Rayleigh–B
enard Convection

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With Multiple Solutions in
Govind Maurya
Department of Energy Science and Engineering,
IIT Bombay,
Trapezoidal Closed Cavities
Mumbai, Maharashtra 400076, India Rayleigh–B
enard convection (RBC) in symmetric trapezoidal closed cavities with cavity
angle / ¼ 70  110 , filled with air, is studied using numerical simulations where inclined
Nadeem Ahmed side walls are adiabatic. In contrast to rectangular cavities, where no flow exists below a
Department of Energy Science and Engineering, threshold value, there is a weak convection even at a low Rayleigh number (Ra) due to the
IIT Bombay, fact that there is a component of thermal gradient in the horizontal direction in these cavities.
Mumbai, Maharashtra 400076, India Interestingly, these cavities show sudden and significant jumps in the convection, similar to
square cavities (Rac ¼ 2585.02 for / ¼ 90 ), as Ra increases beyond a critical value (Rac).
Suneet Singh1 It is noted here that these Rac represent symmetry-breaking pitchfork bifurcations. These
Department of Energy Science and Engineering, bifurcations are seen in both acute (Rac ¼ 8000 for / ¼ 70 ) and obtuse (Rac ¼ 2300 for
IIT Bombay, / ¼ 110 ) angle trapezoidal cavities. Moreover, it is observed that multiple steady-state
Mumbai, Maharashtra 400076, India solutions (MSSS) exist as Ra is further increased. A forward and backward continuation
e-mail: [Link]@[Link] approach for numerical simulations is used to track the co-existence of MSSS. These steady-
states have co-existing one-roll and two-roll convective patterns beyond another threshold
Lalit Kumar value of Ra. Here, two types of critical Ra have been identified for different cavity angles; one
Department of Energy Science and Engineering, shows the sudden jump in the convection, and the other is the one beyond which MSSS co-
IIT Bombay, exist. Furthermore, a codimension two bifurcation analysis is carried out with Ra and / as
Mumbai, Maharashtra 400076, India two parameters. The bifurcation analysis divides the parameter space into different regions
based on the multiplicity of the solutions. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4065005]

Keywords: natural convection, Rayleigh-B

enard convection, multiple steady-states,
bifurcation analysis

1 Introduction boundary conditions [4]. This solution had been continued for rigid-
free boundary conditions by Low [5]. Pellew and Southwell
Rayleigh–B
enard convection is a natural phenomenon seen for
extended the work of Rayleigh and Jeffreys for cylindrical systems
fluid layers heated from below and cooled from the top. It is a type of
and derived the theory of hexagonal cells, which explained B
enard’s
natural convection where the buoyancy force induced by the
experiments [6].
temperature gradient (TG) is imposed in the direction opposite to the
Thompson [7] and Chandrasekhar [8] extended the classical
gravitational forces. At smaller Rayleigh number (Ra), heat transfer
B
enard problem of convective instability in a shallow fluid layer
occurs solely through pure conduction across the fluid layer between
with a vertical magnetic field acting on the fluid. The presence of the
the hot and cold surfaces. The resulting temperature distribution
magnetic field had a significant stabilizing effect, and the critical Ra
reflects one-dimensional steady-state heat conduction. The con-
was dependent on the magnitude of the Hartmann number, as
vective cells or rolls, showing a constant two-dimensional
confirmed experimentally by Nakagawa [9]. Rayleigh’s problem is
convection pattern, appear when the Ra exceeds a certain threshold.
transformed into a cavity problem by introducing two side walls,
B
enard experimented on the bottom-heated thin wax layer and first
which can be close or open depending on the conditions at the top
reported the observation of convective hexagonal cells [1,2].
surface. Chandrasekhar and Reid developed the Fourier-type
Rayleigh formulated B
enard’s problem using hydrodynamic
expansion method to solve the fourth-order differential equation,
stability theory and showed a transition from conduction to
which was helpful in solving Rayleigh’s problem [10,11]. Velte [12]
convection in fluid bound between two infinite plates having free-
examined the onset of RBC in fluid confined within a bottom-heated
free boundary conditions [3]. There have been several works since
horizontal pipe of a square cross section using the small perturbation
the initial work done by Rayleigh and B
enard. Some notable works
method. Kurzweg [13] did similar work to Velte in the presence of
from the first half of the 20th century are discussed here. Jeffreys
the magnetic field using the small perturbation method of linear
used Richardson’s central difference method based on the principle
stability analysis and Chandrashekhar’s method of Fourier-type
of exchange of stability for solving the sixth-order differential
expansion of velocity stream function and temperature function. It
equation, obtained by Rayleigh, and calculated Rac for rigid
was observed that the onset of hydromagnetic convection within the
1
rectangular cavity depends on the magnitude of the Hartmann
Corresponding author. number and the cavity aspect ratio. It was observed that the sidewalls
Contributed by the Heat Transfer Division of ASME for publication in the JOURNAL OF
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER. Manuscript received September 12, 2023; final manuscript of the cavity have a more stabilizing influence in the B
enard problem
received March 4, 2024; published online March 15, 2024. Assoc. Editor: Gerard F. Jones. for cavities with a height-width ratio of greater than one. It was also

Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer Copyright V

C 2024 by ASME JUNE 2024, Vol. 146 / 062601-1
seen that the magnetic field does not affect the shape of convection convection in cavities involve a combination of experimental,
cells but causes a transition to a higher mode. Similar results of the analytical, and numerical techniques. These methods are utilized to
stabilizing effect of low and high conductive sidewalls were analyze and understand the thermal behavior of various cavity
obtained experimentally by Catton [14]. shapes. The shape of these cavities can be rectangular or trapezoidal,
Davis used Chandrashekhar’s Galerkin expansion method to with the latter being dependent on the inclination of the sidewalls.
solve Rayleigh’s problem in a three-dimensional (3D) box with Natural convection in a 2D obtuse angle trapezoidal cavity
various aspect ratios. He presented the Ra variation for various (OATZC) with parallel cylindrical top, bottom walls, and plane
combinations of finite convective transverse and longitudinal rolls adiabatic side walls was studied with the variation of cavity
in the cavity with different aspect ratios [15]. Catton extended the inclination angle by Iyican [34]. The velocity and temperature fields
work of Davis using various sets of orthogonal functions as trial were calculated using Galerkin’s spectral method in governing

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functions in the Galerkin method and showed complementary equations. Due to cylindrical walls in the trapezoidal cavity (TZC),
results for small aspect ratios as well, which were not reported by the coordinates were transformed into rectangular geometry with
Davis [16,17]. For more accurate results of Kurzweg’s works, appropriate transformations for simplicity. Furthermore, the results
Luijkx used the minimization of the local potential method, where obtained numerically were experimentally verified [34]. The
potentials are expanded in terms of trial functions, and developed a OATZC with aspect ratios three and six was studied, and the
method to determine the number and the shape of longitudinal rolls dependence of heat transfer and fluid motion on various parameters
at the onset of convection [18]. Moreover, it was deduced that 3D Ra, Pr, and tilt angle was shown experimentally and numerically by
transverse rolls appear before two dimensional (2D) longitudinal Lee and Peric [35–37]. There are numerous works on natural
infinite rolls. Xia and Murthy investigated RBC in 3D cavities with convection in trapezoidal cavities, with porous media [38], micro-
various aspect ratios for the transition from no-flow to flow transition polar fluid [39], viscoelastic fluid [40], and nanofluid [41].
(denoted by first critical Rayleigh number, Rac1), steady-state to There are several key applications of RBC and its heat stream-
oscillatory flow (denoted by second critical Rayleigh number Rac2), lines. Madhavi et al. have developed a device to perform polymerase
and transition to chaos via different routes [19]. They showed three chain reactions (PCR) for amplification of deoxyribo-nucleic acid
distinct patterns of the solution between Rac1 and Rac2. (DNA), which is necessary in many genetic experiments [42]. The
Pallares numerically studied Rayleigh’s problem in the 3D exponential amplification has been shown using RBC-based
cubical cavity for various Prandtl numbers. He observed seven controlled systems [43–46]. They have used the RBC mechanism
different types of roll patterns with degeneracy in the range of for temperature cycling of the process instead of using costly
Ra ¼ 3500–60, 000, out of which a few existed in a narrow range of external temperature controllers. These processes involve con-
Ra [20]. Here, degeneracy refers to a situation where multiple trolled flow and temperature zones to perform such PCRs. The
distinct states or configurations correspond to the same amount of current document shows that these flow and temperature zones can
heat transfer (usually representing symmetrical solutions) but be controlled by tuning the cavity angle. There are several
different system modes, which is indicated by the same average applications of natural convection in trapezoidal cavities filled
Nusselt number and is due to the presence of symmetric states. The with micropolar fluids [47], and nanofluids [48,49] with various
study has noted the transition from one roll type to another, and the shapes of nanoparticles [50]. The trapezoidal shapes are also found
irreversibility of a few transitions was investigated. For the to be useful in several heat transfer enhancement applications; for
existence and stability of the rolls, the dependence of all solutions example, trapezoidal fins can be used for cooling electronic devices.
on the slight tilting of the cavity and aspect ratio variation has been Several recent numerical works have analyzed radiative and
explored. Puigjaner continued the same problem using the Galerkin convective losses from trapezoidal fins [51–54]. Several other
spectral method and presented complementary results of Pallares, applications of thermally controlled systems exist in various areas,
who had a few inconsistencies with experimental results [21]. They such as the growth of optical crystals employed in laser and
further investigated for more branches of solutions and found semiconductor industries, building insulation, and solar thermal
additional rolls and transitions. A bifurcation study of the system collectors [33].
having conducting lateral walls for various Prandtl numbers has From the reviewed literature, it can be seen that the work related to
been done using a parameter continuation procedure based on a RBC usually considers the cases where the imposed temperature
Galerkin spectral method to obtain the bifurcation diagrams for gradient is in the direction opposite to gravity. Therefore, there is no
steady flow solutions. Double toroid-type patterns at higher Ra were flow in the cavities below a critical Ra, and the heat transfer is
shown, consistent with experimental results [22]. More studies on through pure conduction. However, in cases where there is a small
Rayleigh’s problem in the 2D cavity were carried out using the component of thermal gradient perpendicular to the gravity (in
Galerkin method with orthogonal Chebyshev polynomials. These addition to the dominant component as mentioned above) present,
studies were used to obtain Rac variation and roll formation in there still exists a possibility of an RB-like transition. In such cases,
cavities with various aspect ratios [23–26]. although magnitude is low, convective heat transfer is present even
Gelfgat also studied Rayleigh’s problem in 2D and 3D cavities below the critical Ra. One such case, with the open cavity, where
using the global Galerkin method using Chebyshev polynomials and fluid was allowed to go outside from the top, was considered recently
showed various modes and their existence with the change of aspect [32,33]. It was observed that there was a nonzero component of the
ratio, Ra and Biot number [26,27]. Venturi focused on the same thermal gradient at the top corners of the cavity, leading to a flow
problem in 2D and investigated the onset of convective instability, near those corners. Interestingly, the lower part of the cavity had
multiple steady-state solutions, and probability of flow development thermal stratification similar to closed square or rectangular cavities,
for a random initial condition, i.e., the basin of attraction of all stable leading to flow stagnation and almost pure conduction. The
solutions, using parameter continuation techniques [28]. Bhatta- breakdown of those stratified layers led to the transition from very
charya and Basak also worked on the 2D square enclosure using the low convective flow at the corners to a vigorous flow throughout the
Galerkin finite element method. They captured complex bifurca- cavity. For shallow cavities, such stratified regions did not exist;
tions and a spectrum of symmetric and antisymmetric steady-states hence, there was no such transition.
with many solution branches and roll patterns [29]. The TZCs are another interesting case where flow is present even
The onset of natural convection in enclosures has been a topic of at low Ra. Although significant work has been done for
interest for several years. A literature review shows numerous Rayleigh–B
enard stability breakdown in rectangular, cylindrical,
references on the stability breakdown of RBC. Still, most of the and cubical geometries, the explicit discussion of critical Ra,
research has been limited to relatively specific geometries such as stability breakdown, and multiple steady-state solutions in TZCs is
spherical shells [30] or cylindrical cavities and annuli [31], closed absent in the literature. As noted earlier, the presence of weak
rectangular enclosures, top open cavities [32,33], and inclined convection in TZCs leads to significant differences in the stability
rectangular cavities. The studies in the literature regarding natural breakdown in these cavities. Moreover, the change in the shape of

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the cavity with a change in inclination angle also has certain the earlier studies [58,60], the flow is taken to be laminar for the
interesting aspects that require investigation. range of Ra considered. The standard nondimensionalized 2D
To address the issues discussed in the previous paragraph, in the equations are widely available in literature [32,33,58] and are given
present work, a different case, viz., closed TZC, is considered, which as
has a small component of thermal gradient perpendicular to gravity.
In contrast to the top open cavity discussed earlier, the thermal @U @V
þ ¼0 (1)
gradient component is not localized in this case; hence, the resulting @X @Y
flow, though relatively weak, is present throughout the cavity [55].
 1=2
Considering the case of the open cavity, it is not intuitive to expect an @U @U 2 @ ðUV Þ @P Pr
RB-type transition in TZC. However, a sudden jump in flow þ þ ¼ þ r2 U (2)
@s @X @Y @X Ra

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velocities and heat transfer in such cavities indicates an RB
instability. Moreover, this transition is associated with a symmetry  1=2
breakdown, indicating a pitchfork bifurcation. In this article, @V @ ðUV Þ @V 2 @P Pr
þ þ ¼ þ r2 V þ H (3)
simulations have been carried out to benchmark the results of @s @X @Y @Y Ra
square cavities. The same procedure is extended to investigate
 1=2
stability breakdown and multiple steady-state solutions in TZCs. @H @ ðUHÞ @ ðVHÞ 1
Critical Ra and bifurcation points showing the co-existence of þ þ ¼ r2 H (4)
@s @X @Y Pr :Ra
multiple steady-state solutions have been explored with the
variation of cavity angle. g bH 3 DT
where Pr ¼ a and Ra ¼ a c are Prandtl number and Rayleigh
number, respectively. The parameters used to nondimensionalize
2 Methodology the governing equations are as follows:
The system’s mass, momentum, and energy conservation x y u v
equations govern the heat transfer in fluids. These equations can X¼ ,Y¼ ,U¼ 1 , V ¼ 1
Hc Hc g bHc ðTh  Tc Þ 2 g bHc ðTh  Tc Þ2
be found in several earlier works [56–59]. The flow is assumed to be
incompressible for the simulation with the valid Boussinesq p  p1 t gbHc ðTh  Tc ÞÞ1=2 T  Tc
approximation. This approximation considers the linear variation P¼ 1 , s ¼ ,H¼
g bHc ðTh  Tc Þ2 Hc Th  Tc
of the density with the temperature only in the gravitational force
term. Moreover, other fluid properties, such as conductivity,
viscosity, and specific heat, are assumed to be constant. Based on
2.1 Description of the Problem. The model of the cavity
considered in the current study is shown in Fig. 1. A 2D Cartesian
coordinate system (X, Y) is taken to define the geometry. The cavity
has bottom wall at a higher temperature, top wall at a lower
temperature, and side walls are insulated. The aspect ratio AP is
defined as the ratio of the bottom wall length, Lb , to characteristics
vertical height, Hc , of the cavity. The angle of side walls can be
acute, right, or obtuse depending on the shape of the cavity, whether
acute angle trapezoidal cavity (AATZC), square cavity, or OATZC
is considered, respectively. The square cavity ABCD is simulated
for benchmarking, while acute angle trapezoidal cavity ABC00 D00
and obtuse angle trapezoidal cavity ABC0 D0 are simulated for the
current study.
No-slip boundary conditions for velocities are applied at the
walls. The bottom and top wall boundary conditions are isothermal,
while an adiabatic boundary condition is applied at side walls. The
mathematical form of boundary conditions is [32,33]:
No-slip boundary condition: U ¼ V ¼ 0
Isothermal boundary condition: Hð X, Y ¼ 0Þ ¼ 1, Hð X,
Y ¼ 1Þ ¼ 0
Fig. 1 Schematic of square cavity as ABCD, OATZC as ABC0 D0 , Adiabatic boundary condition: @H=@n ¼ 0, where n is the normal
and AATZC as ABC00 D00 direction to the wall.

Fig. 2 Grid independence study: The Nusselt number at the bottom of the cavity, horizontal velocity (U) at midwidth, and vertical
velocity (V) at midheight at Ra 5 3000 for various grid sizes

Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer JUNE 2024, Vol. 146 / 062601-3
Table 1 Grid independence study: Percent change in maximum properties since these properties are temperature-dependent. Hence,
Nusselt number and velocities with grid size the size of the cavities is varied for the simulations to vary Ra.
Grid size Numax Umax Vmax
2.3 Grid Independence Study. The grid independence for the
20  20 1.639 0.110,19 0.109,98 system has been carried out at R ¼ 3000 with the Ap ¼ 1 Fig. 2. The
30  30 1.614 0.107,81 0.107,42 grid size 20  20 to 50  50 has been taken for the study with an
40  40 1.604 0.106,70 0.106,51 interval of 10. The maximum Nusselt number at the bottom of the
50  50 1.597 0.106,17 0.105,94 cavity and horizontal and vertical velocity at the midwidth and
midheight of the cavity have been listed in the following table. The
changes observed with increasing grid size are quite small. The

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2.2 Numerical Approach. A 2D model has been simulated in perturbation required to induce the instability comes from the
the ANSYS FLUENT 2022 R1 software package. The Prandtl number coarseness of the mesh, as no explicit external perturbation is
is kept constant at 0.71 as the fluid inside the cavity is considered air. provided. However, it has been observed with further simulations
For the simulations, the pressure implicit with splitting of operator that the fine mesh sizes suppress the perturbations, leading to the
time-dependent scheme of the FLUENT is used. The governing stabilization of the system for longer Ra. The validation of the
equations are solved simultaneously for the solution of the system. critical Rayleigh number with the literature is presented in Sec. 3.
The convective scheme for both momentum and energy is of second- The grid size 20  20 has reasonable error while it also leads to
order upwind type. The relaxation parameters for pressure, density, accurate prediction of critical Rayleigh numbers; hence, all the
momentum, and energy are kept at 0.025, 0.9, 0.9, and 0.9, further simulations are carried out at the same grid size for better
respectively. The residuals for continuity, momentum, and energy results, computational cost, and time (Table 1).
equations are kept at 105 , 106 , and 106 , respectively. All the
simulations are carried out for Ap ¼ 1 while varying the angle of the 3 Verification
cavity. Ra can be varied by changing the temperature difference
between two walls or by varying the cavity size. Temperature 3.1 The Onset of Natural Convection. For verification of Rac
variation also leads to the variation of density and other fluid in RBC for the 2D square cavity, the results are compared with those

Fig. 3 Isotherms (a, b), streamlines (c, d) and velocity vector contour (e, f) in the square cavity for
Ra 5 2570 and 2590, respectively

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Fig. 4 Variation of horizontal velocity U(Y) versus Yand vertical velocity V(X) versus X at the cavity’s midwidth and
midheight

obtained by Gelfgat [26]. The same results for the Rac were reported case) is varied. In the case of natural convection, this bifurcation
by Venturi [28] as well. In these works, the Rac value has been occurs when the Ra exceeds a critical value and the flow in the cavity
reported to be 2585.02 using Galerkin’s spectral method. transitions from a stationary state to a steady convection pattern.
The simulation is carried out for a square cavity, and it is observed
that until a Ra of 2570, the flow in the cavity is almost zero, and heat
transfer occurs primarily through conduction within the cavity. This 3.2 Nusselt Number Variation. The Nusselt number is the
fact can be deduced from the isotherms, streamline, and velocity ratio of heat transfer by convection to conduction within the fluid.
vector plots in Figs. 3(a), 3(c), and 3(e), respectively. The figures The average Nusselt number can be calculated as follows:
show thermally stratified layers and no flow within the cavity. At a
hHc
Rayleigh number of 2590, the flow starts within the cavity, and Nu ¼ (5)
natural convection takes place, which can be inferred from the j
isotherm profile, streamline, and velocity vector plot in panels (b),
(d), and (f) of Fig. 3, respectively. The sharp change in isotherms, where Hc is the characteristic length, and h is the convective heat
streamlines, and velocity vectors indicates the onset of the transfer coefficient. Nu is used as an indicative parameter for a
convection. The velocity streamlines and isotherms shown in sudden change in heat transfer [32,33]. The Nu in nondimension-
Figs. 3(f) and 3(b), with the flow in the counterclockwise direction alized form is computed as [28]
and the roll associated with it, have been denoted as S 1 by Venturi @T
[28]. The mirror image isotherm and roll Sþ 1 (clockwise rolls) are Nu ¼  (6)
also obtained but not shown here, as it is pretty evident that such a @y wall
solution exists. This point of sudden jump has been called the first
branch point BP1 by Venturi [28], and the solution corresponds to a The Nu remains one in case of pure conduction. The Nu profile at the
one-roll convection pattern. bottom of the square cavity for Ra ¼ 2570 is a straight line, while for
The nondimensionalized horizontal velocity U(Y) and vertical Ra ¼ 2590, there is a sharp change in the Nu profile as in Fig. 5. For a
velocity V(X) are plotted at midheight and midwidth, respectively, in very small increment in Ra, there is a sudden and sharp change in the
Fig. 4. A sharp change in the velocity profiles is observed for a very Nu profile, indicating the onset of convection and heat transfer
small change in the Ra. This indicates a stability breakdown and a through fluid motion. This supports the facts deduced from
transition from conduction to convection through a supercritical isotherms and velocity contours, as discussed in Sec. 3.1.
pitchfork bifurcation. A supercritical pitchfork bifurcation is a type
of bifurcation where a single equilibrium point splits into two stable
3.3 Multiple Steady-State Solutions in Square Cavity. After
branches and one unstable branch, as a parameter (Ra in the present
the onset of convection, a two-roll pattern is observed at and beyond
Ra ¼ 11, 500. The parameter backward continuation method is used
to find out the transition from a two-roll pattern to one-roll pattern at
Ra ¼ 11, 450 and below. The parameter backward continuation is
carried out by keeping the results of the current simulation as the
initial solution, as Ra is decreased for the next simulation. The
forward parameter continuation method (keeping the current
simulation results as the initial solution with increasing Ra) is
used to verify the co-existence of one-roll and two-roll solutions. It is
found that one-roll solutions co-exist with two-roll solutions at and
beyond Ra ¼ 11, 500.
The isotherms, streamlines, and velocity vector plot of the one-
roll pattern Sþ 
1 with clockwise roll and two-roll pattern S2 , in which
hot fluid rises from the center and cold fluid moves down through
sidewalls, is presented in Fig. 6. This transition point of two-roll
stable solutions to one-roll stable solutions is denoted as RaTRS in
this article. Beyond this point, RaTRS , one-roll steady-state solutions
S6 
1 and two-roll steady-state solution S2 co-exist However, two-roll
pattern Sþ2 in which hot fluid rises through sidewalls and cold fluid
comes down from the center of the cavity, is not found in current
Fig. 5 Variation of Nusselt number at the bottom of square cavity simulations, while it was reported by Venturi [28]. It is noted that the

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Fig. 6 Isotherms (a, b), streamlines (c, d), and velocity contour vector plot (e, f) in the square
cavity for Ra 5 11,500 for the asymmetric one-roll solution and symmetric two-roll solution,
respectively

basin of attractions for S6

2 is quite small in the initial condition space. in Table 2. The results obtained here are in good agreement with the
In the abovementioned work, it was demonstrated that the results of Venturi [28].
probabilities of S6 6
1 and S2 are 45.8% and 4.2%, respectively. The It is seen that the current approach can identify the critical Ra
Nusselt number variation for both these solutions is presented in quite accurately. It is also noted that the flow patterns, isotherms, and
Fig. 7. This figure depicts that one-roll solutions transfer more Nusselt number profiles are captured quite well, and the multiple
energy as their average local Nusselt number is significantly higher
than two-roll solutions.

3.4 Bifurcation Diagram. The average Nusselt number at the

bottom of the cavity has been calculated for the Ra ¼ 0  15, 000
range to show different bifurcation points and branches, as shown in
Fig. 8. The first branch point, BP1, has been observed for
Ra  2590. Beyond BP1, the two stable degenerate one-roll
solutions about unstable conduction state (depicted by dashed line
–-) are presented. The average Nusselt number for two-roll stable
solution which appeared beyond RaTRS is also shown in the figure.
This average Nusselt number curve for the two-roll solution is
extrapolated backward in MATLAB using the shape-preserving
interpolant (which uses a piecewise cubic Hermite interpolation
for fitting the data). Note that numerical solutions cannot obtain the
unstable equilibriums as they repel the solution trajectories;
therefore, extrapolation becomes necessary. It intersects the
conduction line (average Nusselt number one) at the second branch
point BP2. The two-roll solution between BP2 and RaTRS is unstable
and becomes stable beyond RaTRS . The bifurcation diagram in Fig. 8 Fig. 7 Nusselt number variation in the square cavity for
is similar to that reported by Venturi [28]. The numerical values of asymmetric one-roll solution and symmetric two-roll solution at
these bifurcation points obtained in the current study are compared Ra 5 11,500, respectively

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 steady-states and bifurcations are also predicted with reasonable
accuracy. Therefore, all the simulation parameters were kept the
same for further study.

4 Results and Discussion

The cavity angle has been changed from 90 to an acute and
obtuse angle for studying TZCs. The main objective was to identify
and discuss the change in behavior of the flow below and above Rac .
By investigating this critical parameter, the study aims to understand

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the stability breakdown in TZC and contribute to the knowledge of
natural convection in such systems. The TZCs with an aspect ratio of
one are being investigated to obtain Rac and multiple stable
solutions for cavity angles from 70 to 110 with a step of 5 . The
simulations are carried out with a mesh size of 20  20, the same as
in the square cavity case.
Fig. 8 Bifurcation diagram for natural convection within the
square cavity. Stable steady-states are denoted by continuous
lines (2), and unstable steady-states are denoted by dashed lines 4.1 Flow Patterns in Trapezoidal Cavity for Identification of
(- -). One-roll solution is at left side, and two-roll solution is at right Rac . The simulations of TZC with a cavity angle of 70 are
side. presented here to identify critical Ra. This critical value depends on
the geometry of the cavity, including its aspect ratio and cavity
Table 2 Comparison of critical Ra (BP1), BP2 with Venturi [28] angle. The fluid is not stagnant at smaller Ra, unlike in square
cavities. There is a nonzero flow present, which grows as Ra is
BP1=Rac BP2 RaTRS
increased. The isotherms are of a concave shape corresponding to
Venturi 2585.02 6742.31 11,279 the bottom of the cavity. For a given Ra, concavity and flow velocity
Present work 2590 6574.22 11,500 decrease as the cavity angle changes from 70 to 90 . In contrast, the
% Difference 0.19 2.49 1.96 isotherms are convex beyond the cavity angle of 90 . Moreover, the
convexity and flow velocity increase with a cavity angle beyond 90 .

Fig. 9 Isotherms (a, b), streamlines (c, d), and velocity contour vector plot (e, f) in AATZC for
Ra 5 7950 and 8000, respectively

Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer JUNE 2024, Vol. 146 / 062601-7
The results of a representative AATZC and a representative OATZC The magnitude of nondimensional horizontal velocity U(Y)
are presented here to depict the identification of Rac . versus Y and vertical velocity V(X) versus X is plotted at the
The isotherms, streamlines, and velocity vector plots of AATZC midwidth and midheight of the cavity, respectively. The symmetry
of cavity angle 70 for Ra ¼7950 and 8000 and of OATZC with in the isotherms, U(Y) and V(X) curves, is observed at Ra ¼ 2250,
cavity angle 110 for Ra ¼ 2250 and 2300 are presented Figs. 9 and which breaks down at Ra ¼ 2300. A sharp jump in the magnitude of
10, respectively. The isotherms of AATZC of cavity angle 70 the velocities, U(Y), and V(X) curves is observed in Fig. 12. Thus Rac
remain concave, starting from smaller Ra to Ra ¼ 7950 but the is identified by the significant change in isotherms, flow patterns,
magnitude of velocity continuously increases with Ra. As Ra is velocity magnitude, and Nusselt numbers.
further increased beyond 7950, a steady two-dimensional unicel-
lular pattern sets in the cavity, indicating the stability breakdown at 4.2 Nusselt Number Variation. Nusselt numbers for AATZC
Ra ¼ 8000. The isotherms are no longer symmetric beyond the

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and OATZC are calculated from a nondimensionalized temperature
abovementioned value of Ra. The maximum magnitude of non- gradient at the bottom of the cavities similar to those computed for
dimensional velocity, shown in Figs. 9(e) and 9(f), jumped from square cavities and presented in Figs. 13 and 14, respectively. Nu
0:0195 to 0:0858, an increment of around 4.4 times by increasing the value deviates from one, unlike the results in square cavities. The Nu
value of Ra by just 50. The flow pattern of the velocity and profile calculated at the bottom of the AATZC for Ra ¼ 7950 is
streamline patterns also show a significant change for this transition. symmetric and having convex shape while for Ra ¼ 8000, there is
The magnitude of nondimensional horizontal velocity U(Y) symmetry breakdown in Nu profile as in Fig. 13. This convexity of
versus Y and vertical velocity V(X) versus X is plotted at the the curve decreases with cavity angle up to beyond 90 . The average
midwidth and midheight of the cavity, respectively. One can see the Nu value is lesser than one in AATZC for cavity angle 70 .
symmetry in the isotherms, as well as U(Y) and V(X) curves at Ra ¼ The Nu profile at the bottom of the OATZC for Ra ¼ 2250 is
7950, which breaks down at Ra ¼ 8000. A sharp jump in the symmetric and concave, while for Ra ¼ 2300, there is a symmetry
magnitude of the velocities, U(Y), and V(X) curves is observed for breakdown in the Nu profile as in Fig. 14. This concavity increases
this transition, as shown in Fig. 11. Thus, Rac is identified by the with an increment in cavity angle beyond 90 . The average Nu value
significant change in isotherms, flow patterns, and velocity is more than one in OATZC for cavity angle 110 . With a small
magnitude, unlike the square cavities, where it is identified as a change in Ra, there is a sudden and sharp jump in the Nu profile,
transition from conduction to convection. indicating stability breakdown. This supports the fact deduced from
Similarly, the isotherms of OATZC of cavity angle 110 remain isotherms and velocity contours, as discussed in Sec. 4.1.
convex, starting from smaller Ra to Ra ¼ 2250, but the velocity
magnitude continuously increases with Ra. As Ra is further 4.3 Heat Transfer Variation With Cavity Angle. The
increased beyond 2250, a steady two-dimensional unicellular average Nusselt number in the abovementioned AATZC, square
pattern sets in within the cavity, indicating the stability breakdown cavity, and OATZC has been plotted in Fig. 15 beyond onset with the
at Ra ¼ 2300. The isotherms lose their symmetry beyond the cavity angle between the range of Ra ¼ 8000  9000. It is clear
abovementioned value of Ra. The maximum magnitude of non- from the plot that heat transfer is restricted by decreasing the cavity
dimensional velocity, shown in Figs. 10(e) and 10(f), jumped from angle. It is evident from the results that increasing angle results in a
0:0627 to 0:1559, around 2.5 times increment by increasing the significant increase in heat transfer, and obtuse angle cavities have
value of Ra by just 50. The flow patterns of the velocity and higher heat transfer. This is due to the fact that the fluid has more
streamline patterns changed sharply in this range Ra ¼ 2250 freedom of movement as the cavity is wider on the top.
2300.

Fig. 10 Isotherms (a, b), streamlines (c, d), and velocity contour vector plot (e, f) in OATZC of 110 angle
for Ra 5 2250 and 2300, respectively

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Fig. 11 Variation of horizontal velocity U(Y) versus Y and vertical velocity V(X) versus X at the cavity’s midwidth
and midheight, respectively, in AATZC

4.4 Co-Dimensional Two Bifurcations With Ra and Cavity one rectangular region sandwiched between two triangular regions,
Angle as Parameters. Since we are identifying the regions of explaining the flow direction and isotherm patterns formed below
different types of solutions in a two-parameter space, this can be critical Ra. Since the bottom wall is uniformly heated, the base of the
considered a codimension two bifurcation analysis. The parameters triangular region in AATZC is at a higher temperature, decreasing in
are the cavity angle and the Rayleigh number. The simulations for the upward direction. Thus, more fluid at higher temperatures trying
cavity angle from 70 to 110 with a step of 5 are carried out to to go up dominates viscosity in this triangular region, leading to
identify the critical Ra variation with cavity angle. The critical Ra upward flow from both left and right. The middle rectangular region,
for these cavities is presented with their lower and upper limits, in which was stagnant initially, is the sink for fluid going up from both
between which Rac lies. The critical Ra versus cavity angle results sides and thus, fluid comes down from the center of the cavity below
are presented in Table 3 and plotted in Fig. 16. From the plot, it is critical Ra. Also, the isotherms are concave as hot fluid rises from
clear that Rac value decreases with increasing the cavity angle for a sidewalls and comes down from the center.
fixed aspect ratio of one. This figure is indicative of the fact that the In contrast, the base of the triangular region in OATZC is at a
fluid in AATZC remains stable for larger Ra, i.e., higher temperature lower temperature, increasing downward. This time, the colder fluid
difference between top and bottom wall than in OATZC. The at lower temperatures is trying to come down, and hence, dominates
stability of the fluid is more robust in the cavity with a smaller cavity viscosity forces and leads to flow downwards in the triangular region
angle. from both left and right. Through the middle rectangular region,
The TG is antiparallel to the gravity in the square cavity below which was stagnant initially, fluid goes up from the center of the
critical Ra, as shown in Fig. 17. While in TZCs, TG is not exactly cavity below critical Ra. The isotherms are convex as cold fluid
aligned with gravity, thus possessing both horizontal and vertical comes down from sidewalls and rises from the center.
components. The vertical component of TG remains antiparallel to The flow patterns and isotherms for AATZC and OATZC show
gravity, which forms a condition for RBC. The nonzero horizontal similar behavior beyond critical Ra. One-roll convective flow
component of TG leads to immediate convection even at low Ra, as patterns and mirror image isotherms corresponding to these rolls,
in side-heated cavities. The magnitude of the convective flow which have clockwise and counterclockwise flow types, are formed
increases with decreasing the cavity angle in AATZC and increasing in AATZC and OATZC. However, below the critical Ra, the
the cavity angle in OATZC as the magnitude of the horizontal behavior is qualitatively different. The hot rising fluid from the side
component increases. in AATZC prevents stability breakdown for larger Ra by forcing the
Although convective flow exists throughout the cavity in both stagnant central fluid to come down. Cold fluid coming down from
AATZC and OATZC, the flow direction and isotherms in these two the side in OATZC is more prone to stability breakdown at low Ra as
cavities have different behavior. These TZCs can be understood as it pushes stagnant central fluid up.

Fig. 12 Variation of horizontal velocity U(Y) versus Yand vertical velocity V(X) versus X at midwidth and midheight
of OATZC, respectively

Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer JUNE 2024, Vol. 146 / 062601-9
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Fig. 13 Nusselt number variation for Ra 5 7950 and 8000 in
AATZC for antisymmetric and symmetric solutions, respectively Fig. 16 Variation of Rac with cavity angle

Table 3 Rayleigh number versus cavity angle

Cavity angle Rac1 RaTRS

70 7950 8000
75 4800 4850
80 3450 3500
85 2800 2850
90 2570 2590 11,450 11,500
95 2450 2500 10,200 10,250
100 2350 2400 8250 8300
105 2300 2350 6200 6250
110 2250 2300 2750 2800

not observed in OATZC. The multiple steady-state solutions have

been presented for OATZC with a cavity angle of 110 in Fig. 18.
The isotherms, streamlines, and velocity vector plot have been
presented for both types of the solution, which co-exist beyond
Fig. 14 Nusselt number variation for Ra 5 2800 and 2750 in RaTRS .
OATZC for asymmetric and symmetric solutions, respectively The bifurcation diagram for OATZC of 100 degrees is presented
in Fig. 19. The detailed numerical results are given in Appendix. The
figure shows the branch points of one-roll and two-roll solutions in
4.5 Multiple Solutions. The simulations have been done to OATZC. The difference in this bifurcation diagram from the
investigate the multiple stable state solutions in AATZC and bifurcation diagram of the square cavity can be seen. In the case of
OATZC. One-roll solutions (S6 1 ) having mirror image antisymmetry the square cavity, the BP1 was situated at Nusselt number one line,
are found in both AATZC and OATZC. However, a two-roll while in the case of OATZC, this BP1 is situated above Nusselt
solution (S 
2 ) was found only in OATZC. The counterpart of S2 is number one line, which is not a horizontal line as it was for the square

Fig. 15 Average Nusselt number variation for different cavity Fig. 17 Schematic of cavities showing components of temper-
angles ature gradient (TG) and gravity directions

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 Downloaded from [Link] by Indian Institute of Technology Bombay user on 18 November 2024
Fig. 18 Isotherms (a, b), streamlines (c, d), and velocity contour vector plot (e, f) in OATZC of 110 angle
for Ra 5 2800 for antisymmetric and symmetric solutions, respectively

Fig. 19 Bifurcation diagram for natural convection within the Fig. 20 Nusselt number variation for Ra 5 2800 in OATZC for
OATZC of 100 degrees. Stable steady-states are denoted by antisymmetric and symmetric solutions, respectively
continuous lines (2), and unstable steady-states are denoted by
dashed lines (- - -). One-roll solutions are at left side, and two-roll
solutions at right side. The complimentary Sþ 2 although not found in the current study by
simulations, it is reported in the literature [28]. However, as noted
cavity. Since in the case of square cavities, only the conduction earlier, the probability of getting this solution from an arbitrary set of
mode of heat transfer is present before stability breakdown, while in initial conditions is quite low. Moreover, symmetry along the
the case of OATZC, weak natural convection is present even at midheight does not exist in trapezoidal cavities, which may preclude
lower Ra. This convection increases with an increase in Ra even some of the solutions. Therefore, further studies are required to
before stability breakdown. ascertain the existence of all possible solutions.
The Nusselt number for these two solutions has been plotted in
Fig. 20 at transition point RaTRS . The RaTRS variation with cavity
angle from 90 to 110 with a step 5 is shown in Table 3 and plotted 5 Conclusions
in Fig. 21. It is deduced from the plot that RaTRS value decreases with There are several applications of controlled flow and temperature
increasing the cavity angle. The decrease in RaTRS can be zones, such as in RBC-based PCR cycles for the amplification of
understood as similar to Rac decrement with cavity angle in OATZC DNAs. The shape and size of the cavity, Rayleigh number can tune
as explained previously. such controlled flows and heat transfer. In addition, there are several

Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer JUNE 2024, Vol. 146 / 062601-11
 Hc ¼ characteristic Height (m)
Lb ¼ cavity length at bottom (m)
p¼ pressure (Pa)
P¼ dimensionless pressure
(ð p  p1 Þ=ðqbg Hc ðTh  Tc ÞÞ)
Pr ¼ Prandtl number =a
Ra ¼ Rayleigh number bgHc3 ðTh  Tc Þ=ða Þ
Tc ¼ cold Temperature (K)
Th ¼ hot Temperature (K)

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Greek Symbols
a ¼ thermal diffusivity (m2 =s)
b ¼ volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion (1=K)
H ¼ dimensionless temperature ðT  Tc Þ=ðTh  Tc Þ
j ¼ conductivity (w=mK)

q ¼ fluid density kg=m3
 ¼ kinematic viscosity (m2 =s)
Fig. 21 Variation of RaTRS with cavity angle for the transition of
antisymmetric solution to symmetric solution in OATZC Acronyms
AATZC ¼ acute angle TZC
DNA ¼ deoxyribo-nucleic acid
other areas where cavities of different shapes and sizes with natural
OATZC ¼ obtuse angle TZC
convection are present, such as in energy-efficient buildings, solar
PCR ¼ polymerase chain reaction
receivers, and electronic device cooling. The role of the cavity angle
PISO ¼pressure implicit with splitting of operator
on the onset of RBC and the co-existence multiplicity of the
RB ¼Rayleigh-B
enard
solutions have been investigated in this article. In general, the onset
RBC ¼ Rayleigh-B
enard convection
of the RBC is associated with the formation of thermally stratified
SIMPLEC ¼ semi-implicit method for pressure linked equations-
layers and the absence of convection below the critical Rayleigh
consistent
number. Therefore, the problem considered in the present work is
TOCED ¼ top open cavity with extended domain
quite interesting, as a pure conduction regime does not exist, and
TZC ¼ trapezoidal cavity
weak convection is present for all Ra values. Therefore, RBC-type
convection is characterized by a sudden increase in convection as
well as symmetry breakdown. The methodology used here for TZC
is verified against the results of Venturi et al. for square cavities. Appendix
It is noted that the isotherms at smaller Ra are symmetric and of
concave shape in AATZC. Moreover, the isotherm patterns are
symmetric and convex in OATZC. Convexities and concavities in Table 4 Data corresponding to the bifurcation diagram of
OATZC (Fig. 19)
TZC isotherms are proportional to the cavity angles and Ra below
stability breakdown. These convex and concave shapes of the ORS TRS
isotherms are responsible for a component of the temperature Ra Nuavg Ra Nuavg
gradient perpendicular to gravity, which causes nonzero flow
throughout the cavity even at smaller Ra. It is also noted that the Rac 9000 2.31 9000 2.15
decreases with cavity angle for a fixed aspect ratio. It is pointed out 8500 2.27 8900 2.14
that flow stability persists in AATZC for larger Ra than in OATZC. 8000 2.22 8800 2.13
In the simulations carried out in the present work, two-roll 7500 2.16 8700 2.12
solutions are not found in AATZCs; however, the two-roll solution 7000 2.11 8600 2.11
S2 is observed in OATZC, similar to the square cavity. It is pointed
6500 2.05 8500 2.09
6000 1.99 8400 2.08
out here that the range of stable two-roll solution also starts at the 5500 1.94 8300 2.07
lower of Ra as the cavity angle is increased beyond 90 ; therefore, 5000 1.88 3100 1.17
the co-existence of both one-roll and two-roll solutions is achieved 4500 1.83
at lower values of Ra for OATZC with larger cavity angles (Table 4). 4000 1.78
3500 1.65
3000 1.52
Funding Data 2900 1.49
2800 1.45
 CSIR HRDG. 2700 1.41
2600 1.37
2500 1.32
Data Availability Statement 2400 1.28
2350 1.16
The datasets generated and supporting the findings of this article 2000 1.15
are obtainable from the corresponding author upon reasonable
request.

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Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer JUNE 2024, Vol. 146 / 062601-13