IMAGE OF FRÉDÉRIC SORRIEU

Artwork Description
Peoples of Europe and Men and women of all ages and social classes march in a long train, offering
America homage to the Statue of Liberty.
Liberty is represented as a female figure holding the torch of Enlightenment in
Statue of Liberty one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
Shattered Remains of
Absolutist Institutions The foreground features shattered symbols of absolutist institutions.
Distinct Nations Different nations are identified through their flags and national costumes.
The United States and Switzerland lead the procession, followed by France,
Leading Nations Germany, Austria, and others.
The German peoples carry the black, red, and gold flag, symbolizing hopes for
Germany's Flag German unification under a democratic constitution.
Christ, saints, and angels in the heavens above symbolize fraternity among the
Divine Gaze nations of the world.

IMPACT OF NATIONALISM
Topic Description
Impact of Nationalism in Nationalism emerged as a significant force in the nineteenth century, causing
Europe profound changes in Europe.
Transition from Dynastic Nationalism led to the decline of multi-national dynastic empires, giving rise to
Empires nation-states.
Development of the The concept of a modern state, with centralized power and territorial
Modern State sovereignty, evolved over time.
A nation-state is characterized by a shared sense of identity, history, or descent
Nation-State Formation among its citizens.
Forging of Common This common identity was not ancient but was created through struggles and
Identity actions of leaders and people.

NATION STATE & MODERN STATE

Aspect Modern State Nation-State
Centralized authority exercises
sovereign control over a clearly Centralized authority with a strong sense of shared
Nature of defined territory, with ultimate identity among the majority of citizens, often based
Authority and authority over both domestic and on common culture, language, and history. The
Control foreign affairs within its borders. power of the state is exercised within this context.
Emerged as a distinct concept in the 19th century,
Evolved over a long period of time in representing a new phase in political organization
Europe, with elements like centralized where a sense of common identity and shared
Development power and territorial sovereignty history among citizens became prominent. A
over Time developing gradually over centuries. relatively more recent development.
Aspect Modern State Nation-State
Does not necessarily require citizens
to share a common identity, culture, or Essential characteristic is the presence of a shared
Sense of history. Focuses primarily on sense of identity and common history among
Common centralized governance and territorial citizens. This sense of commonness forms the basis
Identity control. for national unity and cohesion.

EARNEST RENEN- WHO?

A nation is the result of a long history of efforts, sacrifices, and devotion
Nation as per him by its people.
Rejection of Narrow concept of Criticism of defining a nation state based on language, race, religion, or
Nation state suggested by others territory.
Elements of Nation state as per Characteristics of a nation include common glories in history, shared will
Earnest Renan in the present, and the performed of great deeds together.
A nation is a form of large-scale solidarity, and its existence is affirmed
Nation as Large-Scale Solidarity through a daily plebiscite.
If anyone has the right to be consulted, it is the inhabitant. Provinces'
Rights of Provinces and inhabitants have the right to express their views and consent regarding
Inhabitants their issues
Role of Nations in Ensuring The existence of nations is necessary as it prevents the dominance of a
Liberty single law or ruler, ensuring liberty.
A nation has no real interest in forcibly annexing or controlling a country
Opposition to Forced Annexation against its will.

FRENCH REVOLUTION
Key Points Description
First clear expression Nationalism found its first clear expression during the French Revolution in
Nationalism in 1789 1789.
France's Status Before the In 1789, France was a well-established territorial state under absolute
Revolution monarchy.
Change-Transfer of Sovereignty The aftermath of the French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty
to the People from the monarchy to the French citizens.
The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth
Revolution proclaimed constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
STEPS

Steps for Collective Identity Description

Concepts of La Patrie and Le French revolutionaries introduced ideas of 'la patrie' (the fatherland) and 'le
Citoyen citoyen' (the citizen) to foster a sense of unity among the French people.
A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the previous royal
Adoption of the Tricolour Flag standard, symbolizing a break from the monarchy.
Transformation of Estates
General into National The Estates General was renamed the National Assembly and was elected by
Assembly active citizens, emphasizing a unified national representation.
Creation of Symbols and New hymns, oaths, and commemorations were created to promote the idea of
Cultural Expressions the nation, fostering a shared cultural identity.
A centralized administrative system was established, formulating uniform
Establishment of a Centralized laws, abolishing internal customs duties, and adopting consistent weights and
Administrative System measures across the nation.
Promotion of a Common Regional dialects were discouraged, and French, as spoken and written in
Language Paris, became the common language of the nation.
The French revolutionaries declared it their mission and destiny to free other
Mission to Liberate Peoples of European peoples from despotism, aiding them in their journey towards
Europe nationhood.

NAPOLEON
Impact of French
Revolutionary Ideas
Description
Abroad
Formation of Jacobin News of events in France led to the establishment of Jacobin clubs in various
Clubs European cities, particularly by students and educated middle-class individuals.
Promotion of Jacobin clubs and their campaigns laid the groundwork for French armies'
Nationalism Abroad expansion into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and parts of Italy during the 1790s.
Through a return to monarchy Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in
France, but made administrative system more rational and efficient.

Napoleon, in the territories under his control, implemented reforms inspired by the
French Revolution.
Export of Revolutionary
He introduced the Napoleonic Code 1804, promoting equality before the law,
Principles by Napoleon
property rights, and abolishing privileges based on birth.
Administrative divisions were simplified, the feudal system was abolished,
peasants were freed from serfdom, and guild restrictions were removed. Transport
Administrative Reforms and communication systems were enhanced.
Uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national
Economic Impact and currency facilitated the movement and exchange of goods and capital, benefitting
Freedom businessmen, artisans, and workers.
While initially welcomed in some regions like Holland and Switzerland, French
Mixed Reactions to rule faced mixed reactions due to increased taxation, censorship, and forced
French Rule conscription, which outweighed the benefits of administrative changes.
FIGURE NO 2
1798 German
Description
Almanac Cover
The cover shows a picture of people attacking the French Bastille and a German
Image of Storming
fortress, meant to represent the bastion of despotic rule in the German province of
Bastille
Kassel
Slogan: 'People
There is a slogan that says, 'The people must take their own freedom!'
Take Freedom'
Connected to Andreas Rebmann, who made this, lived in Mainz and was part of a German Jacobin
German Jacobins group.

FIGURE NO 4
Fig. 4 Description
The Planting of This coloured print by Karl Kaspar Fritz shows the French army occupying
Tree of Liberty Zweibrücken, Germany.
French Soldiers as
Oppressors The French soldiers, wearing blue, white, and red uniforms, are depicted as oppressors.
Seizing a Peasant's
Cart They are shown taking a peasant's cart on the left.
Harassing Young
Women In the center foreground, they are harassing young women.
Forcing a Peasant
to Kneel They are also forcing a peasant to kneel.
The plaque on the Tree of Liberty carries a German inscription sarcastically referencing
Inscription on the French as liberators. It translates to: 'Take freedom and equality from us, the model
Plaque of humanity.'

FIGURE NO 5
Fig. 5 Description
In this image, Napoleon is depicted as a postman returning to France after
The courier of Rhineland losing the Battle of Leipzig in 1813.
Letters Representing Lost The letters falling out of his bag bear the names of the territories he lost in the
Territories battle.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe
Characteristics Mid-18th Century Europe
No Nation-States Europe in the mid-18th century did not have nation-states as we know them today.
Regions that now make up Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into
Fragmented Territories various kingdoms, duchies, and cantons, each with autonomous rulers.
Diverse Peoples and Eastern and Central Europe were ruled by autocratic monarchies, comprising diverse
Languages populations with different languages and ethnicities.
Lack of Collective The diverse peoples within these territories did not share a collective identity or
Identity common culture.
The Habsburg Empire, ruling over Austria-Hungary, was a patchwork of various
regions and peoples, including German-speaking, Italian-speaking, Magyar-
Habsburg Empire speaking, Polish-speaking, and others.
Common Allegiance to The primary unifying factor among these diverse groups was their allegiance to the
the Emperor emperor.

2.1 The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

Social and Political European Society and Politics (18th-19th Century)

Characteristics
Dominant Rich Landed The landed aristocracy was the dominant social class on the continent, sharing a
Aristocracy common lifestyle and language, primarily French.
Ownership of Rural and They owned estates in rural areas and town-houses.
Urban Properties
Many families within this aristocracy were connected through marriage
Ties of Marriage alliances.
Small in Number Despite their influence, the aristocracy constituted a small numerical group.
The majority of the population was composed of the peasantry, especially in
Peasantry Eastern and Central Europe.
In Western Europe, much of the land was farmed by tenants and small
landowners, while Eastern and Central Europe had large estates cultivated by
Land holding pattern serfs.
The growth of industrial production and trade occurred primarily in Western
Middle class Europe, leading to the emergence of towns and commercial classes.
England initiated industrialization in the late 18th century, but France and parts
Industrialization of the German states saw industrialization in the 19th century.
Emergence of New Social Industrialization led to the development of new social groups, including the
Groups working class and middle classes (industrialists, businessmen, professionals).
Ideas of national unity and the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained
Ideas of National Unity popularity, especially among the educated, liberal middle classes.
2.2 What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?
Liberalism in Early
Ideology and Political Concepts (19th Century)
19th-Century Europe
The term 'liberalism' is derived from the Latin word 'liber,' which means 'free.'

Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely

Origin of'Liberalism'
allied to the ideology of liberalism
Significance for For the new middle classes, liberalism symbolized individual freedom and equality
Middle Classes under the law.
Politically, liberalism emphasized government by consent, the end of autocracy and
clerical privileges, the establishment of a constitution, and representative government
through parliament.
Political Emphasis Nineteenth-century liberals stressed the importance of private property rights.

Equality before the law did not necessarily entail universal suffrage. In revolutionary
France, voting and eligibility for office were limited to property-owning men. Women
Limited Suffrage
and property-less men were initially excluded from political rights.
During a brief period under the Jacobins, all adult males briefly enjoyed suffrage in
Jacobin Period revolutionary France.
The Napoleonic Code reduced suffrage and placed women in a subordinate legal
Napoleonic Code position under the authority of fathers and husbands.
Opposition Women and non-propertied men organized opposition movements during the 19th and
Movements early 20th centuries, advocating for equal political rights.

ECONOMIC LIBERALISM
Economic Aspects of
Liberalism in 19th-Century
What Liberalism Meant for the Economy
Europe
In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets
and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement
Freedom of Markets
of goods and capital.
In the early 1800s, German-speaking regions were divided into 39 separate
Example from German- states, each with its own currency, weights, and measures. This made trade very
speaking Regions complicated.
Merchants had to pass through 11 customs barriers and pay about 5% in
Problem of Trade Barriers customs duties at each one when moving goods. The duties depended on the
and Customs Duties weight or measurement of the goods.
Problem of Varied Different regions had different systems of weights and measures, making trade
Measurement Systems difficult. For example, the "elle" stood for different lengths in different places.
These conditions were seen as hurdles to economic growth and trade. The
Economic Growth emerging commercial class wanted a unified economic territory with free
Obstacles movement of goods, people, and capital.
Economic Aspects of
Liberalism in 19th-Century
What Liberalism Meant for the Economy
Europe
In 1834, a customs union called "zollverein" was created with the leadership of
Formation of Customs Prussia and most German states joined. It abolished tariff barriers and reduced
Union (Zollverein) in 1834 the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility,
harnessing economic interests to national unification.

Role of Railways & A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments
Economic nationalism growing at the time

SOURCE- B
Rise of National
Economy Friedrich List and the Zollverein
Economic During this period, economists began focusing on the national economy, considering how
Nationalism it could foster national development and unity.
Friedrich List's Friedrich List, a German economics professor at the University of Tübingen in 1834,
Perspective emphasized the significance of the zollverein in economically uniting Germans.
Goals of the List stated that the zollverein aimed to economically bind Germans together, fostering
Zollverein national strength by protecting external interests and stimulating internal productivity.
He believed that the zollverein would promote national sentiment by merging individual
Fusion of and provincial interests, recognizing that a free economic system was essential to cultivate
Interests a sense of nationhood.

2.3 A New Conservatism after 1815

Conservatism After
Napoleon Key Points
After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, European governments driven by a spirit of
conservatism, advocating for the preservation of traditional institutions such as the
Conservatism
monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property, and the family.
Most conservatives did not seek a return to pre-revolutionary society but realized that
A Modernized New modernization, as initiated by Napoleon, could enhance traditional institutions,
Conservatism particularly the monarchy.
A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of
feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
VIENNA CONGRESS
The Congress of Vienna
(1815) Main Outcomes
After Napoleon's defeat, European powers, including Britain, Russia, Prussia, and
Napoleon's defeat & Austria, convened in Vienna in 1815. They aimed to reverse most of the changes
European powers brought about by Napoleon in Europe.
The Bourbon dynasty, which had been removed during the French Revolution, was
reinstated in France. Territories annexed by Napoleon were returned to their previous
Restoring Monarchies owners.
New states were established around France's borders to prevent future expansion. New
states were established around France's borders to prevent future expansion.

New states were Significant border changes included the establishment of the Kingdom of the
established & Changes in Netherlands (including Belgium), Genoa joining Piedmont, Prussia acquiring new
Borders western territories, Austria gaining control of northern Italy, and Russia receiving part
of Poland.
But the German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left
Preservation of German untouched
Confederation
The regimes established in 1815 were autocratic and opposed dissent. They enacted
Autocratic Conservative censorship laws to control media, restricting ideas of liberty linked to the French
Regimes (Nature) Revolution.
Despite censorship, the memory of the French Revolution inspired liberals. One of the
Liberal Opposition major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticised the new conservative
order, was freedom of the press.

FIGURE NO- 6
The Club of Thinkers
(c. 1820) Description and Rules
This anonymous caricature from around 1820 humorously portrays the idea of a
Satirical Caricature "Club of Thinkers."
The plaque on the left poses a satirical question: "The most important question of
Key Question today’s meeting: How long will thinking be allowed to us?"
Club Rules The board on the right list’s comical rules for the Club of Thinkers, including:
Silence
Commandment "1. Silence is the first commandment of this learned society."
"2. To avoid the eventuality whereby a member of this club may succumb to the
Muzzles for Members temptation of speech, muzzles will be distributed to members upon entering."
2.4 The Revolutionaries

Key Points Description

Following the year of 1815, Many liberal-nationalists went underground due to the
Fear of Repression fear of repression.
Emergence of Secret Secret societies were established in various European states to educate
Societies revolutionaries and disseminate their ideologies.
Revolutionaries were dedicated to opposing the monarchical systems established
Revolutionaries after the Vienna Congress and advocating for liberty and freedom.
Nation-State Most revolutionaries considered the formation of nation-states as a necessary
Formation component of their struggle for freedom.

GIUSEPPE MAZINI
Giuseppe Mazzini Description
Background Italian revolutionary born in Genoa in 1807.
Membership in the Carbonari Became a member of the secret society, the Carbonari.
Exiled at the age of 24 in 1831 for his involvement in a revolution attempt
Exile in 1831 in Liguria.
Founded two underground societies: "Young Italy" in Marseilles and
Founding of Secret Societies "Young Europe" in Berne.
Attracted like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and the
International Impact German states as members.
Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural
units of mankind. So, Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of
Vision of National Unity small states and kingdoms
Opposition to Monarchy and Strongly opposed monarchy and championed the idea of democratic
Democratic Republics republics.
His ideas and actions frightened conservatives, and Metternich labeled
Conservative Opposition him as "the most dangerous enemy of our social order."

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

Event Description
Liberalism and nationalism became associated with revolutions in various
Regions of Liberal- European regions, including Italian and German states, Ottoman Empire provinces,
Nationalist Revolutions Ireland, and Poland.
Revolutions were led by liberal-nationalists from the educated middle-class elite,
including professors, schoolteachers, clerks, and members of the commercial
Revolutions Led by middle classes.
Event Description
In France, the July Revolution of 1830 resulted in the overthrow of the Bourbon
First Upheaval - France kings and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe as its
(July 1830) leader.
The July Revolution in France had a significant impact on Europe, often referred to
Impact on Europe as "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold."
The July Revolution in France inspired an uprising in Brussels, leading to the
Belgium Revolution secession of Belgium from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

GWI
Event Description
Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. A nationalist
Greek War of struggle for independence began in 1821, fueled by growing revolutionary
Independence (1821) nationalism in Europe.
Greek nationalists received support from Greeks living in exile and sympathy from
many Western Europeans.
Support for Greek Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised
Independence public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.
Lord Byron's English poet Lord Byron organized funds and fought in the war for Greek
Involvement independence, ultimately died due to fever in 1824.
Treaty of The Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation,
Constantinople (1832) marking the end of the Greek War of Independence.

3.1 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

Aspect of
Nationalism
Development Description
The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial
Role of Culture in expansion. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and
Nationalism poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings.
The Romantic cultural movement focused on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings,
emphasizing a shared collective heritage as the foundation of a nation.

Romanticism Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science
German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder advocated that true German culture could
Johann Gottfried be found among common people (das volk), popularizing the national spirit
Herder (volksgeist) through folk songs, poetry, and dances.
The collection and recording of folk culture were essential for nation-building,
Collecting Folk especially to reach illiterate audiences. This practice was particularly significant in
Culture Poland after partition.
Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle in Poland through his operas and
Karol Kurpinski music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
Aspect of
Nationalism
Development Description
Language played a crucial role in fostering nationalist sentiments. In Poland, the Polish
language became a symbol of resistance against Russian dominance after an armed
Role of Language rebellion in 1831.
After the armed rebellion against Russian rule, Polish language was used for Church
Use of Polish in gatherings and religious instruction, leading to clergy members facing persecution by
Church Russian authorities.

FIGURE NO 8
Painting Title The Massacre at Chios
Artist Eugene Delacroix
Year 1824
Style Romanticism
Dimensions 4.19 meters x 3.54 meters
This painting depicts an incident on the island of Chios in which 20,000 Greeks were
Description reportedly killed by Turks.
Artistic Delacroix used vivid colors and dramatic storytelling to evoke strong emotions and
Approach sympathy for the suffering of women and children during the massacre.
The painting aimed to raise awareness about the brutal events on Chios, generate public
Purpose sympathy for the Greek victims, and appeal to the emotions of the viewers.
"The Massacre at Chios" is considered a masterpiece of Romantic art and reflects the
Historical Romantic movement's focus on emotions and human suffering. It also highlighted the Greek
Significance War of Independence against Ottoman rule.

BOX 1
Brothers Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm
Birth Jacob Grimm: 1785
Wilhelm Grimm: 1786
Field of Study Both studied law but developed an interest in collecting old folktales.
Folktales They spent six years traveling from village to village, collecting and writing down fairy
Collection tales that had been passed down through generations.
First Collection In 1812, they published their first collection of tales.
Contributions - Actively participated in liberal politics, particularly advocating for freedom of the press.
- Published a 33-volume dictionary of the German language.
They believed that the folktales they collected were expressions of an authentic German
National spirit and saw them as part of the broader effort to oppose French domination and establish a
Identity distinct German national identity.
Their collection of folktales, known as "Grimms' Fairy Tales," remains popular worldwide
Legacy and has had a lasting impact on literature and culture.
Brothers Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm
Their work in preserving German folklore contributed to the development of a sense of
German national identity.

3.2 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

Period 1830s and the Year 1848
Economic
Hardships - 1830s marked by significant economic hardship in Europe.
- Population increased dramatically across Europe, leading to more job seekers than
available employment.
- Rural to urban migration resulted in overcrowded slums in cities.
- Competition from cheap, machine-made goods from England affected small producers
in towns.
- Textile production, still partially mechanized and carried out in homes or small
workshops, faced challenges.
- Peasants in regions with aristocratic power struggled with feudal dues and obligations.
- Fluctuations in food prices and poor harvests led to widespread pauperism in both urban
and rural areas.
Events of 1848 - In 1848, food shortages and high unemployment in Paris triggered widespread protests.
- Barricades were erected in Paris, leading to the overthrow of Louis Philippe's monarchy.
- A National Assembly declared the establishment of the French Second Republic.
- The Republic granted suffrage to all adult males above 21 and guaranteed the right to
work.
- National workshops were established to provide employment opportunities for the
population.

SILESIA

Year and Event 1845 Silesian Weavers' Revolt

Weavers in Silesia revolted against contractors who supplied raw materials and gave
Background orders for finished textiles.
Economic Hardship - Weavers faced extreme economic hardship due to reduced payments for their work.
- Contractors took advantage of the weavers' desperate need for employment to lower
the prices of ordered goods.
- On June 4th at 2 p.m., a large crowd of weavers marched in pairs to their contractor's
Revolt mansion, demanding higher wages.
- Weavers were met with scorn and threats from the contractor.
- A group of weavers forced their way into the contractor's house, vandalizing property,
Action including window panes, furniture, and porcelain.
- Another group broke into the storehouse, plundering supplies of cloth and tearing them
to shreds.
Year and Event 1845 Silesian Weavers' Revolt
Contractor's - The contractor fled with his family to a neighboring village, seeking refuge, but was
Reaction refused shelter.
Government - The contractor returned 24 hours later and requisitioned the army to deal with the
Intervention situation.
Outcome - In the ensuing confrontation between the army and weavers, eleven weavers were shot.

3.3 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

Year and Event 1848 European Revolutions

- In 1848, Europe was experiencing economic hardship, food shortages, and
Background widespread unemployment, leading to popular unrest.
- In February 1848, France experienced a revolution that resulted in the
abdication of the monarch and the proclamation of a republic with universal
male suffrage.
Middle-Class-Led - In various European countries without independent nation-states, including
Revolution in other part of Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the educated middle
Europe classes led a revolution.
- Their demands included constitutionalism, national unification, parliamentary
Demands principles, a constitution, freedom of the press, and freedom of association.

Failure of Frankfurt parliament

Event/Development Date Description

Middle-class professionals, businessmen, prosperous artisans
Formation of Political formed political associations and decided to vote for an all-German
Associations in German Regions - National Assembly.
-831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take
their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of
May St Paul.
18, -831 elected representatives drafted a constitution for a German
Frankfurt parliament 1848 nation with a constitutional monarchy.
King of Prussia rejected the crown and opposed the elected
assembly and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected
Rejection of Crown by Friedrich assembly. While the opposition of the aristocracy and military
Wilhelm IV - became stronger.
Erosion of Social Support for Parliament dominated by middle classes lost support due to
Parliament - resistance against worker and artisan demands.
Disbandment of Frankfurt
Assembly - Troops were called in, and the assembly was forced to disband.
Event/Development Date Description
Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal
movements in 1848, they could not restore the old order.

Monarchs were beginning to realise that the cycles of revolution

Realization of the Need for and repression could only be ended by granting concessions to the
Concessions liberal-nationalist revolutionaries
Abolition of Serfdom and
Bonded Labor in Habsburg Post- Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished in the Habsburg
Dominions 1848 dominions as a result of concessions.
Abolition of Serfdom and Post-
Bonded Labor in Russia 1848 Russia also abolished serfdom and bonded labor as part of reforms.
Granting More Autonomy to The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in
Hungarians by Habsburgs 1867 1867 as a concession.

SOURCE- C

Viewpoints on Women's Rights Author/Source Date

Nature assigns distinct roles to men and women, equality
between the sexes would only endanger harmony and
destroy the dignity of the family Carl Welcker, Liberal Politician -
April 21,
Equality is indivisible, and women should not be denied Louise Otto-Peters, Feminist 1849 News
political rights. Freedom should apply to all. Activist paper
Anonymous Reader of Louise
Women deserve political rights, and it is unjust to exclude Otto-Peters' Newspaper ( Sent June 25,
them based on gender. letter) 1850

4.1 Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

Key Points Description

Nationalism after Shifted from democracy and revolution to state power.
1848 Now, Conservatives used nationalism for political dominance.
Unification of Middle-class Germans initially tried to unite regions in 1848, but were repressed by
Germany monarchy and military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
Prussia's Leadership Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification
Otto von Bismarck Chief minister of Prussia, architect of unification.
How? With the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy
Wars for Unification Three wars over 7 years with Austria, Denmark, and France led to victory.
Proclamation of
German Empire William I, became German Emperor in Versailles, 1871.
Key Points Description
Dominance of Prussian State
Power Prussia demonstrated its dominance in the nation-building process.
The new German state emphasized modernizing currency, banking, legal,
Emphasis on Modernization and judicial systems.
Prussian Measures as a Model Prussian practices often served as a model for the rest of Germany.

FIGURE NO 11

Painting Information Description

Title The Proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles
Artist Anton von Werner
Key Figures in the - Kaiser (German Emperor) , General von Roon, Chief Commander of the Prussian
Painting army, Bismarck, prominent figure near the Kaiser
Occasion of
Presentation The painting was presented to Bismarck on his 70th birthday in 1885.

4.2 Italy Unified

Key Points Description
Italy was divided into seven states in the mid-19th century, ruled by various
Italy's Political entities, including the Austrian Habsburgs, the Pope, and Bourbon kings of
Fragmentation Spain.
The Italian language had regional and local variations, lacking a common
Lack of Linguistic Unity form.
Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Mazzini sought a unitary Italian Republic and founded the secret
Young Italy society "Young Italy" to promote his goals.
Shift to Sardinia-Piedmont After failed uprisings of 1831 and 1848, the task of unifying Italy fell to
for Unification Sardinia-Piedmont, led by King Victor Emmanuel II.
Economic and Political The ruling elites in Sardinia-Piedmont saw the unification of Italy as a means
Motives for economic development and political dominance.
Role of Chief Minister Chief Minister Cavour, not a revolutionary or democrat, played a key role in
Cavour unifying Italy through diplomatic alliances.
Defeat of Austrian Forces in
1859 Sardinia-Piedmont, with French support, defeated Austrian forces in 1859.
Armed volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi played a crucial role in
unification, especially in South Italy.

In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Giuseppe Garibaldi's and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out
Involvement the Spanish rulers.
Proclamation of Victor
Emmanuel II as King In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
Key Points Description
Much of the Italian population, particularly the illiterate peasant masses,
remained unaware of the ideology behind Italian unification.

Limited Awareness of The peasant masses who had supported Garibaldi in southern Italy had never
Liberal-Nationalist Ideology heard of Italia, and believed that ‘La Talia’ was Victor Emmanuel’s wife!
It was only in 1870 when, during the war with Prussia, France withdrew its
Papal States joined the Italy troops from Rome that the Papal States were finally joined to Italy.

BOX- 2
Key Points Description
Giuseppe Garibaldi Celebrated Italian freedom fighter from a family engaged in coastal trade.
Joined the Young Italy movement and participated in a republican uprising in
Early Involvement Piedmont in 1834.
After the uprising's suppression, Garibaldi lived in exile in South America until
Exile in South America 1848.
Support for Victor
Emmanuel II Supported Victor Emmanuel II's efforts to unify the Italian states in 1854.
Expedition of the Led the famous Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy, with volunteers
Thousand (1860) known as Red Shirts.
Attempt to Capture Rome Led an army of volunteers to capture Rome from the Papal States but faced
(1867) opposition from French and Papal troops.
Unification of Papal States The Papal States were finally joined to Italy in 1870 after France withdrew its
(1870) troops during the war with Prussia.

FIGURE NO 15
Caricature
Information Description
"Garibaldi helping King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont to pull on the boot
Title named 'Italy'"
Year 1859
Depicts Giuseppe Garibaldi assisting King Victor Emmanuel II in putting on a boot
Description labeled 'Italy.'
Symbolizes the effort to unify the various Italian states under Victor Emmanuel II's
Symbolism leadership, with Garibaldi's crucial role in the unification process.
4.3 The Strange Case of Britain
Key Points Description
Great Britain is often cited as a model for the nation-state.

Model of the Nation- Its formation was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the result
State of a long-drawn-out process
Pre-18th Century There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century and the primary
Identities identities in the British Isles were ethnic, including English, Welsh, Scot, or Irish.
English Influence and As the English nation grew in wealth and power, it extended its influence over other
Power nations in the British Isles.
Role of the English The English parliament, which seized power from the monarchy in 1688, played a
Parliament key role in forging the nation-state with England at its center.
The Act of Union between England and Scotland in 1707 resulted in the formation
Act of Union (1707) of the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain' and England's influence over Scotland.
Suppression of Scottish The growth of a British identity led to the systematic suppression of Scotland's
Culture distinctive culture and institutions.
Repression in the Catholic clans in the Scottish Highlands faced repression when asserting their
Scottish Highlands independence, including language and dress bans.
Ireland, deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants, saw English support for
Impact on Ireland Protestant dominance and the suppression of Catholic revolts.
Incorporation of Ireland After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was
(1801) forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem
(God Save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted.
Propagation of English
Culture Older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

5 Visualising the Nation

Key Points Description
Artists in the 18th and 19th centuries personified a nation as if it were a person.
Representation of Nations Nations personified as female figures.
To give a face to a nation and make the abstract idea of the nation more
Purpose of Personification concrete.
Nations were portrayed as female allegorical figures, not representing any
Allegorical Female Figures specific real-life woman.
Use of Female Allegories in During the French Revolution, female allegories like Liberty and Justice were
the French Revolution used to symbolize ideals.
Attributes of Liberty and Liberty was represented with symbols like the red cap or broken chain, while
Justice Justice was often depicted as a blindfolded woman with weighing scales.
In France, Marianne was chosen to personify the nation. She represented the
Creation of Marianne as idea of a people's nation and shared attributes with Liberty and the Republic,
France's Allegory such as the red cap and the tricolour.
Key Points Description
Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares, and her images appeared on
Use of Marianne Imagery coins and stamps, serving as a national symbol of unity.
Germania as the Allegory of In Germany, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. She was
Germany often depicted wearing a crown of oak leaves, symbolizing heroism.

FIGURE NO 17
Painting
Information Description
Title "Germania"
Artist Philip Veit
Year 1848
Medium Painted on a cotton banner
Created to hang from the ceiling of the Church of St. Paul, where the Frankfurt
Purpose Parliament convened in March 1848.

BOX- 3 VERY IMPORTANT READ NCERT

FIGURE NO 19
Painting Information Description
Title "Germania guarding the Rhine"
Artist Lorenz Clasen
Year 1860
Inscription on Germania's Sword "The German sword protects the German Rhine."
Nationalism and Imperialism

Key Points Description

Loosing ideals of Nationalism in the late 19th century lost its liberal-democratic ideals and
Nationalism in 19th century became a narrow creed with limited goals.
Intolerance Among Nationalist groups grew increasingly intolerant of each other and were prone to
Nationalist Groups conflict.
Manipulation by Major Major European powers exploited nationalist aspirations in Europe to serve
European Powers their imperialist interests.
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-
Balkans nations Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro
Nationalist Tension in the The Balkans, comprising various Slavic nationalities, became a significant
Balkans source of nationalist tension after 1871.
Ottoman Empire's Control The Balkans were partly under Ottoman Empire control, and the spread of
and Disintegration romantic nationalism and Ottoman disintegration heightened tensions.
Balkan Peoples' Claims for Balkan nationalities sought independence based on nationality and historical
Independence claims to once-independent status.
Different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and
independence, leading to intense conflict in the region.

Intense Conflict in the The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain
Balkans more territory at the expense of the others
Big Power Rivalry in the Major European powers like Russia, Germany, England, and Austro-Hungary
Balkans competed for influence in the Balkans, further complicating matters.
The Balkans' nationalist tensions and big power rivalries led to a series of wars
World War I in the region and finally the First World War

FIGURE NO 20
Map Information Description
Title "A map celebrating the British Empire"
Imagery at the Top Angels carrying the banner of freedom.
Britannia, a symbol of the British nation, sitting triumphantly over the
Representation of Britannia globe.
Colonies represented through images of tigers, elephants, forests, and
Representation of Colonies primitive people.
Depiction of Britain's National
Pride The map portrays Britain's national pride in its domination of the world.
Nationalism, aligned with imperialism
Key Points Description
Nationalism and Imperialism Nationalism aligned with imperialism contributed to the outbreak of World
in Europe War I in 1914.
Anti-Imperial Movements Colonized countries around the world began to oppose imperial domination,
Worldwide leading to the development of anti-imperial movements.
Nationalist Goals of Anti- These movements aimed to form independent nation-states and were driven by
Imperial Movements a sense of collective national unity in opposition to imperialism.
Diverse Forms of While European ideas of nationalism were not replicated, people worldwide
Nationalism developed their unique variations of nationalism.
Universal Acceptance of The concept of organizing societies into 'nation-states' became widely accepted
Nation-States as a natural and universal idea.