Part 4: Monograph 2

High accuracy voltage followers (HAVFs)

1. Introduction

High accuracy voltage followers (HAVFs) have numerous applications. Some resistance bridges, for example,
employs a pair of HAVFs to drive the primary windings of a ratio transformer.

High accuracy followers

+
Ratio transformer
RS nS
nP
+

D
Null
Virtual earth detector

RT
+ nS RT

nP RS

Fig. 1.1 Outline schematic of the ASL F16 and F17 series resistance bridges

Followers can also be used to eliminate the problem of loading of a ratio transformer secondary winding by
providing the necessary load current. The HAVF forces the transformer secondary voltage across the two-terminal-
pair reference resistor RS. With virtually no current passing through the transformer secondary much thinner wire
and semiconductor switches can be used.

High accuracy followers

Ratio transformer
nS 2 RT

nS 1 nS 1 RS
RS
0V
Null detector
nS 2
RT

Fig. 1.2 HAVF being used to accurately drive a load (ASL model F25)

It is also possible to implement very accurate active guarding, often necessary when working at the level of parts
per billion. The follower provides the drive current flowing through the stray capacitance from the active guard to
local 0V (“ground”). The active guard screens the sensitive connection.

Sensitive connection

+
Stray capacitance

Fig. 1.3 HAVF used as an active guard

1
High Accuracy Electronics
2. Theory of operation

For more detailed analysis of feedback and stability see the monograph “High gain blocks” [1].

2.1 The limitations of a conventional voltage follower

The two main problems with a conventional voltage follower, employing a single op-amp, are the limited common
mode rejection ratio, open loop gain and stability margin.

H(s) VOUT
VIN
0V
PSU

Fig. 2.1.1 A conventional voltage follower based on a single op-amp

It is shown elsewhere [2] that the closed loop transfer function, at low frequency, based on the high gain low-pass
filter model of the op-amp is, to a very good approximation: -

1
 
  B  H s    T s   1    B s 
G 1
1   Ps  G 

Where G is the gain at very low frequency (i.e. the “DC gain”),  P is the time constant of the dominant pole
(internal compensation) and B  1  B is the gain-bandwidth product (GBWP) in radians/s.

In more convenient form with frequency in Hz: -

1  f  f  
2

f  f B  T s   1   1  j  
 G  f B  f B  


The real (in-phase) error term is a minimum 1/G and, therefore, limited by the DC gain of the op-amp. The
imaginary (quadrature) error, increases in direct proportion to the frequency and is usually much less of a problem.

 
With an LF356 op-amp, for example, the DC gain can be as low as 100dB G  105 resulting in an in-phase error
of up to 10ppm and too large for many applications. The GBWP is 5MHz so that, at an operating frequency of
75Hz, the quadrature error is approximately 15ppm (15µrad).

The finite common mode rejection ratio, which could also be as low as 100dB, contributes similar errors. See the
next section.

The very wide bandwidth and low stability margin, especially when driving a capacitive load (e.g. long cables)
results in a resonant peak at high frequency (typically 5MHz) [2] and severe practical problems. The solution is to
employ a robustly stable (type 1) multi-stage high gain block (HGB).

1. Monograph: “High gain blocks”. See, especially, section 2.

2. Ibid: See section 3.4

2
 Part 4: Monograph 2
2.2 Common mode rejection and the “inside-out” configuration

The main problem with the conventional follower is common mode due to mismatch in the differential input stage.
The inputs of the HGB vary with respect to the power supply, resulting in a significant error. Fortunately there is a
simple and elegant solution to this problem – the “inside-out” mode of operation. The basic principle is to place the
input signal in series with the feedback connection. The action of the feedback is the same – the output of the HGB
ramps up or down until its inputs are the same. Only then does the output stabilise. In the case of the inside-out
follower the power supply is “floating” and is driven to follow the input voltage, thus eliminating the common
mode completely.

Feedback Feedback

0V

VIN VOUT
VOUT
HGB HGB

VIN 0V
CG
Important!
PSU Floating PSU

Conventional Inside-out

Fig. 2.2.1 Conventional follower and the inside-out follower

The earth symbols indicate the part of the circuit which may be connected to local 0V while testing (e.g. the signal
generator and/or oscilloscope inputs) or are at or near local earth potential. In practice a high accuracy system
should have only one earth connection.

At first sight it appears very strange that the output pin of the op-amp (final stage of the HGB) is connected to
earth. Old habits die hard and this author admits to many head-scratching moments before realising that the ‘scope
test lead earth was clipped to the PSU 0V.

The capacitance from the centre of the PSU to ground is also marked as important. This is because it is usually
quite large, due mainly to the capacitance across the power supply mains transformer. The capacitive load can
combine with the op-amp output resistance resulting in extra phase shift and reduced stability margin. The open
loop frequency response of the HGB is designed to mitigate this problem. For more details on stability see the
monograph “High gain blocks” [1].

2.3 The floating power supply (FPSU)

Each follower requires its own floating power supply. This need not be expensive (the power required is usually
quite low) but the capacitance to ground is an important factor. The best type of commercially available PSU for
this task employs linear regulators with low noise and ripple and a mains transformer with low capacitance between
primary and secondary. The author has found that a power supply transformer with split sections is perfectly
adequate for all but the most demanding applications. For the ultimate in performance a special PSU can be
constructed using a small (high frequency) transformer, with separated or screened windings, operating from a
higher frequency AC power source. It is also possible to use rechargeable batteries with guarded screening to
minimise this problem but this is not very practicable.

1. Monograph: “High gain blocks”.

3
High Accuracy Electronics
2.4 Closed loop transfer functions
N 1
 1 
H N s   1 
1
The open loop transfer function for an N-stage HGB is: 
  1s   2s

I.e. the HGB consists of N-1 “one-plus-integrators” (OPIs), followed by a final integrator. The algebra is simplified
if one employs the normalised form (normalised to the OPI time constant): -

s  j 1 with

  2 1  H N s  
1 s
N 1

1 s N

The closed loop transfer function for an N-stage voltage follower is, therefore: -

H s  1  s N 1
TN s    N
H s   1 s  1  s N 1

The parameter    2 1 has a significant effect on stability margin (N > 1). The values chosen are at the upper
limit of what is practical and must, therefore, be regarded as a maximum in each case: -

In normalised form s  j 1   for 60% or +4dB peaking

T1 s  
1
Single-stage: N=1 No limit
s  1

s 1
Two-stage: N=2 T2 s   1
s  s  1
2

s 2  2s  1
Three-stage: N=3 T3 s   0.4
s 3  s 2  2s  1

s 3  3s 2  3s  1
Four-stage: N=4 T4 s   0.2
s 4  s 3  3s 2  3s  1

s 4  4s 3  6s 2  4s  1
Five-stage: N=5 T5 s   0.15
s 5  s 4  4s 3  6s 2  4s  1

Fig. 2.4.1 Frequency response of N-stage voltage followers (N = 2 to 5 left to right).

4
 Part 4: Monograph 2
2.5 Error analysis

As above the algebra is made easier if one normalises to the time constant of the OPIs s  j 1  .

s N
The transfer function for an N-stage follower is: TN s   1 
s N  1  s N 1

For a single op-amp (N = 1) the approximation is fairly simple. At low frequency: -

s
N  1 and s  1  T1 s   1   1  s  s 
2

s  1

This simplifies to a more convenient form, with frequency in Hz: -

2
f  f 
T1 s   1  j   
1
with f2  (the gain-bandwidth product of the op-amp)
f2  f2  2 2

For two-stage HGBs and higher the algebra is a little more subtle. The denominator of the error term is
approximately 1 so that for N > 1: -

s N s N
N  1 and  s  1  TN s   1 
N

1  N  1s

 1  s N 1  N  1s  O s 2 
1  s N 1
To a very good approximation, therefore: -

N  1 and s  1  TN s   1  s N   N  1s N 1

The first two error terms are sufficient for both the real (in-phase) and imaginary (quadrature) components: -

In more convenient form with frequency in Hz  f1  1 2 1  : -

N N 1
 f   f 
N  1 and f  f1  TN s   1    j    N  1 j 
 f1   f1 

I shall employ the maximum values for  .

2 3
 f   f 
Two-stage: N=2,   1  T1  f   1     j  
 f1   f1 

The largest term is real (in-phase). The imaginary term is third order and represents a much smaller phase error
than would be the case with a follower based on a single op-amp.

3 4
 f   f 
Three-stage: N=3,   0.4  T3  f   1  j 0.4   0.8 
 f1   f1 

It is unlikely that N > 3 designs offer any further advantage.

The reader may notice that the transfer functions and, therefore, the error analysis have the same form as
an N-stage low pass filter [1]. See part 2 [1].

1. Monographs: “Two-stage filters” and “Three-stage filters”.

5
High Accuracy Electronics
3. Power supply and signal wiring.

The HGB is carefully constructed so that the input and output signal are twisted or co-axial pairs. The power supply
also enters the HGB as a twisted triple. The output pair and FPSU triple must be kept a safe distance (a few cm)
away from the input and feedback pair (certainly not bunched in the same loom). This ensures minimal problems
with stray magnetic flux. The following diagram illustrates the correct layout for power supply and signal wiring.
The arrows indicate the presence of go/return current which, being physically close, means a minimum of external
magnetic flux.

FPSU and triple

Output pair
Input pair

Feedback pair
Feedback pair
Fig. 3.1 HAVF with more detail of signal pair and PSU triple routing

4. Measuring the accuracy of an inside-out follower

For testing purposes it is possible to reverse the input signal connections so that the 0V (earth potential) is on the
HGB inverting input side and the final stage op-amp output is driven, relative to the power supply. The action of
the feedback is the same and there is no difference, as far as the internal circuitry of the follower is concerned. Both
inputs are now at, or close to, 0V (very low common mode) and a low noise, high gain, differential amplifier can be
used to boost the error signal so that it can be measured with an AC voltmeter or spectrum analyser. The amplifier
needs its own power supply. The HAVF floating power supply must still be allowed to float - one must not connect
FPSU 0V to earth.

VIN

VOUT
to AC voltmeter

×1000 low noise amp

Fig. 4.1 Error test configuration (signal generator connections reversed)

6
 Part 4: Monograph 2
5. Stability considerations

HAVF stability is a complex topic when one considers non-linear effects such as slew rate limiting and recovery
from power-up and overload conditions. It has been found in practice, however, that a number of simple measures
can be taken so that stability is ensured even with complex and variable load impedance in a wide range of
applications.

The main trade-off is, not surprisingly, between frequency of operation and accuracy. One of the main (and most
demanding) applications of high accuracy voltage followers, for example, is platinum resistance thermometry,
operating at 25Hz or 75Hz for a 50Hz supply (30Hz or 90Hz for a 60Hz supply). At this low frequency it is
possible to achieve sub-ppm accuracy while maintaining stability, even while driving a ratio transformer energising
winding (with resonant leakage inductance and inter-winding capacitance).

Capacitance bridges usually operate at a frequency of 1-10 kHz. At the higher end it is still possible to achieve
sufficient accuracy for HAVFs to be useful (e.g. as drivers for active guards).

The general principle is to design for an HGB with the lowest possible unity gain frequency while still achieving
the necessary open loop gain at the frequency of operation. In many cases a two or three stage design is adequate
and the gain is well below 0dB at a frequency much lower than the range where capacitive and resonant loads
become an issue.

Recovery from overload is made possible by connecting a pair of back-back diodes in parallel with the feedback
capacitors (apart from the last stage). In normal operation the voltage across the diodes is very small and they
present high impedance. When overloaded, however, the diodes conduct and the one-plus integrators revert to a ×1
follower, allowing the circuit to recover. This can be understood with the aid of a BarDayQuist plot of the open
loop gain of an extreme example (4-stage HGB) [1]. As each OPI overloads the phase shift reduces by 90 degrees
and the locus collapses to the centre without passing through the critical -1 point.

Imaginary axis

1012

109
106
103
-1 point

Real axis

unity gain circle

Fig. 2.4.1 The “BoDayQuist” plot illustrates how the stability criterion is satisfied (4-stage HGB)

1. Monographs: “High gain blocks”. See section 2

7
High Accuracy Electronics
6. Practical circuits

6.1 A two-stage HAVF

A two-stage HAVF has sufficient accuracy for an active guard and providing a virtual earth (see section 1). The
circuit, fig. 6.1.1 is shown in normal test configuration (not error test) with a load resistor (see section 3).

Op-amps: 2 × LF356 or similar

Time constants R1  10k C1  1nF  1  105 s
2
R2  10k C2  330 pF  2  105 s  1
1
FPSU decoupling: 2×100nF ceramic per op-amp.

6.2 A three stage HAVF with low noise front end

This three-stage design employs a low noise front end (see fig. 6.2.1 and 6.2.2) with collector current set at 0.1mA.
It has sufficiently high accuracy, low noise current and low DC offset for driving the energising windings of an F18
type ratio transformer [1] (see also fig. 1.1). It is also shown in normal test configuration with a load resistor: -

Op-amps: 3 × LF356 or similar

Time constants R1  100 C1  100nF  2  105 s (reduced resistance for lower noise)
R2  10k C2  1nF  1  105 s
2
R3  10k C3  330 pF  2  3.3 106 s   0.33
1
FPSU decoupling: 2×100nF ceramic per op-amp.

With the current source (0.2mA) and collector resistances shown the noise resistance is approximately 1kΩ.

The same design can be used to drive the energising windings and ratio primary of a two or three-stage ratio
transformer [2]. Best noise performance is achieved when the front-end is matched to the source resistance. This
usually involves increased collector current with lower voltage noise and higher current noise (lower noise
resistance). Collector current should be no higher than 1 or 2mA (each), however, to ensure low self-heating and
maintain low DC offset [3].

1. Monograph: “An F18 type ratio transformer bridge”.

2. Monograph: “An F17 type ratio transformer bridge”.
3. Monograph: “Low noise BJT pre-amps”.

8
 Part 4: Monograph 2

Two-stage HGB module

FPSU decoupling
FPSU triple+V
S

0V
-VS
Input
pair I

Output
R1 C1 R2 C2 pair

Feedback pair

Fig. 6.1.1 A two-stage HGB with routing detail (normal operation)

9
High Accuracy Electronics

Low noise HGB module Two-stage HGB module

FPSU decoupling
FPSU triple+V
S

0V
Input
pair -VS
VOUT
R2 I

C1
Output
R1 C2 R3 C3
pair

Feedback twisted or coax pair

Fig. 6.2.1 Three-stage HGB with low noise front end

10
 Part 4: Monograph 2

2×100nF
2k2 +15V

0V

-15V
47k 47k
0V

470R VOUT

330pF
100nF
LM394

100R

6k8

BC109 All diodes 1N4148

36k 8k2

Fig. 6.2.2 A low noise OPI front-end

The BJTs are operating at 0.1mA each and generate less than 2 nV Hz (RMS).

For more details see the monograph “Low noise BJT pre-amplifiers” by the same author [1].

1. Monograph: “Low noise BJT pre-amps”.

11
High Accuracy Electronics
6.3 A low cost follower with moderately high accuracy

Whereas not as accurate as a multi-stage inside-out follower this circuit may be found useful with an accuracy
approaching 1ppm. The cost is reduced by operating from a normal power supply so that the main limitation is the
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of the first op-amp. The main application is for a low cost resistance bridge
(c.f. ASL model F25) depicted in fig. 1.2.

VIN LF356 100nF Follower T3(s)

V2
T1(s)

V1 100Ω LF357
2 × 10nF

2k2 RS
VF
Network T2(s) 2 × 1kΩ
I
Secondary
Fig. 6.3.1 A low cost voltage follower

The first stage is an op-amp with a two-stage feedback network employed as a single-stage HGB. I have chosen the
name “advanced OPI2” by analogy with the one-plus integrator [1] which is described in some detail elsewhere [2].
The signal being fed back is the voltage sensed across the reference resistor. At high frequency the network
provides 100% feedback with plenty of stability margin despite the second stage follower. At low frequency the
overall error (difference between VIN and VF) is very small due to the full open loop gain of the first op-amp (small
difference between VIN and V1), the low phase error of the two-stage network (small difference between V1 and VF)
and the moderately high accuracy of the second stage follower (small difference between V2 and VF).

The second stage follower employs an op-amp with reduced internal compensation so that the effective gain-
bandwidth product (at low frequency) is typically 20MHz (e.g. LF357). The external compensation ensures plenty
of stability margin even with a highly capacitive load (long cables to the reference resistor) [2]. The purpose of the
second stage follower is to use feedback to overcome the resistance of the current carrying wire to the reference
resistor. The very small difference between V2 and VF also ensures that the current flowing in the voltage sensing
wire is negligible. The external compensation requires a low source resistance for the non-inverting input.

The open loop transfer function of the first op-amp over most of the frequency range (up to the gain-bandwidth
product of typically 5MHz) can be accurately described as an integrator: -

T1 s  
1
with T1  1
 B1s

The feedback network is a two-stage low-pass filter and can be accurately described by [1]: -

3 N s  1
T2 s  
 s  3 N s  1
2 2
N

At a frequency significantly below the natural frequency:  N s  1  T2 s   1   N2 s 2  3 N3 s3

If one assumes that the lead resistance is small compared to the reference resistor the second stage follower is (see
T3 s  
1
section 2.1): so that T3  1
1   B2 s

1. Monograph: “Two-stage filters”. See section 2.2.

2. Monograph: “High gain blocks”. See sections 3.6 and 3.7
12
 Part 4: Monograph 2
Referring to fig. 6.3.1: -

V2  T1 VIN  V1  and V1  V2  T2 VF  V2  and VF  T3V2

Use the second and third equation to eliminate V1 and V2: -

VF V  V 
  T1VIN  T1  F  T2 VF  F  
T3  T3  T3  

VF 1  T1  T1T2  T1T2T3   T1T3VIN

The overall transfer function is, therefore: -

T s  
VF T1T3

VIN 1  T1 1  T2   T1T2T3

1
1  1  1  T2 1 
 T s   
T1T2T3
  1   
T2  1  T1 1  T2   T1T2T3  T2  T2T3 T1T2T3 

The second and third terms in the brackets are small corrections and dividing by T2T3 makes a negligible difference
so that, to a very good approximation: -
1
1 1
T2  1 and T3  1  T s   1  1  T2  
T2  T1 

From above, at low frequency:  N s  1  T2 s   1   N2 s 2  3 N3 s3

 T s   1   N2 s 2  3 N3 s3  1   N2 s 2  3 N3 s3   B1s 
1 1

The lower order terms in  N s cancel and it is likely, therefore, that the accuracy is limited mainly by the finite gain-
bandwidth product of the first op-amp: -

 N s   B1s and  B1s  1  T s   1   B1s 1  1   B1s   B21s 2

4

In practice the second order term is negligible and the CMRR is the main source of in-phase error (typically 100dB
resulting in < 10ppm). The contribution due to the second stage follower appears to be negligible!

In the example above the first op-amp has a gain-bandwidth of 5MHz, the feedback network a natural frequency of
16kHz and the operating frequency is 400Hz. The relevant factors are: -

f f
 B1s   8  10 5 and  N s   2.5  10 2
f B1 fN

The main source of error is 80ppm quadrature which is easily rejected by a null detector with reasonable phase
accuracy and a synchronous rectifier [1].

1. Monograph: “Null detectors – the basics”.

13