Exercise 7

Standing Waves

EXERCISE OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this exercise, you will know how standing waves are
created in waveguides. You will be able to perform microwave frequency
measurements and standing wave measurements with the Slotted Line and the
SWR Meter of LVDAM-MW.

DISCUSSION

Creation of Standing Waves

When a sinusoidal microwave source is connected to a waveguide, sinusoidal waves

of voltage and current propagate along it.

Note: In fact, we could also say that both an electric field wave and a magnetic
field wave propagate inside the waveguide. Considering voltages and currents
instead of electric and magnetic fields is simply a different way of viewing
things. The voltage is present between the top and the bottom of the
waveguide, whereas the current flows in the side walls. Throughout this
exercise, we will deal with voltages and currents to facilitate the understanding.

The amplitude of the voltage and the current depend on the characteristic impedance
of the waveguide and on the impedance of the terminating load.

When the impedance of the load is equal to the characteristic impedance of the
waveguide, the load continually absorbs all the received energy. No energy is
reflected back toward the source. The waves travel only from the source to the load.

Conversely, when the impedance of the load is not equal to the characteristic
impedance of the waveguide, not all the received energy is absorbed by the load.
Instead, part of it is reflected back toward the source.

Figure 7-1, for example, shows the waves traveling along a waveguide when the
impedance of the load is not equal to the characteristic impedance of the waveguide.

In this example, the load is in the short-circuit condition:

• the incident wave is completely reflected at the load end.

• the reflected and incident waves travel through each other, but in opposite
directions, thereby combining vectorially.

This results in the creation of a standing wave along the waveguide. The standing
wave is the sum of the instantaneous values of the incident and reflected waves at
each point all along the line. This wave does not move or travel along the line, hence
the term "standing".

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Standing Waves

Figure 7-1. Creation of a standing wave along a short-circuited waveguide.

Conventional Representation of Standing Waves

Even if the voltage or current of standing waves continually changes polarity with
time, the conventional way of representing these waves is with their negative and
positive half-cycles pointing upward.

Figure 7-2 shows the conventional representation of a standing wave of voltage

along a short-circuited waveguide.

• The points where the voltage is minimum are called minima, or nodes.

• The points where the voltage is maximum are called maxima, or loops.

The amplitude of the minima and maxima is determined by the amplitude of the
reflected wave. The amplitude of the reflected wave is determined by the nature of
the load.

When the load is a short circuit or an open circuit, the amplitude of the reflected
wave is maximum. In fact, the amplitude of the maxima is theoretically equal to twice
the amplitude of the incident wave, while the amplitude of the minima is null (or
practically zero).

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Standing Waves

Figure 7-2. Conventional representation of a standing wave of voltage along a short-circuited

waveguide.

Frequency Measurement

When examining Figure 7-2, the statements below can be inferred.

• At the load end of the waveguide, a minimum invariably occurs.

• Minima also occur at every even multiple of λg/4 from the load end (where λg is
the wavelength of the propagating wave in the waveguide.)

• Maxima occur at every odd multiple of λg/4 from the load end.

Figure 7-2 allows you to determine the frequency of a microwave signal propagating
in a short-circuited waveguide:

1. Measure the distance d between two successive minima.

(Since minima are usually more sharply defined than maxima, measuring the
distance between minima provides more accurate results. The presence of large
reflections is also advantageous. Terminating the waveguide by a short-circuited
load provides large reflection. A matched load could not be used as there would
be no standing wave in this case.)

2. Multiply the measured distance by 2 to obtain the wavelength of the guided

signal, λg.

3. Calculate the frequency of the guided signal, f, using the following equation:

where c = velocity of propagation of the signal in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s);
λg = wavelength of the guided signal (m);
a = width of the waveguide (m);
f = frequency of the guided signal (Hz).

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Standing Waves

The Lab-Volt Slotted Line

Figures 7-3 and 7-4 show the Lab-Volt Slotted Line, Model 9520. This device can be
used to measure the distance between the minima and the maxima of a standing
wave.

The Slotted Line consists of a low-loss waveguide section with a narrow, longitudinal
slot in the top wall, as Figure 7-3 shows. A sliding carriage, containing a probe
connected to a crystal detector, can be moved along the waveguide.

The probe is inserted into the waveguide to sense the electric field, as Figure 7-4
shows. This causes a microwave signal to be induced at the probe output. The
crystal detector detects this signal and produces a proportional DC voltage. This
voltage is available at the BNC output of the probe holder.

A thumbscrew allows you to adjust the depth of the probe and, therefore, the
magnitude of the DC voltage at the BNC output. The marks and the pointer provide
an indication of the depth of the probe.

The voltage produced at the BNC output of the Slotted Line decreases as the probe
is withdrawn from the waveguide; conversely, the voltage increases as the depth of
penetration of the probe is increased.

Figure 7-3. The Lab-Volt Slotted Line and its symbolic representation.

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Standing Waves

Figure 7-4. Cut-away view of the Lab-Volt Slotted Line.

Microwave Frequency Measurements and Standing Wave Measurements

The Lab-Volt Slotted Line can be used with the SWR Meter of LVDAM-MW to
perform microwave frequency measurements and standing wave measurements.

To do this, the Slotted Line is connected to the input of the Data Acquisition
Interface (DAI) that is dedicated to the SWR Meter: MULTI-FUNCTION INPUT 3.
This connection is usually made via the Lab-Volt 60-dB Amplifier, Model 9593, to
obtain the maximum dynamic range.

The SWR Meter is set to read power. Its power reading is directly related to the
DC voltage at the Slotted Line output and, therefore, to the magnitude of the electric
field in the waveguide.

When the carriage is moved along the waveguide, the position of the probe changes,
causing the DC voltage produced by the crystal detector to change as a function of
the variation in magnitude of the electric field along the waveguide.

Two positioning scales on the waveguide and the carriage indicate the location of the
carriage. This allows you to locate the minima and the maxima in the standing wave
produced by various loads, and to measure the wavelength and the frequency of the
microwave signal in the waveguide.

The measurements made with a slotted line are limited by the scale graduations. The
accuracy of measurement decreases as the frequency of the guided signal is
increased.

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Standing Waves

Startup Procedure to Follow When Using the Lab-Volt Slotted Line and the
SWR Meter of LVDAM-MW

Before using the Lab-Volt Slotted Line and the SWR Meter, the following startup
procedure must be performed. This procedure allows you to obtain the maximum
dynamic range on the SWR Meter, while operating the crystal detector of the Slotted
Line in its square-law region to obtain valid SWR Meter readings.

1. The microwave signal injected into circuit is amplitude modulated by a 1-kHz

square wave, provided by the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply. The microwave
signal is then attenuated in order for the crystal detector of the Slotted Line to
operate in its square-law region and the SWR Meter to provide valid readings.

2. The Slotted Line's probe is located close to the maximum nearest the load in
order for the Slotted Line output voltage to be maximum. This voltage is applied
to MULTI-FUNCTION INPUT 3 of the DAI (input dedicated to the SWR Meter of
LVDAM-MW).

3. The depth of the Slotted Line's probe is set to the initial default position of 1/3 of
maximum.

4. With the minimum sensitivity (0-dB gain) on Input 3, the frequency of the SWR
Meter's amplifier is tuned to obtain the maximum signal level on the SWR Meter.

5. The Slotted Line's probe depth is then adjusted so that the maximum signal level
indicated by the SWR Meter is between 70 and 90% of full scale.

6. The Slotted Line's probe is accurately positioned over the maximum, and the
probe depth is fine tuned, if necessary, to obtain the maximum signal level on the
SWR Meter.

7. The reference level (0.0 dB) is set on the SWR Meter.

Particular attention must be paid to the adjustment of the probe depth inside the
Slotted Line. If the probe penetrates too deep into the Slotted Line, the field
distribution can be distorted, especially when the SWR is high. Moreover, the probe's
crystal detector is then more likely to operate outside of its square-law region,
causing the measurements to be erroneous.

To obtain a good accuracy of measurement, the central frequency of the

SWR Meter must be readjusted whenever the microwave circuit is modified or used
for a prolonged period of time, as the central frequency drifts over time. The drift in
the central frequency of the SWR Meter is due, among other things, to variations in
ambient temperature and equipment temperature.

Similarly, the SWR Meter's reference may vary slightly over time. Small drifts are
acceptable. However, it is recommended that you verify the reference from time to
time and readjust it to 0.0 dB, to maintain a good accuracy of measurement.

7-6
Standing Waves

Procedure Summary

In this exercise, you will measure the guided wavelength and the frequency of a
microwave signal, using the Slotted Line and the SWR Meter.

You will then plot the standing-wave patterns for a short circuit, an attenuator and
short-circuit load, and a matched load.

Note: For detailed information on how t use the SWR Meter of LVDAM-MW to
perform SWR measurements, please refer to Section 3 of the Lab-Volt User
Guide "Microwave Data Acquisition and Management", part number 85756-E.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix F of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

System Setup

G 1. Make sure that all power switches are in the O (off) position. Set up the
modules and assemble the microwave components as shown in Figure 7-5.

The Slotted Line must be connected, via the 60-dB Amplifier, to the analog
input of the Data Acquisition Interface (DAI) that is dedicated to the SWR
Meter of LVDAM-MW: MULTI-FUNCTION INPUT 3.

The supply cable of the 60-dB Amplifier must be connected to the

DB-9 connector on the bottom of the Data Acquisition Interface.

G 2. Referring to the attenuation-versus-blade position curve (or the

corresponding Data Table) of the Lab-Volt Variable Attenuator obtained in
Exercise 4, determine the attenuator blade's position required for this
attenuator to provide an attenuation of 20 dB approximately.

Set the Variable Attenuator’s blade to this position, which will limit the
microwave signal incident to the Slotted Line's crystal detector to make it
operate in its square-law region.

Attenuator blade’s position: mm

G 3. Make the following settings on the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply:

VOLTAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MIN.
MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 kHz
METER SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 V

7-7
Standing Waves

G 4. Turn on the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply and the Data Acquisition
Interface (DAI) by setting their POWER switch to the "I" (ON) position.

Set the Gunn Oscillator supply voltage to 8.5 V. Wait for about 5 minutes to
allow the modules to warm up.

Figure 7-5. Computer and module arrangement (showing electrical connections to microwave
components), and microwave setup.

7-8
Standing Waves

Preliminary Adjustment of the Slotted Line and SWR Meter

G 5. Move the probe of the Slotted Line along the waveguide and set it over the
45-mm position. (The 45-mm mark on the waveguide scale intersects the
rightmost ("0") mark on the carriage scale, as Figure 7-6 shows).

The 45-mm position approximately corresponds to the location of the

standing wave maximum nearest the load.

Figure 7-6. Locating the Slotted Line's probe over the 45-mm position and adjusting the probe's
depth to 1/3 of maximum (pointer aligned with the second lowermost mark).

G 6. On the Slotted Line, loosen the thumbscrew of the sliding carriage and
partially withdraw the probe holder (by gently pulling up on the 60-dB
Amplifier connected to the probe holder).

Adjust the depth of the Slotted Line's probe to approximately 1/3 of

maximum (the Slotted Line's pointer must be aligned with the second
lowermost mark approximately, as Figure 7-6 shows); then tighten the
thumbscrew.

Note: Particular attention must be paid to the adjustment of the

probe depth inside the Slotted Line. If the probe penetrates too
deep into the Slotted Line, the field distribution can be distorted,
especially when the SWR is high. Moreover, the probe's crystal
detector is then more likely to operate outside of its square-law
region, causing the measurements to be erroneous.

7-9
Standing Waves

G 7. On the host computer, start the LVDAM-MW software. In the Application

Selection window, make sure the Work in stand-alone box is unchecked,
and click OK.

In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, make the following settings:

Gunn Oscillator/VCO Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON

Function Input 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SWR Meter
Input 3 Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 dB
60 dB Ampli on Input 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON

G 8. In LVDAM-MW, start the SWR Meter and set it to display decibels (dB).

G 9. Tune the frequency of the SWR Meter's amplifier: using the cursor of the
SWR Meter, scan through the frequency tuning range of this meter (from
900 to 1100 Hz) to find the frequency at which the Signal Level (indicated
as a percentage below the horizontal indicator bar of the meter) is
maximum.

a. If the maximum signal level obtained on the SWR Meter is between 70

and 90% of full scale and the horizontal indicator bar stays green, the
equipment is properly adjusted. Go immediately to step 10.

Note: To obtain the maximum dynamic range of measurement on

the SWR Meter (once its amplifier has been tuned), a maximum
level between 70 and 90% on the SWR Meter with Input 3 Gain
set to 0 dB is ideal.

b. If the maximum signal level obtained on the SWR Meter is between

10% and 70% of full scale, loosen the thumbscrew of the Slotted Line
and very slightly readjust the depth of its probe so that the maximum
signal level indicated by the SWR Meter is between 70 and 90% of full
scale (and the green bar stays green) once the thumbscrew of the
Slotted Line has been re-tightened (the tightening of the thumbscrew
will cause the signal level to vary slightly).

Make sure not to insert the probe too deep inside the Slotted Line,
otherwise the measurements may be erroneous. Instead slightly
readjust the attenuation provided by the Variable Attenuator if the
maximum reachable Signal Level stays below 70% of full scale, until
this signal is within 70 and 90% of full scale.

Note: The adjustment process may be tedious at first, since a

small change in probe depth results in a significant change in the
SWR Meter's signal level, however it will become easier with
practice.

c. If you are unable to tune the SWR Meter's amplifier because the
maximum signal level exceeds the measurement scale (the horizontal
indicator bar of the meter turns to red), loosen the thumbscrew of the
Slotted Line. Readjust the depth of the Slotted Line's probe in order to
obtain a significant reading on the SWR Meter (a signal level of, for

7-10
Standing Waves

example, about 25% of full scale, once the thumbscrew of the Slotted
Line has been re-tightened since its tightening will cause the signal level
to change slightly). Then, tune the frequency of the SWR Meter to
obtain the maximum signal level on this meter. If this level is not
between 70 and 90% of full scale, very slightly readjust the depth of the
Slotted Line's probe so that the maximum signal level indicated by the
SWR Meter is between 70 and 90% of full scale (and the green bar
never turns from green to red) once the thumbscrew of the Slotted Line
has been re-tightened.

d. If the maximum signal level stays null or too low (below 10% of full scale
with a blue indicator bar or no bar displayed) when trying to tune the
SWR Meter's amplifier, slightly decrease the attenuation produced by
the Variable Attenuator in order to obtain a significant level on the SWR
Meter (a signal level of, for example, about 25% of full scale). Then,
tune the meter frequency in order to obtain the maximum signal level on
this meter. If the maximum signal level is not between 70 and 90% of
full scale, slightly readjust the Variable Attenuator for the signal to be
within this range.

Note: The voltage produced by the Slotted Line decreases as the

probe is withdrawn from the waveguide; conversely, the voltage
increases as the depth of penetration of the probe is increased.
The probe needs to be partially withdrawn from the Slotted Line's
waveguide to obtain valid measurements on the SWR Meter and
a good dynamic range. The probe must not be fully inserted into
the Slotted Line's waveguide, otherwise its crystal detector may
not operate in the square-law region, causing the SWR Meter
readings to be erroneous.

G 10. Very slightly move the probe of the Slotted Line around the 45-mm position
on the graduated waveguide, while observing the Signal Level on the SWR
Meter; locate the probe over the maximum (if not already there) to obtain the
maximum Signal Level on the SWR Meter.

Note: If this causes the Signal Level to become lower than 70%
or higher than 90% of full scale, very slightly readjust the depth of
the Slotted Line's probe to bring the Signal Level back to 70-90%
of full scale, with a green bar that never turns to red, when the
probe is at the maximum.

G 11. Click on the REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference
level to 0.0 dB.

Measuring the Guided Wavelength and the Microwave Signal Frequency

G 12. Move the Slotted Line's probe along the waveguide to locate the minima
and the maxima. Record the position of each of them in Table 7-1. Do not
modify any equipment setting, except Gain Input 3 when necessary.

– To locate the maxima, set Gain Input 3 to 0 dB and find the probe
locations for which the signal level is maximum on the SWR Meter.

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Standing Waves

– To locate the minima, set Gain Input 3 to 20 dB and then 40 dB to find

the probe locations for which the signal level is minimum on the
SWR Meter—this level will be approximately null, causing jerky and
small irregular moves of the SWR Meter's indicator bar in the blue
(lowest) range area.

Note: When the Slotted Line’s probe is at a minimum and the

indicator bar of the SWR Meter turns to blue, the indicated level
is very low and fluctuates continuously. In this case, take the
approximate meter value, as it is not possible to perform an
accurate measurement.

DISTANCE FROM THE DISTANCE FROM THE

MINIMUM MAXIMUM
LOAD (mm) LOAD (mm)

m1 (nearest from load) M1 (nearest from load)

m2 M2

m3 M3

m4 M4

m5 M5 —

Table 7-1. Location of minima and maxima when the load consists of a short circuit.

G 13. Based on the data recorded in Table 7-1, evaluate the distance, d, between
two successive minima.

d= mm

Multiply the distance, d, by 2 to obtain the wavelength of the signal in the

waveguide, λg.

λg = 2d = mm

Based on the obtained wavelength, λg, calculate the frequency of the signal
in the waveguide, f, using the formula below.

where c = velocity of propagation of the signal in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s);
λg = wavelength of the signal in the waveguide (m);
a = width of the waveguide, equal to 0.0229 m;
f = frequency of the signal in the waveguide (Hz).

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Standing Waves

Standing Wave Produced Along the Slotted Line when the Waveguide Is Short-
Circuited

G 14. In LVDAM-MW, select the Data Table function and enter the column titles
and figures already recorded in Table 7-2 below. Save your Data Table.

DISTANCE FROM THE

SWR METER READING (dB) E/E MAX.
LOAD (mm)

45 0 1
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73

Table 7-2. E/E MAX. ratios along the Slotted Line when the waveguide is short-circuited.

7-13
Standing Waves

G 15. Set the Gain on Input 3 to 0 dB.

Locate the Slotted Line's probe over the maximum nearest the load (around
the 45.0-mm position) in order to obtain the maximum signal level on the
SWR Meter.

Verify that the frequency of the SWR Meter is properly tuned for the Signal
Level displayed on the SWR Meter to be maximum. Click on the
REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference level to 0.0 dB.

G 16. Fill in your Data Table: by moving the Slotted Line's probe away from the
load in steps of 1.0 mm, set this probe to each of the locations listed in the
Data Table and, for each location, perform the steps below.

a. Record the SWR Meter power reading under the column "SWR METER
READING" (increase or decrease Gain Input 3 as necessary, but do not
change the Reference on the SWR Meter).

b. Using the SWR Meter reading recorded in step a., use the equation
below to calculate the ratio E/E MAX.. Record your result under the
column "E/E MAX.". Save your table.

where E = Voltage of the standing wave at the current probe

location (V);
E MAX. = Voltage of the standing wave at the location of the
maximum (V);
SWR Meter Reading = Ratio of the standing wave voltage, E, to the
maximum voltage, E MAX. of this wave, in decibels
(dB).

G 17. In LVDAM, select the Graph function of the Data Table and plot the
E/E MAX.-versus-distance from the load curve: select "DISTANCE FROM
THE LOAD" for the X-Axis and "E/E max" for the Y-Axis.

Have the X-Axis coordinates of your graph graduated like the Slotted Line's
ruler (right-to-left increase) by making the following settings in the Graph
window:

X-Axis Coordinates
Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON
Scale
X-Axis Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manual
X Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
X Max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
X Min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

Your graph should show part of the standing-wave pattern, as Figure 7-7
shows. Print your graph, then plot the rest of the standing wave freehand
based on the minima and the maxima recorded in Table 7-1.

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Standing Waves

Remember that a standing wave repeats itself every half-wavelength. The

distance between the minima and maxima remains constant.

Figure 7-7. Standing wave produced along the Slotted Line when the waveguide is short-circuited.

G 18. Save and close your Data Table.

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Standing Waves

Standing Wave Produced Along the Slotted Line When the Load Consists of
a 6-dB Attenuator and a Short Circuit

G 19. In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, set the Gunn Oscillator/VCO Power
to OFF.

G 20. Taking care not to modify the adjustment of the Variable Attenuator
and Slotted Line’s probe depth, modify your microwave circuit in order to
obtain the circuit shown in Figure 7-8.

Leave the rest of the equipment connected and set as before.

Figure 7-8. Modified microwave circuit to plot the standing-wave pattern when the load consists
of a 6-dB attenuator and a short circuit.

G 21. In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, make the following settings:

Gunn Oscillator/VCO Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON

Input 3 Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 dB

Wait for about 5 minutes to allow the modules to warm up.

G 22. Locate the Slotted Line's probe over the maximum nearest the load (around
the 36.0-mm position) in order to obtain the maximum signal level on the
SWR Meter.

Verify that the frequency of the SWR Meter is properly tuned for the Signal
Level displayed on the SWR Meter to be maximum. Slightly move the

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Standing Waves

Slotted Line's probe around the 36-mm position to locate the probe over the
maximum (if not already there) and obtain the maximum Signal Level on the
SWR Meter. If the maximum signal level is below 70% of full scale, very
slightly readjust the attenuation provided by the Variable Attenuator or the
depth of the Slotted Line's probe so that the maximum level is between 70
and 90% of full scale.

Click on the REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference
level to 0.0 dB.

G 23. Move the probe of the Slotted Line along the graduated waveguide to locate
the minima and the maxima. Record the position of each of them in
Table 7-3. Do not modify any equipment setting, except Gain Input 3 if
necessary.

Note: The magnitude of the minima and the maxima may slightly
change as the probe is moved along the line due to power lost by
reflection along the guide. Reflections and reflection losses will be
studied in another exercise.

DISTANCE FROM THE DISTANCE FROM THE

MINIMUM MAXIMUM
LOAD (mm) LOAD (mm)

m1 (nearest from load) M1 (nearest from load)

m2 M2

m3 M3

m4 M4

m5 — M5

Table 7-3. Location of minima and maxima when the load consists of a 6-dB attenuator and a short
circuit.

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Standing Waves

G 24. In LVDAM-MW, select the Data Table function and enter the column titles
and figures already recorded in Table 7-4 below. Save your Data Table.

DISTANCE FROM THE

SWR METER READING (dB) E/E MAX.
LOAD (mm)

36 0 1

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

Table 7-4. E/E MAX. ratios along the Slotted Line when the load consists of a 6-dB attenuator and a
short circuit.

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Standing Waves

G 25. Locate the Slotted Line's probe over the maximum nearest the load (around
the 36.0-mm position) in order to obtain the maximum signal level on the
SWR Meter.

Verify that the frequency of the SWR Meter is properly tuned for the Signal
Level displayed on the SWR Meter to be maximum. Click on the
REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference level to 0.0 dB.

G 26. Fill in your Data Table: by moving the Slotted Line's probe away from the
load in steps of 1.0 mm, set this probe to each of the locations listed in the
Data Table and, for each location, perform the steps below.

a. Note the SWR Meter power reading and record it under the column
"SWR METER READING".

Note: When the SWR Meter's Signal Level fluctuates,

approximate this level.

b. Using the SWR Meter reading recorded in step a., use the equation
below to calculate the ratio E/E MAX. Record your result under the
column "E/E MAX.". Save your table.

where E = Voltage of the standing wave at the current probe

location (V);
E MAX. = Voltage of the standing wave at the location of the
maximum (V);
SWR Meter Reading = Ratio of the standing wave voltage, E, to the
maximum voltage, E MAX. of this wave, in decibels
(dB).

G 27. In LVDAM, select the Graph function of the Data Table and plot the
E/E MAX.-versus-distance from the load curve.

Have the X-Axis coordinates of your graph graduated like the Slotted Line's
ruler by making the following settings in the Graph window:

X-Axis Coordinates
Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON
Scale
X-Axis Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manual
X Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
X Max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
X Min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

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Standing Waves

Your graph should show part of the standing-wave pattern, as Figure 7-9
shows. Observe that the peak-to-peak amplitude of the standing wave is
lower than that of the standing wave previously obtained with the short-
circuited load.

Print your graph, then plot the rest of the standing wave freehand based on
the minima and the maxima recorded in Table 7-3.

Remember that a standing wave repeats itself every half-wavelength. The

distance between the minima and maxima remains constant.

Figure 7-9. Standing wave produced along the Slotted Line when the load consists of a 6-dB
attenuator and a short circuit.

G 28. Save and close your Data Table.

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Standing Waves

Standing Wave Produced Along the Slotted Line with a Matched Load

G 29. In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, set the Gunn Oscillator/VCO Power
to OFF.

G 30. Taking care not to modify the adjustment of the Variable Attenuator
and Slotted Line's probe, modify your microwave circuit in order to obtain
the circuit shown in Figure 7-10.

Leave the rest of the equipment connected and set as before.

Figure 7-10. Modified microwave circuit to plot the standing-wave pattern with a matched load.

G 31. In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, make the following settings:

Gunn Oscillator/VCO Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON

Input 3 Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 dB

G 32. In LVDAM-MW, select the Data Table function and enter the column titles
and figures already recorded in Table 7-5 below. Save your Data Table.

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Standing Waves

PROBE LOCATION (mm) SWR METER READING (dB) E/E MAX.

40 0 1

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

Table 7-5. E/E MAX. ratios along the Slotted Line with a matched load.

G 33. Locate the Slotted Line's probe over the 40-mm position.

Verify that the frequency of the SWR Meter is properly tuned for the Signal
Level displayed on the SWR Meter to be maximum. If this level is below
70% of full scale, very slightly readjust the attenuation provided by the
Variable Attenuator or the depth of the Slotted Line's probe so that the
maximum level is between 70 and 90% of full scale.

Click on the REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference
level to 0.0 dB.

G 34. Fill in your Data Table: by moving the Slotted Line's probe away from the
load, set this probe to each of the locations listed in the Data Table and, for
each location, perform the steps below.

a. Note the SWR Meter power reading and record it under the column
"SWR METER READING".

Note: When the SWR Meter's Signal Level fluctuates,

approximate this level.

b. Using the SWR Meter reading recorded in step a., use the equation
below to calculate the ratio E/E MAX. Record your result under the
column "E/E MAX." Save your table.

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Standing Waves

where E = Voltage of the standing wave at the current probe

location (V);
E MAX. = Voltage of the standing wave at the location of the
maximum (V);
SWR Meter Reading = Ratio of the standing wave voltage, E, to the
maximum voltage, E MAX. of this wave, in decibels
(dB).

G 35. In LVDAM, select the Graph function of the Data Table and plot the
E/E MAX.-versus-distance from the load curve.

Have the X-Axis coordinates of your graph graduated like the Slotted Line's
ruler by making the following settings in the Graph window:

X-Axis Coordinates
Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON
Scale
X-Axis Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manual
X Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
X Max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
X Min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

Your graph should resemble that shown in Figure 7-11.

Observe that the amplitude of the standing wave stays nearly constant
around a ratio E./EMAX. of 1, since the impedance of the load is matched to
the characteristic impedance of the waveguide.

G 36. Save and close your Data Table.

G 37. Turn off the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply and the Data Acquisition
Interface by setting their POWER switch to the O (OFF) position.
Disassemble the setup and return all components to their storage location.

G 38. Close the LVDAM-MW software.

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Standing Waves

Figure 7-11. Standing wave produced along the Slotted Line with a matched load.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, the concepts of characteristic impedance, reflected waves, and

standing-waves were introduced. You became familiar with the use of a slotted line
by evaluating the guided wavelength and the frequency of a microwave signal. You
also determined the standing-wave patterns for a short circuit, an attenuator and
short-circuit load, and a matched load.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What does a standing-wave pattern represent?

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Standing Waves

2. What is the distance, in terms of wavelengths, between successive minima in a

standing-wave pattern?

3. What causes a maximum on a standing-wave?

4. Explain how to determine a microwave signal's frequency with a slotted line.

5. What physical parameter does a slotted line measure?

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7-26