcuts are a low-cost material to use for a frame-wall covering.
Membrane walls, where the wall is constructed as a sandwich of two thin skins or sheets of
reinforced plastic, metal, asbestos cement or other suitable material bonded to a core of
foamed plastic to produce a thin wall element with high strength and low weight.

Another form of construction suitable for framed or earth buildings consists of relatively light
sheeting secured to the face of the wall to form the enclosed element. These are generally
termed „claddings‟.
Factors that determine the type of wall to be used are:
  the materials available at a reasonable cost;
 the availability of craft workers capable of using the materials in the best way;
 climate;
 the use of the building and functional requirements.
The height of walls should allow people to walk freely and work in a room without knocking
their heads on the ceiling, beams, etc. In dwellings with ceilings, 2.4 metres is a suitable
height. Low roofs or ceilings in a house create a depressing atmosphere and tend to make the
rooms warmer in hot weather.
Functional Requirements of Walls
• Openings for daylight and ventilation
• Fire resistance to provide security and stability in the event of fire
• Adequate strength to resist being crushed by the loads from floors and roofs they support
• Durability to withstand the condition under which it will function
• Adequate stability to resist other forces such as wind pressure and roof loads.

STAIRCASES
Stairs and ladders
One can define stair as a number of steps leading from one level to another, and its function
is to provide means of movement between floor to floor in storey building, and as well
serves, as means of escape from upper floors in case of fire accident.
Functional requirements of stair case
• Stability
• Fire resistance
• Sound insulation
• Strength
Safety requirements of staircase
• Durability
• Headroom
• Balustrades
• Ventilation and light window
• Handrail
• Uniform steps
Types of Staircase
Straight flight (not more than 15 steps)
This is kind of stair that has only one or more flight in straights order and it has not more
than fifteen steps before landing. This is most suitable where space is limited and can not
accommodate other types of stairs.
Open well stair (with 2/4 space landing)
This is a kind of stair which has two quarter space of landing and space in between the two
flight.
Spiral staircase:
This is a kind of stair that one ascending will have to turn to complete circle before he could
reach the floor above.
The angle, which is governed by the height and the horizontal distance available, will
determine the most suitable means of moving from one level to another.
 For a slope up to 1:8 (7°), a ramp is suitable for both walking and pushing a
wheelbarrow.
 For walking alone, a 1:4 (14°) slope is satisfactory provided that it remains
permanently dry.
 For slopes between 1:3 and 1:0.8 (18° to 50°), stairways are possible, although 30° to
35° is preferred. Angles steeper than 50° require a ladder or ladder-stairway.
 Temporary ladders should be set up at 60° to 75°, while a fixed ladder may be vertical
if necessary.
Ramps: Ramps may be made of tamped earth or concrete. An earth ramp should be made of a
mixture of fine gravel and clay: the gravel to give texture for a nonslip surface and the clay to
serve as a binder. The surface of a ramp constructed of concrete should be „broomed‟ across
its slope after having been poured and struck off.
Stairs: Stairs can be designed as one straight flight, with a landing and a 90° turn, or with a
landing and a 180° turn. The straight flight is the simplest, the least expensive and the easiest
for moving large objects up or down. However, stairs with a landing are considered safer
because a person cannot fall as far.
Definitions and descriptions of terms relating to stairways (see Figure 8.80):
Angle block: A glued angle block is the junction between the tread and riser to reduce
movements and creaking.
Balusters: The vertical members between the stringer and the handrail.
Going: The horizontal distance between the nosings, or risers, of two consecutive steps. This
is sometimes called the „run‟ or the „tread‟.
Handrail: A safety rail, parallel to the stringers and spanning between newels at either end.
This can be attached to the wall above, and parallel to, a wall stringer. The vertical distance
between the stringer and handrail should be 850 mm to 900 mm.
Headroom: The vertical distance between the treads and any obstruction over the stairway,
usually the lower edge of a floor. The headroom should be at least 2 metres.
Housing: The treads and risers can be housed in grooves in the stringers, or supported on
beads that are nailed and glued to the stringers. In both cases they should be secured with
wedges and glue.
Newel post: The post supporting the handrail at the bottom, turn and top of a staircase.
Pitch: Usually 30°–35°.

Rise: The vertical distance between two consecutive treads.

Risers: The vertical members between consecutive treads. Sometime the riser is omitted
(open riser) for simplicity and economy. In that case, the treads should overlap by 25 mm to
35 mm.
Steps: The combined treads and risers.
Stringers: The inclined beams supporting the steps. The strength required for the stringers
will depend on the load and method of support. They may be supported only at the ends or
continuously along the wall.
Treads: The members that are stepped upon as a person climbs the stairs. The treads must be
strong enough to carry and transfer the imposed load to the stringers without excessive
deflection. They should have a non-slippery surface. The treads can be housed in grooves in
the stringers or supported on beads that are nailed and glued to the stringers. In both cases
they are secured with wedges nailed and glued to the stringer.
Width: Sufficient width for two people to pass requires a width of 1.1 metre. A minimum
width of 600 mm can be used for traffic of people not carrying anything.
The pitch for most stairs should not exceed 42° nor be less than 30° and, for stairs in regular
use, a maximum of 35° is recommended. For most stairs, a minimum going of 250 mm and a
maximum of 300 mm should be adopted, although in domestic stairs a minimum of 200 mm
is acceptable for stairs that are used infrequently. A rise of between 150 mm and 220 mm is
usually satisfactory.
Comfort in the use of stairs depends largely on the relative dimensions of the rise and going
of the steps. Rules for determining the proportion are based on the assumptions that about
twice as much effort is required to ascend as to walk horizontally, and that the pace of an
average person measures about 585 mm. Thus, the fact that a 300 mm going with a rise of
140 mm or 150 mm is generally accepted as comfortable, results in the rule that the going
plus twice the rise should equal 580 mm to 600 mm. It is essential to keep the dimensions of
the treads and risers constant throughout any flight of steps, to reduce the risk of accidents
caused by changing the rhythm of movement up or down the stairway. Stairs are constructed
by gluing and wedging the treads and risers into the housing grooves in the stringers to form
a rigid unit, as shown in Stairs are designed to be either fixed to a wall with one outer
stringer, fixed between walls, or freestanding, with the majority of stairways having one wall
stringer and one outer stringer.
The wall stringer is fixed directly to the wall along its entire length or is fixed to timber
battens plugged to the wall. The outer stringer is supported at both ends by the posts. The
posts also serve as the termination point for handrails that span between them. The space
between the handrail and the tread may be filled with balusters, balustrade or a solid panel to
improve both the safety and the appearance of the stairway. Reinforced concrete is better
suited for outdoor stairs than timber. The number, diameter and spacing of the main and
distribution reinforcement for each stairway must always be calculated by an experienced

designer.

ROOFING AND COVERING FRAMES

A roof is an essential part of any building, in that it provides the necessary protection from
rain, sun, wind, heat and cold. The integrity of the roof is important for the structure of the
building itself, as well as for the occupants and the goods stored within the building. The roof
structure (building) must be designed to withstand the dead load imposed by the roofing and
framing, as well as the forces of wind and, in some areas, snow or drifting dust. The roofing
must be leak proof and durable and may have to satisfy other requirements such as fire-
resistance, good thermal insulation or a high thermal capacity.
There is a wide variety of roof shapes, frames and coverings from which to choose. The
choice is related to factors such as the size and use of the building, its anticipated life and
appearance, and the availability and cost of materials. Roofs may be classified in three ways,
according to:
1. The plane of the surface, i.e. whether it is horizontal or pitched.
2. The structural principles of the design, i.e. the manner in which the forces set up by
external loads is resolved within the structure.
3. The span.

TYPES OF ROOFS
Flat roof
The flat roof is a simple design for large buildings in which columns are not a disadvantage.
Although simple beams can be used for spans up to about 5 metres, with longer spans it is
necessary to use deep beams, web beams or trusses for adequate support. As farm buildings
often need large areas free of columns, it is not common to find flat roofs with built-up
roofing.
Flat roofs are prone to leaks. To prevent pools of water from collecting on the surface, they
are usually built with a minimum slope of 1:20 to provide drainage. The roof structure
consists of the supporting beams, decking, insulation and a waterproof surface. The decking,
which provides a continuous support for the insulation and surface, can be made of timber
boards, plywood, chipboard, metal or asbestos-cement decking units or concrete slabs.
The insulation material improves the thermal resistance and is placed either above or below
the decking. The most common design for a waterproof surface is the built-up roof using
roofing felt. This material consists of a fibre, asbestos or glass fibre base that has been
impregnated with hot bitumen. The minimum pitch recommended for built-up roofs is 1:20 or
3°, which is also near the maximum if creeping of the felt layers is to be prevented.
Earth roof
Soil-covered roofs have good thermal insulation and a high capacity for storing heat. The
traditional earth roof is subject to erosion during rain, and requires regular maintenance to
prevent leakage. The roof is laid rather flat, with a slope of 1:6 or less.
The supporting structure should be generously designed of preservative-treated or termite-
resistant timber or poles, and should be inspected and maintained periodically because a
sudden collapse of this heavy structure could cause great harm. The durability of the mud
cover can be improved by stabilizing the top layer of soil with cement, and it can be
waterproofed by placing a plastic sheet under the soil.
Monopitch roof
Monopitch roofs slope in only one direction and have no ridge. They are easy to build,
comparatively inexpensive and recommended for use on many farm buildings. The maximum
span with timber members is about 5 metres, so wider buildings will require intermediate
supports. Also, wide buildings with this type of roof will have a high front wall, which
increases the cost and leaves the bottom of the high wall relatively unprotected by the roof
overhang. When using corrugated steel or asbestos-cement sheets, the slope should be not
less than 1:3 (17° to 18°). A lower sloping angle may cause leakage, as strong winds can
force water up the slope.
Double-pitched (gable) roof
A gable roof normally has a centre ridge with a slope to either side of the building. With this
design, the use of timber rafters provides for a greater free span (7–8 metres) than a
monopitch roof. Although the monopitch design may be less expensive for building widths
up to 10 metres, the inconvenience of many support columns favours the gable roof. The
gable roof may be built in a wide range of pitches to suit any of several types of roofing
material. Figure 8.41 shows a number of the elements associated with a gable roof. The
following description refers
 The bottom notch in the rafter that rests on the plate is called the „seat cut‟ or „plate
cut‟.
 The top cut that rests against the ridge board is called the „ridge cut‟.
 The line running parallel with the edge of the rafter from the outer point of the seat
cut to the centre of the ridge is called the „work line‟.
 The length of the rafter is the distance along the work line from the intersection with
the corner of the seat cut to the intersection with the ridge cut.
 If a ridge board is used, half the thickness of the ridge board must be removed from
the length of each rafter.
 The „rise‟ of the rafter is the vertical distance from the top of the plate to the junction
of the workline at the ridge.
 The „run‟ of the rafter is the horizontal distance from the outside of the plate to the
centreline of the ridge.
 The portion of the rafter outside the plate is called the „rafter tail‟.
 The „collar beam‟ or „cross-tie‟ prevents the load on the rafters from forcing the walls
apart, which would allow the rafter to drop at the ridge. The lower the collar beam is
placed, the more effective it will be. Occasionally, small buildings with strong walls
are designed without collar beams.
The only advantage of this design is the clear space all the way to the rafters. Scissor trusses,
at the same time allow some clear space.
 The right-hand rafter shows purlins spanning the rafters and supporting a rigid roofing
material, such as galvanized steel or asbestos-cement roofing.
 The left-hand rafter is covered with a tight deck made of timber boards, plywood or
chipboard. It is usually covered with a flexible roofing material such as roll asphalt
roofing.
 The left-hand eave is enclosed with a vertical „fascia‟ board and a horizontal „soffit‟
board.
 The pitch is shown on the small triangle on the right side.

Hipped roof
A hip roof has a ridge in the centre and four slopes. Its construction is much more
complicated, requiring compound angles to be cut on all of the shortened rafters and
provision for deep hip rafters running from the ridge to the wall plate to carry the top ends of
the jack rafters. The tendency of the inclined thrust of the hip rafters to push out the walls at
the corners is overcome by tying the two wall plates together with an angle tie. At the hips
and valleys, the roofing material has to be cut at an angle to make it fit. The valleys are prone
to leakage, and special care has to be taken in the construction.
Four gutters are needed to collect the rainwater from the roof, but this does not necessarily
mean that there will be an increase in the amount of water collected. As this is an expensive
and difficult way to roof a building, it is only recommended in cases where it is necessary to
protect mud walls or unplastered brick walls against heavy driving rain and, for wide
buildings, to reduce the height of the end walls.

Conical roof
The conical roof is a three-dimensional structure that is commonly used in rural areas. It is
easy to assemble and can be built with locally available materials, making it inexpensive. It
must be constructed with a slope appropriate to the roofing materials to prevent it from
leaking. The conical roof design is limited to rather short spans and to either circular
buildings or to small, square buildings. It does not allow for any extension. If modern roofing
materials are used, there is considerable waste because of the amount of cutting needed to
secure a proper fit.
A conical roof structure requires rafters and purling and, in circular buildings, a wall plate in
the form of a ring beam. This ring beam has three functions:
1. To distribute the load from the roof evenly to the wall.
2. To supply a fixing point for the rafters.
3. To resist the tendency of the inclined rafters to press the walls outwards radially by
developing tensile stress in the ring beam. If the ring beam is properly designed to resist these
forces and secondary ring beams are installed closer to the centre, a conical roof can be used
on fairly large circular buildings.
In the case of square buildings, the outward pressure on the walls from the inclined rafters
cannot be converted to pure tensile stress in the wall plate. This makes it more like the hip
roof structure and it should be designed with angle ties across the wall plates at the corners.
Roofing for pitched roofs
Desirable characteristics for roof surfacing materials are:
1. Resistance to the penetration of rain, snow and dust, and resistance to wind effects (both
pressure and suction).
2. Durability under the effects of rain, snow, solar radiation and atmospheric pollution, in
order to minimize maintenance over the lifetime of the roof.
3. Light in weight, but with sufficient strength to support imposed loads, so that economically
sized supporting members can be used.
4. Acceptable fire resistance.
5. Reasonable standard of thermal and acoustic insulation.
6. Acceptable appearance.
7. Reasonable cost over the lifetime of the roof.
The roof shape, type of structure and slope determine the types of roofing material that are
suitable. The minimum slope on which a material can be used depends on exposure to the
wind, the type of joint and overlap, porosity and the size of the unit.
THATCH OR COVERING FRAMES
Thatch is a very common roofing material in rural areas. It has good thermal insulation
qualities and helps to maintain reasonably uniform temperatures within the building, even
when outside temperatures vary considerably. The level of noise from rain splashing on the
roof is low but, during long, heavy rains, some leakage may occur. Although thatch is easy to
maintain, it may also harbour insects, pests and snakes. A number of different plant materials,
such as grass, reeds, papyrus, palm leaves and banana leaves, are suitable and inexpensive
when locally available.
Although the materials are cheap, thatching is rather labour-intensive and requires some skill.
The durability of thatch is relatively low. In the case of grass, major repairs will be required
every two to three years, but when thatch is laid well by a specialist and properly maintained,
it can last for 30 years or more. Although the supporting structure of wooden poles or
bamboo is simple, it must be strong enough to carry the weight of wet thatch. The use of
thatch is limited to rather narrow buildings because the supporting structure would otherwise
be complicated and expensive, and the rise of the roof would be very high owing to the need
for a very steep slope. Palm leaves should have a slope of at least 1:1.5 (but preferably 1:1)
and grass thatch should have a minimum of 1:1 (but preferably 1:0.6). Increasing the slope
will improve durability and reduce the risk of leakage. The risk of fire is extremely high but
may be reduced by treating the thatch with a fire retardant, as described later.

Grass thatch
Grass for thatching should be:
 Hard, fibrous and tough, with a high content of silicates and oils and a low content of
easily digestible nutrients, such as carbohydrates, starches and proteins.
 Free of seeds and harvested at the right time.
 Straight, with thin leaves at least 1 metre long.
Proper thatching requires stems that are parallel and densely packed, with the cut-side
pointing outwards. A steeply sloping roof frame of 45° or more should be used. The eaves
should be low to offer protection for the walls. For best results, the roof shape should be
conical, pyramidal or hipped in shape, rather than double-pitched where the verges present
weak points.
For easy handling, the grass should be tied into bundles. The thatching is started from the
eaves, in widths of about 1 metre. A number of grass bundles are placed next to each other on
the roof, with the base of the stems to the bottom. The grass is tied to the purlins with bark
fibre or, preferably, tarred sisal cord. In subsequent layers, the bundles are laid to overlap the
layer underneath by half to two-thirds of their length, which means that there will be two to
three layers in the finished thatch.
A long needle is used to push the string through and tie the bundles of grass onto the roof
laths. Then the bundles themselves are untied and, with the hands, the grass is pushed into the
right position to give a smooth surface to the roof. Then the string is pulled to fix the grass
securely in place. Another method leaves the bundles of grass as they are, giving the roof a
stepped surface. The thickness of the new thatch layers varies between 15 cm and 20 cm but
later it will become somewhat thinner as a result of settling.
Galvanized corrugated steel sheets
Galvanized corrugated steel sheets (GCS) are the cheapest of the modern corrugated sheeting
materials and are widely used as roofing material for farm buildings. While uprotected steel
would have a very short life, a zinc coating (galvanizing) adds substantial protection at a
relatively low cost. Alternative coatings for steel sheets are bitumen, polyvinyl chloride
(plastic) on zinc, asbestos, felt and polyester. If the coating is damaged, the steel will rust.
When the first signs of rust appear, the sheet should be coated with a lead-based paint to stop
the rusting.
The main advantages of galvanized corrugated steel are:
1. Its relatively light weight makes the sheets easy to transport and flexible so they are not
easily damaged during transport.
2. It is easy to install and handle. However, the edges of the sheets are often very sharp and
can cause cuts in clothing and skin. The sheets may be cut to any required length, and the
roofing nails can be driven through the sheets directly without drilling holes.
3. The supporting structure can be relatively simple. Owing to the flexibility of the sheets,
minor movements of the supporting structure can occur without causing damage.
4. The sheets are quite durable if they are maintained and are not attacked by termites or
fungus. They are watertight and non-combustible.
5. They can be dismantled and reused, provided that the same nail holes are used.
The main disadvantages of GCS are its poor thermal properties and the noise caused by
heavy rainfall and thermal movements. The thermal and acoustic properties are improved by
using an insulated ceiling. Most corrugated steel sheets have corrugations with a 76 mm pitch
and 19 mm depth. Thickness varies between 0.3 mm and 1.6 mm. Thicknesses of 0.375 mm
to 0.425 mm are recommended for farm buildings.
The standard widths normally marketed are 610 mm, 762 mm and 1 000 mm. Lengths range
from 2–4 metres.
Corrugated aluminium sheets
Corrugated aluminium (CA) sheets are lighter and more durable than GCS sheets, but are
more expensive. When new, the sheets have a bright, reflective surface but, after a year or
more, oxidation of the surface will reduce the glare. There is never any need to paint
aluminium sheets for protection.
The reflective surface will keep the building cooler than with GCS sheets but, because
aluminium is softer, the roof is more likely to tear away in a heavy wind storm. Aluminium
also has greater thermal expansion than steel, resulting in noisy creaks and more stress on
fasteners. Corrugated aluminium sheets are normally supplied with the same corrugation and
in the same sizes as GCS. For use in farm buildings, a thickness of 0.425 mm is
recommended. The sheets are laid and fixed in the same manner as GCS.
Functional Requirements of Roof
Strength: of roof depends on the characteristics of the materials from which it is constructed
and the way in which they are put together in the form of a flat or some form of triangular
frame.
Stability: a roof is constructed to support the dead load of the roof structure and its covering,
insulation and internal finishes, snow loads and pressure of suction due to wind without
undue deflection or distortion. The dead load can be calculated from the unit weight of
materials with which it is covered, varying from the continuous impermeable layer of asphalt
covering that can be laid horizontal to exclude rain, to the small units of clay tiles that are laid
overlapping down slopes so that rain runs rapidly to the covers.
Weather Resistance: A roof excludes rain through the materials with which it is covered;
varying from the continuous impermeable layer of asphalt converging that can be horizontal
to exclude rain to the small units of clay titles that are laid overlapping down slop so that rain
runs rapidly to the covers.
Durability: The durability of a roof is dependant largely on the ability of the roof covering to
exclude rain and snow. Persistent penetration of water into the roof structure may cause or
encourage decay of timber, corrosion of steel or disintegration of concrete.
Fire Safety: The requirements for control of spread of fire in schedule of the building
regulations for dwelling houses limit roof construction relative to the proximity of boundaries
of the site of the building by reference to the materials of roof covering.
Thermal Resistance: The materials of roof structures and roof covering are generally poor
insulators against the transfer of heat. It is usually necessary to use some materials which are
good insulator. Examples of such materials include light weight boards, mats or loose
materials. This is to provide insulation requirements to meet the building regulation for the
insulation of roofs of dwellings is a standard value of 0.25 where the SAP ceiling is over 60.
Sound Insulation: The resistance of a roof to the penetration of airborne sound is not
generally considered unless the building is close to a busy airport. The mass of the materials
of a roof is the main constructions in the reduction of airborne sound
Fibreglass-reinforced plastic sheets
These sheets are shaped like those of steel, asbestos cement or aluminium and are used to
replace some of the sheets in a roof to give overhead light. They are translucent and give
good light inside large halls, workshops etc. They are long-lasting, simple to install and
provide inexpensive light, although the sheets themselves are expensive. They are
combustible and must be cleaned occasionally.
Roof tiles and slates
Tiles were originally handmade using burnt clay, but now they are manufactured by machine
from clay, concrete and stabilized soil in several sizes and shapes. Plain tiles are usually
cambered from head to tail so they do not lie flat on each other. This prevents capillary
movement of water between the tiles. The shaped side lap in single-lap tiling takes the place
of the double end lap and bond in plain tiles or slates. Many types of single-lap tile are
available, examples of which are shown in Figure 8.59. Slates were originally made from
natural stone, but now they are also manufactured from asbestos-cement and sisal-cement. As
plain tiles and slates have similar properties and are laid and fixed in the same manner, they
will be discussed together.
Tiles and slates are durable, require a minimum of maintenance and have good thermal and
acoustic properties. The units themselves are watertight, but leaks may occur between the
units if they are not laid properly. However, handmade tiles tend to absorb water, and
stabilized-soil tiles may erode in heavy rains. While they are fairly easy to lay and fix, being
very heavy, they require a very strong supporting roof structure. However, the weight is
advantageous in overcoming uplifting wind forces. The dead weight of the covering will
normally be enough anchorage for the roofing, as well as the roof structure. When rainwater
falls on a pitched roof, it will fan out and run over the surface at an angle determined by the
pitch of the roof.
Normally, the convention is the steeper the pitch the narrower the angle, and the lower the
pitch the wider the angle. Wider slates will be required for low-pitch roofs. Note that tiles are
normally laid close together at the sides.

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