FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

MATERIAL AND FLUID LABORATORY

LABORATORY REPORT

Code & Experiment BASIC HYDROLOGY

Course/ Subject BFC21201

Section / Group SECTION 2 / GROUP 7

NOOR ALIYAH BINTI AZIEZIE (AF220085)

NUR AIN FATIHAH BINTI MOHAMMAD BORHAN (AF220033)

JULIE FELICIA BINTI JOSEPH (AF220043)

Group members

ROLAND VICTOR (AF220034)

MUHAMMAD ZULFAHMI BIN MOHD ZAIN (AF220048)

Lecturer’s Name DR. MOHD HAIRUL BIN KHAMINURIN

Submission Date 11 JANUARY 2024

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Aliyah
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME NOOR ALIYAH BINTI AZIEZIE

MATRIC NO. AF220085

DATE 3 JANUARY 2023

*This SEC sheet/student is compulsory compiles in this report

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Ain
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME NUR AIN FATIHAH BINTI MOHAMMAD BORHAN

MATRIC NO. AF220033

DATE 3 JANUARY 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Felicia
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME JULIE FELICIA BINTI JOSEPH

MATRIC NO. AF220043

DATE 3 JANUARY 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Roland
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME ROLAND VICTOR

MATRIC NO. AF220034

DATE 3 JANUARY 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Fahmi
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME MUHAMMAD ZULFAHMI BIN MOHD ZAIN

MATRIC NO. AF220048

DATE 3 JANUARY 2024

1.0 OBJECTIVE

To identify the relationship between rainfall and runoff.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Understand the basic terms in hydrology.

2. Understand the concept of watershed area including time of concentration tc and outlet or
concentration point.

3. Understand the factors which influence the runoff.

3.0 INTRODUCTION

Figure 3.1 Hydrological cycle

Hydrological Cycle

The hydrological cycle, often referred to as the water cycle, is a fundamental and continuous
process that governs the movement and distribution of water on our planet. This intricate
cycle begins with evaporation, where the Sun's energy causes water from oceans, lakes,
rivers, and the Earth's surface to transform into water vapor. This water vapor rises into the
atmosphere and undergoes condensation, forming clouds composed of tiny water droplets.

Subsequently, precipitation occurs when these condensed droplets combine and fall back to
the Earth in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail. This phase of the cycle replenishes water
sources and sustains ecosystems. Upon reaching the Earth's surface, precipitation may follow
different pathways. Some water infiltrates the soil, becoming groundwater, while excess
water contributes to runoff, flowing over the land surface and eventually forming rivers and
streams.
In addition to surface processes, the hydrological cycle includes interactions with vegetation.
Transpiration, the release of water vapor from plants, complements the cycle by contributing
moisture to the atmosphere. Plants absorb water from the soil through their roots, facilitating
the movement of water from the land surface to the atmosphere.

The hydrological cycle is a dynamic and interconnected system, maintaining a delicate

balance of water distribution across various reservoirs. It also involves the phase transitions
of water, including sublimation and melting, where water changes between solid and gaseous
states. This continuous cycle, driven by solar energy, plays a pivotal role in sustaining life,
influencing global climate patterns, and shaping the Earth's landscape.

Rainfall Characteristics

Rainfall characteristics encompass various attributes that define the nature and
patterns of precipitation events. These characteristics include the amount, duration,
frequency, seasonality, spatial distribution, temporal distribution,
intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) relationships, and types of precipitation. The amount of
rainfall refers to the volume of water that falls over a specific area during a given period.
Duration represents the length of time a rainfall event persists, while frequency indicates how
often a certain amount or intensity of rain occurs within a specified timeframe.

Seasonality refers to the distinct wet and dry seasons that many regions experience,
influenced by factors like monsoons and geographic location. Spatial distribution accounts
for the uneven allocation of rainfall across the Earth's surface, shaped by topography and
atmospheric conditions. Temporal distribution describes how precipitation is spread over
time, whether in uniform patterns, short bursts, or intermittent phases. IDF relationships are
statistical models that elucidate the connection between rainfall intensity, duration, and
frequency, aiding in infrastructure planning.

Additionally, the types of precipitation, such as rain, snow, sleet, and hail, contribute
to the overall characterization of rainfall events. These diverse characteristics play a crucial
role in climate studies, water resource management, agriculture, and engineering
applications, helping us understand, predict, and adapt to different precipitation patterns.

The Surface Runoff Process

Surface runoff begins with precipitation, such as rain or snow, hitting the Earth's
surface. When the rate of precipitation exceeds the soil's infiltration capacity or when the soil
becomes saturated, excess water accumulates on the surface, initiating the process. This
excess water moves horizontally across the land as overland flow, following the natural
topography. Initially, it may spread evenly as sheet flow, but as it progresses, it can
concentrate into small channels called rills, leading to erosion. The collected runoff
converges into natural or man-made channels, forming streams and rivers. This streamflow,
combined with that of other contributing streams, constitutes river discharge, influencing
aquatic ecosystems and shaping landscapes. Managing surface runoff is crucial to mitigate
issues like flooding, soil erosion, and water pollution, ensuring sustainable water resource
management.
4.0 THEORY

Runoff is generated by rainstorms and its occurrence and quantity are dependent on
the characteristics of the rainfall event, i.e. intensity, duration and distribution. The
rainfall-runoff process is extremely complex, making it difficult to model accurately. There
are, in addition, other important factors which influence the runoff generating process like
natural surface detention, soil infiltration characteristics and the drainage pattern formed by
natural flow paths. The soil type, vegetative cover and topography play as important roles.
Rainfall and runoff are very important hydrologic components because if their direct
relations with water resources quality, flood, streamflow and design of dam and hydraulic
structure.

5.0 APPARATUS

5.1 Basic Hydrology Instrument

Figure 5.1 Basic Hydrological Instrument

Figure 5.2 Basic Hydrological Instrument

5.2 Stopwatch

Figure 5.3 Stopwatch

5.3 Rain gauge Meter

Figure 5.4 Rain Gauge Meter

6.0 PROCEDURE

CASE 1 : Flat and sandy soil surface profile (without slope).

CASE 2 : Flat and sandy soil surface with 35:100 slope profile.

1. The rail at the side of the catchment area were adjusted to get the slope of 0mm.

Figure 6.1 Slope Reading

2. The water level was made sure to be zero, the water bubble is centered.

Figure 6.2 Initial Water Level Reading

3. The pump is switched on and the stopwatch is started.

Figure 6.3 Pump Switch

Figure 6.4 Stopwatch

4. The reading of the water level and rain gauge is recorded for every 30 seconds interval.

Figure 6.5 Recording of Water Level Reading and Rain gauge Reading

5. The pump is switched off when the reading of water level is constant for six times.

6. After that, the reading of water level is continued until it has achieved the nearest zero value. The
reading is recorded for every 30 seconds interval.

7. Step 1 until step 6 is repeated for case two, where the slope is adjusted to 35mm.

Figure 6.6 Slope of 35:100 (35mm)

7.0 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
8.0 CALCULATIONS

Plot the discharge (m3/s) versus time (seconds) graph for each case.

Figure 8.1 Graph of Discharge vs Time for Case 1

Figure 8.2 Graph of Discharge vs Time for Case 2

From the plotted graph, determine :

a) Time concentration

Case 1 : 120s < t < 180s

Case 2 : 90s < t < 150s

b) Rainfall duration

Case 1 : 240s

Case 2 : 420s
c) Peak discharge

Case 1 : 0.0000216m3/s

Case 2 : 0.0000252m3/s

d) Runoff volume

Case 1 :

Case 2 :

e) Rainfall intensity

f) Storage volume
9.0 DISCUSSION

A hydraulic leap may be thought of as a discontinuous wave that are created and
propagate from a point close to the jump. Both upstream and downstream wares spread. They
flow upstream at the same pace because a significant portion of the waves are shallow water
gravity wares, which move at the same speed for a given depth.

However, their speed soon decreases as the water becomes shallower upstream,
which restricts now quietly they can spread upstream. Shorter wavelengths that move more
slowly than the wave's speed in the deeper water downstream is carried away by it. Fourier
analysis would predict that a pretty abrupt ware front can arise since a fairly large variety of
wavelengths and frequencies are still available and this certainly, observed in practice.

Dissipating energy in channels., dam spillways and other similar structures prevent
the excess kinetic energy from harming these. structures, which is one of the hydraulic
jump's most significant engineering uses. A hydraulic leap's energy dissipation or head loss
depends on the side of the jump. The higher the head loss, as measured by the jump's size as
represented in the ratio of final height to beginning height.

All the data can be referred to the table. For the base flow, the value is determined
using baseflow separation method based on the hydrograph.

As for the Case 1 where the slope is rise at 0mm, water level increased until 34mm
indicate for water intake. By time, t= 270 second, the water level did not rise and constant for
6 intervals. Then when the machines are switch off, the water level keep decreasing until
t=900 second with the water level is 13mm. The peak discharge is 0.0000216m3/s and
rainfall intensity are 0.433mm per second at the peak water level may be accurate.

Meanwhile for case 2, the slope is adjusted to rise 35mm. The rising water level
suggest the water input. The peak discharge is 0.0000252m3/s and was higher than peak
discharge Case 1. The more incline happens due to slope adjustment. It shown that the slope
does affect the discharge flow of water. It indicates that the slope does have an impact on
water discharge. The hydrograph system can therefore be explained by the relationship
between water level and discharge. Case 2's rainfall intensity is 0.522mm/s more intense than
Case 1's. Next, the storage volume in Case 2 is less than Case 1 because the higher discharge
of water flow quickly, which caused the less time for water to accumulate and be stored.

Consider any error from the experiment may be cause by:

a) Reading taken not accurate.
b) Instrument drift may cause inaccurate value.

Thus, the way to avoid this error:

a) Make sure the water level indicates in clear to get the reading.
b) The eye of the reader should be perpendicular.
c) Reading was taken at meniscus. The error of the reading may affect the hydrograph result.
10. CONCLUSION

From this experiment, we were able to learn and broaden our understanding of the
fundamental hydrological concepts through this experiment by grasping the idea of the
watershed area, which includes the time of concentration, tc, and outlet or concentration
point. We were able to learn more about the elements that affect the runoff. We can
demonstrate from the findings that runoff increases with increasing rainfall. When the runoff
reaches its maximum discharge point, the effect regarding rainfall occurs.

In hydrology, the concept of time of concentration is used to determine how a

watershed will respond to a rainfall. The flow time is the amount of time it takes for water to
move from the farthest point in a watershed to the outflow. Because of its relationship to the
quantity of the water supply, flooding, and other hydraulic control systems, runoff is also
among the most important hydrological components.

Finally, we may plan the dam or drain using this knowledge. The objective of this
experiment was achieved. The utilisation of the fundamental hydrological system was crucial
for the management of floods. Additionally, by using this technology, we may avoid the
prohibitive cost of installing a dam or drain.
 FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
MATERIAL AND FLUID LABORATORY
LABORATORY REPORT

Code & Experiment INFILTRATION RATE

Course/ Subject BFC21201

Section / Group SECTION 2 / GROUP 7

NOOR ALIYAH BINTI AZIEZIE (AF220085)

NUR AIN FATIHAH BINTI MOHAMMAD BORHAN (AF220033)

JULIE FELICIA BINTI JOSEPH (AF220043)

Group members

ROLAND VICTOR (AF220034)

MUHAMMAD ZULFAHMI BIN MOHD ZAIN (AF220048)

Lecturer’s Name DR. MOHD HAIRUL BIN KHAMINURIN

Submission Date 11 JANUARY 2024

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

ainbohan
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME NUR AIN FATIHAH BINTI MOHAMMAD BORHAN

MATRIC NO. AF220033

DATE 13 DECEMBER 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

aliyahaziezie
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME NOOR ALIYAH BINTI AZIEZIE

MATRIC NO. AF220085

DATE 13 DECEMBER 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

julie
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME JULIE FELICIA BINTI JOSEPH

MATRIC NO. AF220043

DATE 13 DECEMBER 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

victor
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME ROLAND VICTOR PARISEH

MATRIC NO. AF220034

DATE 13 DECEMBER 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

zulfahmi
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME MUHAMMAD ZULFAHMI BIN MOHD ZAIN

MATRIC NO. AF220048

DATE 13 DECEMBER 2023

 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The objective of this investigation was to ascertain the soil’s infiltration rate
and capacity in a specific region, while also investigating their correlation. As
an engineer, the infiltration is the most important part in determining the best
design and solution for a substructure construction project. The rate and
capacity of infiltration are the most important variables for determining the
condition of the subsurface beneath soil or pavement surfaces. Two steel
cylinders of varying diameters are pounded into the ground at a
predetermined depth as part of the double ring infiltrometer test, which was
employed. They are then filled with water to a specific depth, and until the
water level stops falling, the depth is measured every 60 seconds.
Alternatively, the penetration rate.

1.2 OBJECTIVE
To identify the characteristics of the infiltration rate of water into soils in the
field.

1.3 THEORY
When water is first applied, the infiltration rate often exhibits a rapid fall over
time. By using the following equations, the volume of water used to maintain
a constant head in the inner ring (cm), the internal area of the inner ring (ml),
the time interval (hour), and the inner ring incremental infiltration velocity
(cm/s) are all converted into an incremental infiltration velocity for both the
inner ring and annular space. The annular space incremental infiltration
velocity (cm/s) and the volume of water consumed during the time period to
maintain constant head in the annular space between the rings (ml) should be
calculated for the annular space between rings(ml), is the area of annular
space (cm) and is the time interval (s). If the rates for the inner ring and
annular space differ, the inner ring infiltration rate should be utilised for
results. The rate difference is due to
divergent flow.
By using these equations, the volume of water infiltrated each time interval to
an incremental infiltration velocity for both the inner ring and annular space :
∆𝑉𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝐼𝑅 = 𝐴𝐼𝑅∆𝑡
,

𝑉𝐼𝑅 = volume of water during a time interval

∆𝑉𝐼𝑅 = volume of water used during a time interval (ml) 2
𝐴𝐼𝑅 = internal area of the inner ring (𝑐𝑚ଶ )
∆t = time interval (hr)

∆𝑉𝐴
𝑉𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴∆𝑡
,
 𝑉𝐴 = annular space incremental infiltration velocity (cm/hr)
∆𝑉𝐴 = Volume of water used during a time interval (ml)
2
𝐴𝐴 = interval area of annular space (𝑐𝑚 )
∆t = time interval (hr)

CHAPTER 2 - METHODOLOGY
2.1 EQUIPMENT

Equipment Name

Ring infiltrometer
(inner and outer rings)

Driving plate

Hammer

Ruler
 Stopwatch

2.2 PROCEDURE

1. The inner ring has been placed with cutting facing down on the ground. Put
the driving plate on the top of the inner ring and make sure it fits with the pin
on the bottom. then hammer it 5 cm vertically into the soil.

2. After that, the outer ring is centered, hammering the inner ring to drive the
outer ring into the soil.
3. The driving plate was removed and the area inside was cleared from grass to
avoid interference during infiltration. A depth of 10cm for the water level was
marked in the inner and outer ring. Pour water into the outer surface until the
depth is 10 cm. Observe the water level until it dropped to 5 cm.

4. Then, water was added into both rings at the same time until 10 cm.

5. The infiltration rate was measured every 60 seconds by using a stopwatch.

 CHAPTER 3 - RESULT AND DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 RESULT

Time, t (s) Inner (mm) Infiltration Capacity Infiltration Rate (mms)

(mm)

60 95 5 1.6667

120 95 5 0.8333

180 95 5 0.5556

240 94 6 0.4167

300 93 7 0.3333

360 93 7 0.2778

420 92 8 0.2381

480 91 9 0.2083

540 90 10 0.1852

600 89 11 0.1667

660 89 11 0.1515

720 88 12 0.1389

780 88 12 0.1282

840 86 14 0.1190

900 85 15 0.1111

960 84 16 0.1042

1020 83 17 0.0980

1080 80 20 0.0926

1140 79 21 0.0877

1200 77 23 0.8333

1260 76 24 0.0794

1320 75 25 0.0756

1380 74 26 0.0725

1440 73 27 0.0694
 1500 71 29 0.0667

1560 70 30 0.0641

1620 69 31 0.0617

1680 69 31 0.0595

1740 69 31 0.0575

1800 69 31 0.0556

3.2 DATA ANALYSIS

1. Infiltration capacity (mm) = water depth - inner (mm)

2. water depth = 100 mm
3. Infiltration Rate (mms) = 100 / time

Graph of:
i. Infiltration Capacity Vs Time

ii. Infiltration Rate Vs Time

 CHAPTER 4 - DISCUSSION

Water in the soil is necessary for the soil system as a whole to function properly. It
functions as a conduit for the transfer of essential nutrients from the soil solution to
the plant, as well as a source of water for the plants. These nutrients are made up of
dissolved organic and inorganic elements that are delivered to the plant, including
calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen. Furthermore, the soil solution's
environment is home to vital soil activities including fertilization, cation exchange,
weathering, and organic matter breakdown.

The capacity of soil to absorb water is increasing over time, as indicated by the data
and graph for infiltration capacity versus time. This is a result of a rising overall
amount of water being taken in by the soil. Conversely, the soil infiltration rate is
inversely related to time, as shown in the data and graph illustrating infiltration rate
versus time. As time progresses, the rate of soil infiltration decreases because water
fills more holes or pores in the soil. Initially, at the start of the experiment, the soil is
dry because most of the spaces are unfilled. However, as the voids become
completely filled, the soil eventually becomes saturated.

The experiment shows that soil infiltration rates are highly dependent on soil types.
"Dry soil" is dirt that doesn't appear to be damp. Dry soil has a faster rate of
infiltration than wet or saturated soils because of its porous gaps and holes, which
provide plenty of voids for water to fill. Consequently, dry soil absorbs water more
rapidly than wet soil. In comparison to both wet and saturated soil, dry soil exhibits
the highest infiltration rate. In the case of wet soil, which already contains some
water, infiltration occurs relatively quickly compared to saturated soil. As a result,
damp soil absorbs water more slowly than dry soil. Saturated soil, already containing
a substantial amount of water, has the lowest infiltration rate compared to wet and
dry soil and can be likened to an impervious coating.
 CHAPTER 5 - CONCLUSION

As a result, the infiltration is the process where water slowly enters the soil profile,
encouraging the absorption of water and preventing sudden floods. The soil, with its
significant porosity, the soil initially absorbs water quickly; however, compaction
slows down this [Link] obtained result supports this assertion, and shown as the
infiltration rate decreases over time. This slowdown infiltration is inversely
proportional to passage of time. Infiltration capacity, representing the total depth of
water infiltrated in the soil, is influenced by factors like penetration capacity. To sum
up, the higher infiltration capability corresponds to a slower pace of infiltration,
highlighting an inverse relationship between infiltration capacity and infiltration rate.

REFERENCE

1. Eschool Today. (n.d.). Retrieved November 20th, 2022, from

[Link]

2. T.P.A. Ferré, A.W. Warrick, in Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment, 2005

3. Certified Crop Advisor study resources (Northeast region). (n.d.). Retrieved

November 20, 2022, from Certified Crop Advisor study resources (Northeast region):
[Link]
 FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
MATERIAL AND FLUID LABORATORY
LABORATORY REPORT

Code & Experiment PELTON TURBINE

Course/ Subject BFC21201

Section / Group SECTION 2 / GROUP 7

NOOR ALIYAH BINTI AZIEZIE (AF220085)

NUR AIN FATIHAH BINTI MOHAMMAD BORHAN (AF220033)

JULIE FELICIA BINTI JOSEPH (AF220043)

Group members

ROLAND VICTOR (AF220034)

MUHAMMAD ZULFAHMI BIN MOHD ZAIN (AF220048)

Lecturer’s Name DR. MOHD HAIRUL BIN KHAMINURIN

Submission Date 11 JANUARY 2024

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

ROLAND
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME ROLAND VICTOR PARISEH

MATRIC NO. AF220034

DATE 27 DECEMBER 2023

*This SEC sheet/student is compulsory compiles in this report

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Zulfahmi
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME MUHAMMAD ZULFAHMI BIN MOHD ZAIN

MATRIC NO. AF220048

DATE 27 DECEMBER 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Ain
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME NUR AIN FATIHAH BINTI MOHAMMAD BORHAN

MATRIC NO. AF220033

DATE 27 DECEMBER 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Julie
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME JULIE FELICIA BINTI JOSEPH

MATRIC NO. AF220043

DATE 27 DECEMBER 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

aliyah
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NOOR ALIYAH BINTI AZIEZIE NOOR ALIYAH BINTI

NAME
AZIEZIE
MATRIC NO. AF220085

DATE 27 DECEMBER 2023

 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

A Pelton Wheel Turbine is a constant pressure or impulse water turbine. In this

scenario, the water head is extremely high. The Pelton wheel is made up of a wheel
known as the rotor. The turbine's rotor is a circular disc with a number of double
spoon shaped buckets uniformly placed around the circumference. The water is
provided by a reservoir. By using a nozzle, the available hydraulic energy of the
water in this type of turbine is transformed into kinetic energy at atmospheric
pressure. Through the centres of the buckets, each nozzle guides the jet in a tangent
direction towards the circle. After flowing around the smooth inside surface of the
bucket, the water exits with a relative velocity that is nearly the opposite of the initial
jet.

1.2 OBJECTIVE

To determine the operating characteristics of a Pelton turbine at various speeds.

1.3 THEORY

The whole head that is available in the impulse turbines is first transformed into
kinetic energy. Typically, one or more nozzles are used to do this. The nozzles shoot
jets that strike vanes thatare fixed to the edge of a revolving wheel. Energy is
transmitted when the fluid exerts work on the runner, or impeller, as a result of the
motion of the vanes and the rate of change of angular momentum. Because the fluid
energy lost while travelling through the runner is purely kinetic,the absolute velocity
at the outlet is less than the absolute velocity at the input. Furthermore,the fluid
pressure remains constant throughout, with the exception of a tiny drop owing
tofriction. As seen in Figure, the Pelton wheel is an impulse turbine in which
elliptical vanes,sometimes known as buckets, are fixed to the edge of a revolving
wheel.
 figure 1: Diagram of pelton turbine

CHAPTER 2 - METHODOLOGY

2.1 EQUIPMENT

Equipment Name of equipment

Spring Balance
Tensioning screw

Pressure gauge

Switch pump
 Pelton turbine

Valve controller
Tachometer

Stopwatch
2.1 PROCEDURE

1. Switch on the pump. Once the pressure gauge reaches 2 bar, gradually open
the controller valve. Make sure no bubble trap is present.

2. Set the load for W1and W2 to 0. Remove the belt brake from the pulley wheel.

3. Next, use the tachometer to record the revolutions per minute. Note the generally
repeated reading as well as the pressure and W2 readings.
4. Drop the ball into the turbine drum.

5. Record the time starting from 0. Stop the watch when it reach 5 liter. Remove the
ball from the turbine drum.

6. Then, insert the belt break into the pulley wheel. By using the tensioning screw, set
the W1 for 100g

7. After reading the rpm, repeat the process for the next step. W1 should be steadily
increased for 5–6 measurements.
8. Lastly, raise the ball and close the value controller until the reading is zero. Turn
the pump off.
 CHAPTER 3 - RESULT , DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Result

RPM 412.8 372.4 256.10 212.71 110.44 106.56 99.22 98.00 98.03 77.47 77.49 50.07
8 5

ω 43.24 38.99 26.82 22.27 11.57 11.16 10.39 10.27 8.936 8.1126 6.554 5.243
(rad/s)

𝑊1(N) 0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.50 6.0

𝑊2(N) 0 2.00 3.50 4.30 5.50 6.60 7.50 8.20 9.00 9.60 10.30 11.20

𝑊2 -𝑊1 0 1.00 2.00 2.30 3.00 3.60 4.00 4.20 4.50 4.60 4.80 5.20
(N)

Drum 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
radius
−3
X10
m

Rotation 0 0.03 0.06 0.069 0.09 0.108 0.12 0.126 0.135 0.138 0.144 0.156
τ (Nm)

Pm (W) 0 1.169 1.6092 1.5366 1.0413 1.2053 1.2468 1.2940 1.2063 1.1195 0.9438 0.8179
7

Volume( 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
I)

Volume( 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
3
𝑚)

Time (s) 20 19.98 19.88 19.88 19.79 19.59 19.57 19.56 19.35 19.22 19.14 18.19

Flowrate 2.50 2.50 2.52 2.52 2.53 2.55 2.55 2.56 2.58 2.60 2.61 2.74
(mз/s)

Pressure 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
(mH²O)

Pw (W) 4.91 4.91 4.94 4.94 4.96 5.00 5.00 5.02 5.06 5.10 5.12 5.38

Efficiency 0 23.82 32.57 31.11 21.00 24.11 24.94 25.78 23.84 21.95 18.43 15.20
n (%)
 table 3.1.1
3.2 DATA ANALYSIS

Formula used :

- Angular velocity,ω ( rad/s) : 2π x rotational speed, RPM / 60sec

- Rotation ,τ (Nm) : Difference force x Drum Radius

- Mechanical power, Pm (Watt) : Rotation, τ x Angular velocity, ω

- Flowrate (mз/s) : Volume, V (mဒ) / Time, t (s)

- Water power, Pw (W) : ρgHQ

- Efficiency ,ท (%) : (Pm / Pw) x 100%

From the graph, it can visualive that mechanical power,Pm at 0.8179W
increase to 1.2940W and it decrease to [Link] power then increase
again to the highest point which at 1.6092W and remain decrease until 0W.

Based on graph water power,Pw versus rotational speed,RPM, it can show

that the highestpower is at [Link] power keep decrease until at point
[Link] water power decrease while the rotational speed increase.
 From the graph flowrate versus rotational speed, it can show that the highest
flowrate is at 2.75m3/[Link] can visualive that the flowrate decreasing when the
rotational speed [Link] Rate remain decrease until 2.50m3/s.

Based on the graph efficiency versus rotational speed, it show that the
efficiency increase from 15.15% to 25.78% and it decrease for a while to
21.95%.From that point, the efficiency start to increase again until it reach the
highest point which at 32.57%.The efficiency then dropped until 0%

3.3 DISCUSSION

Based on the obtained data, the turbine's rotational speed will decrease and
the power output will increase upon the application of a load. This occurs
when the applied force is inclined,leading to rotational motion. The friction
between the rope and the wheel results in torque values and output power.
 Various potential errors may impact the experiment's outcomes, particularly
concerning the duration of water release. Mistakes in recording time may
arise from inaccuracies in reading the meter, emphasizing the importance of
perpendicular eye positioning for accurate readings. Additionally,
discrepancies may occur if the stopwatch is not synchronized with the water
level reaching zero. It is imperative that all students adhere to guidelines,
comprehend proper tool usage, and understand the experiment's procedures as
precautionary measures. Any mishandling during the experiment can
compromise the accuracy of the data collected.

CHAPTER 4 - CONCLUSION

From this experiment, it can be inferred that the performance of Pelton

turbines is influenced by the interplay of flow rates and rotational speed. The
variation in power generated, termed as work output, is a result of the
combined impact of flow rate and jet velocity. When the nozzle diameter
increases, the flow rate rises, but the jet velocity decreases. Consequently,
selecting an optimal combination between the two is crucial to ensure the
effective functioning of the Pelton turbine. It is worth noting that Impulse
Turbines, characterized by high head but low flow rate, typically exhibit these
pattern

CHAPTER 5 - REFERENCES

1) Pelton Wheel Lab Report - Engineering Thermodynamics and Fluid

Mechanics
Online lab Pelton Wheel - Studocu

2) MCE 403-Pelton Turbine Experiment Sheet - PELTON TURBINE

EXPERIMENT 1.
OBJECT The purpose of this - Studocu
 FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
MATERIAL AND FLUID LABORATORY
LABORATORY REPORT

Code & Experiment FRANCIS TURBINE

Course/ Subject BFC21201

Section / Group SECTION 2 / GROUP 7

NOOR ALIYAH BINTI AZIEZIE (AF220085)

NUR AIN FATIHAH BINTI MOHAMMAD BORHAN (AF220033)

JULIE FELICIA BINTI JOSEPH (AF220043)

Group members

ROLAND VICTOR (AF220034)

MUHAMMAD ZULFAHMI BIN MOHD ZAIN (AF220048)

Lecturer’s Name DR. MOHD HAIRUL BIN KHAMINURIN

Submission Date 11 JANUARY

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Felicia
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME JULIE FELICIA BINTI JOSEPH

MATRIC NO. AF220043

DATE 6 DECEMBER 2023

*This SEC sheet/student is compulsory compiles in this report

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Ain
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME NUR AIN FATIHAH BINTI MOHAMMAD BORHAN

MATRIC NO. AF220085

DATE 6 DECEMBER 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Aliyah
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME NOOR ALIYAH BINTI AZIEZIE

MATRIC NO. AF220085

DATE 6 DECEMBER 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Roland
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME ROLAND VICTOR

MATRIC NO. AF220034

DATE 6 DECEMBER 2023

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

Fahmi
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME MUHAMMAD ZULFAHMI BIN MOHD ZAIN

MATRIC NO. AF220048

DATE 6 DECEMBER 2023

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Water flows radially into and axially out of a Francis Turbine. As the water flows through the
turbine, the pressure decreases, causing a response on the turbine blades and causing the
turbine to rotate. The Francis Turbine is a mixed flow reaction turbine designed for medium
heads and medium discharge. If water enters the runner and flows radially towards the center
of the wheel, with the leaves parallel to the turbine's axis, the turbine is known as a mixed
flow turbine. The Francis Turbine is a reaction turbine. A few key characteristics distinguish
Reaction Turbines from Impulse Turbines. Whereas the majority of the pressure drop in an
impulse turbine happens within the turbine itself, the water flow fills the turbine channel
during operation and the pressure drop occurs up to the entrance point.

The Francis turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine which was designed and
developed by the American engineer James B. Francis. Francis turbine has a purely radial
flow runner; the flow passing through the runner had velocity component only in a plane of
the normal to the axis of the runner. Reaction hydraulic turbines of relatively medium speed
with radial flow of water in the component of the turbine are runners.

2.0 OBJECTIVE
To determine the relationship between the head, flow rate, velocity, power and efficiency of
Francis turbine.
3.0 THEORY

The measurement of hydraulic power in a turbine is typically expressed in watts and can be
calculated as Phydb=Htotal * Q, where Q represents the volumetric discharge measured by
the instrumentation in cubic meters per second, and 9820 N/m3 is the density of water per
unit [Link] is the total head in meters,which can be determined using the Bernoulli
Theorem just before the turbine, and it consists of three components Hman, Hkin, and
[Link] is the difference in pressure head between the measuring point and the
turbine shaft axis, which is approximately 0.35 [Link] value accounts for the pressure 2
drop due to the mixer at the turbine [Link] is a kinetic parameter resulting from the
water velocity,Vm(in meters per second),at the pressure measuring location,and it is
calculated as Hkin = Vm^2 /(2g), where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s^2),
and Vm = Q/Sm, Sm representing the pipe section area (different from the inlet
values).Hpress is the contribution from water pressure, measured in N/m^2 by pressure
gauges.

In the calculation table, the readings obtained from our pressure gauges are added to
their corresponding values: vm,Hman, Hkin, Hpress, Htot and Phyd as previously
[Link] mechanical power output,Pmec (usually in watts), can be calculated using the
formula Pmec = ωε = 2π𝑛𝐶/60, where ω is the turbine’s average velocity measured in
revolutions per minute(RPM), and c is the torque applied to the turbine shaft measured in
Newtonmeters(Nm) by the equipment.

At last, the overall efficiency of the turbine, n Pmec/Phyd, is calculated as the ratio
of the power at the outlet compared to the generated [Link] final table displays both the
experimental and calculated values for each variable(z) as described in the provided tables.
4.0 EQUIPMENT

1. Francis Turbine Machine

5.0 PROCEDURE

1. Set the distributor leverage at the cohen value which z= 50%, and switch on the digital
display.
2. To make the water flow easily by rotating the turbine the nozzle is set to fully open.
3. Switch on the pump and open the valve anti-clockwise slowly until it reaches the
maximum pressure.
4. Set the load control trimmer by four parts, which are 25,50,75 and 100.
5. The reading of pressure, speed, flow rate and voltage is recorded.
6. Repeat step 1 until 5 repeatedly for loads 25,50,75 and 00 respectively.
7. Repeat step 1 until 6 for degree of reaction in 100%.
8. The reading is recorded and the output and efficiency is calculated.
6.0 RESULT & ANALYSIS
Calculation of torque at turbine shaft
TURBINE EFFICIENCY
DISCHARGE VS MOTOR SPEED
GRAPH TORQUE,T VS SPEED,n
Analysis :

Equation used
Hydraulic Power, Phyd (watt) = 𝛾𝐻𝑡𝑜𝑡Q

Where 𝘺 is the density of water (9820 N/m3 )

𝐻𝑡𝑜𝑡(m) = Hman + Hkin + Hpres Hman ≅ 0.35 m;

Hkin = V2 m/2g, Vm (m/s) = Q/Sm;

Hpres = ρm/𝘺

Vm is the velocity of the water Q is the volume discharge (m3 /s),

Sm is the pipe section = 1962.5 mm2 and ρm (in unit N/m2 ) as measured by pressure
gauging Electrical power,

Pel (Watts) = V.I,

Mechanical Power, Pmec (Watts) = Pel/0.75 Torque at the turbine shaft,

T (Nm) = Pₘ / w = P mec x 60 / 2 𝛱 n

Where 𝒲 is the rotation speed of the turbine (rad/s) and n is the rotation speed of the turbine
(RPM) Turbine efficiency, Ƞ , 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑑 x 100
DISCUSSION

This experimental investigation offers valuable insights into the intricate correlations among
several critical parameters, such as head(m), flow rate(Q), velocity(v), speed(n), and the
power efficiency of a Francis [Link] the context of the Francis Turbine, water
ingress occurs radially, while egress is in the axial [Link] the water progresses through
the turbine, it experiences a reduction in pressure, resulting in the impartation of a reactive
force to the turbine blades, ultimately leading to the rotational motion of the [Link]
primary purpose of these turbines is to convert natural hydraulic energy into electrical
[Link], Francis turbines find application in pumped storage scenarios, where
they function as both pumps, filling reservoirs during periods of low power demand, and
generators during peak demand.

A francis turbine hub is nearly consistently vertical. The winding packaging

encompassing the aide vanes permits high-pressure water to arrive at the turbine. The tension
of the water in the volute reduces marginally. Following that, water is guided through guided
vanes to raise a ruckus around town edges at the ideal points. Pressure and precise energy of
the water diminish as it passes through the sprinter. This decrease makes the sprinter respond,
which then makes the turbine break. The turbine is working as per its particulars. In a pivotal
direction, the water leaves the runner The draft tube, which fills in as a diffuser and considers
the highest energy recuperation from the accompanying water, where the water leaves the
turbine.

CONCLUSION

The experiment’s objective has been successfully [Link] achieve maximum power
generation through turbines, it is crucial to consider all relevant [Link] factors include
flow rate, which leads to varying [Link] velocity of the water, in turn, affects power
and efficiency, depending on the turbine’s [Link] is essential to account for factors
such as flow rate,velocity,power,and efficiency when assessing this [Link]
experiment’s results demonstrated a clear correlation between head,flow rate,velocity,power
and efficiency in generating the desired energy.
REFERENCE

1. Virtual Labs. (n.d.). [Link]

2. Pennachi, P., Chatterton, S., & Vania, A. (2012). Modelling of the dynamic response
of a Francis turbine, Mechanical System and Signal Processing, 29, 107-119
3. Fasi Ur Rahman. (2021). Francis Turbine - its Components, Working and
Application. The Constructor. Retrieved from 5 November 2022:
[Link]
 FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
MATERIAL AND FLUID LABORATORY
LABORATORY REPORT

Code & Experiment FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL

Course/ Subject BFC21201

Section / Group SECTION 2 / GROUP 7

NOOR ALIYAH BINTI AZIEZIE (AF220085)

NUR AIN FATIHAH BINTI MOHAMMAD BORHAN (AF220033)

JULIE FELICIA BINTI JOSEPH (AF220043)

Group members

ROLAND VICTOR (AF220034)

MUHAMMAD ZULFAHMI BIN MOHD ZAIN (AF220048)

Lecturer’s Name DR. MOHD HAIRUL BIN KHAMINURIN

Submission Date 11 JANUARY 2024

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

ainbohan
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME NUR AIN FATIHAH BINTI MOHAMMAD BORHAN

MATRIC NO. AF220033

DATE 2 JANUARY 2024

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

aliyahaziezie
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME NOOR ALIYAH BINTI AZIEZIE

MATRIC NO. AF220085

DATE 2 JANUARY 2024

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

julie
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME JULIE FELICIA BINTI JOSEPH

MATRIC NO. AF220043

DATE 2 JANUARY 2024

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

victor
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME ROLAND VICTOR PARISEH

MATRIC NO. AF220034

DATE 2 JANUARY 2024

 STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

“I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also
declare not to receive any assistance in preparing this report and make
this affirmation in the belief that nothing is in it, it is true.”

zulfahmi
(STUDENT’S SIGNATURE)

NAME MUHAMAD ZULFAHMI BIN MOHD ZAIN

MATRIC NO. AF220048

DATE 2 JANUARY 2024

 CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

PART A : FORCE ON A SLUICE GATE

A sluice gate is a device utilized to regulate the flow of water in an open channel, and when
properly adjusted, it can also serve as a means of measuring the flow. The lower edge of the
gate opening is level with the channel floor, effectively eliminating any contraction of the
stream's bottom surface. The degree of side contraction depends on the width of the
channel spanned by the gate opening.

Various gate-type structures are available for controlling flow rates, whether at the crest of
an overflow spillway or at the entrance of an irrigation canal or river originating from a lake.
Three common types of gates are the vertical gate, radial gate, and drum gate. When water
flows beneath a gate, it is considered a free outflow when the fluid emerges as a jet in a
supercritical flow condition, with a free surface exposed to the atmosphere.

In certain scenarios, the depth downstream of the gate is governed by an obstruction

further downstream, and the jet of water issuing from beneath the gate becomes
intermingled with a turbulent mass of water.

PART B : HYDRAULIC JUMPS

The concept of a hydraulic jump pertains to situations where there is a sudden change in the
bottom of a channel or when free surface flow encounters obstacles like bridge piers. This
phenomenon occurs when a supercritical flow transitions into a subcritical flow, resulting in
a sharp rise in the water surface. Hydraulic jumps are characterized by significant
turbulence, energy dissipation, and the entrainment of air.

Hydraulic jumps have various practical applications, including mixing chemicals in water
supply systems, dissipating energy below man-made channel controls, and serving as
aeration devices to increase the dissolved oxygen in water.
 In a hydraulic jump, there is an abrupt shift in liquid depth from subcritical to
supercritical. This transition causes the flow velocity to change from supercritical
to subcritical as the jump forms. This transformation occurs over a relatively short
distance, typically less than five times the depth of flow after the jump, and
during this process, the liquid's height increases rapidly, resulting in a notable loss
of energy.

An illustrative example of a hydraulic jump can be witnessed when a stream of water from a
faucet strikes the horizontal surface of a kitchen sink. The water rapidly flows outward,
creating a circular jump.

To derive the fundamental equation of the hydraulic jump, we will limit our analysis to
rectangular horizontal channels. Initially, we will calculate the downstream depth of the
jump using the momentum and continuity equations for one-dimensional flow.
Subsequently, we will assess the energy loss attributable to the jump, employing the energy
equation.

1.1 THEORY

PART A : FOR ON A SLUICE GATE

The formula for the resultant force on the gate can be expressed as follows:
2 2 2 𝑑1
𝐹𝑔 = 1/2 𝑝𝑔 𝑑1 (𝑑0 /𝑑1 − 1) − 𝑝𝑔/𝑏 (1 − 𝑑1/𝑑0)

The gate thrust considering the hydrostatic pressure distribution is given by:
2
𝐹ℎ = 1/2 𝑝𝑔(𝑑0 − 𝑑𝑔)

In these equations, Fg represents the resultant gate thrust in Newtons (N), FH denotes the
resultant hydrostatic thrust in Newtons (N), q is the volume flow rate in meters per second
(m/s), ρ represents the fluid density in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m^3), g stands for the
gravitational constant (9.81 m/s^2), b is the width of the gate in meters (m), dg is the height
of the upstream opening in meters (m), d0 represents the upstream depth of flow in meters
(m), and d1 is the downstream depth of flow in meters (m).
PART B : HYDRAULIC JUMPS
When there is a rapid transition from fast-flowing water to a slower, calmer flow, it gives rise
to a hydraulic jump or a standing wave. This phenomenon is observed in situations where
swiftly moving water, such as that passing under a sluice gate, mixes with deeper and
slower-moving water downstream. It occurs when the water depth goes from being less than
a critical value to greater than the critical value, resulting in the loss of energy.

When the change in depth is relatively small, it leads to an undular jump. In this case, the
water's surface exhibits a series of oscillations that gradually subside, transitioning into a
smooth and tranquil flow. Conversely, a direct jump occurs when there is a significant change
in depth. The substantial loss of energy results in a zone of highly turbulent water before it
ultimately settles into a smooth and calm flow.

By examining the forces acting on the fluid on both sides of a hydraulic jump of unit width,
we can demonstrate the following equation: ΔH = (va^2 - vb^2) / (2g) where ΔH represents
the total head loss across the jump (indicating the energy dissipated) in meters. va is the mean
velocity before the jump in meters per second, da is the depth of the flow before the hydraulic
jump, vb is the mean velocity after the hydraulic jump, and db is the depth of the flow after
the hydraulic jump.

Since the working section is typically short, da is approximately equal to db, and db is
approximately equal to d3. Consequently, by simplifying the above equation, we can
approximate ΔH as ΔH ≈ (da - d1)^3 / (4d1d3).
 CHAPTER 2- METHODOLOGY

2.1 APPARATUS

Figure 1 : Unit construction for flow in open channel

Figure Apparatus

Sluice gate
 Flow Rate meter

Self - contained glass

Reader hook

Valve
 Ruler

2.1 PROCEDURE

PART A : PROCEDURE OF FORCE ON SLUICE GATE

1) The flow channel apparatus is set up

2) The water depth is checked along the length of channel to prove the slope is zero

3) The surge tank valve is opened and the large pump is opened

4) The downstream level is raised until hydraulic jump establish

2.2 PROCEDURE

PART A : PROCEDURE OF FORCE ON SLUICE GATE

1) The flow channel apparatus is set up

2) The water depth is checked along the length of channel to prove the slope is zero
3) The surge tank valve is opened and the large pump is opened
4) The downstream level is raised until hydraulic jump establish
 5) The gage upstream is moved to measure upstream depth and the data is [Link]
paint gage must be at zero at the bottom of flume
6) The gage is moved to downstream to measure downstream depth and the data is
[Link] paint gage must be at zero at the bottom of flume
7) Step 1 until 6 is repeated with different value of height of gate,Yg

PART B : PROCEDURE OF HYDRAULIC JUMPS

1) The flow channel apparatus is set up

2) The water depth is checked along the length of channel to prove the slope is zero
3) The surge tank valve is opened and the large pump is opened
4) The downstream level is raised until hydraulic jump establish
5) The gage upstream is moved to measure upstream depth and the data is [Link]
paint gage must be at zero at the bottom of flume
6) The gage is moved to downstream to measure downstream depth and the data is
[Link] paint gage must be at zero at the bottom of flume
7) Step 1 until 6 is repeated with different value of flow rate,Q

CHAPTER 3- RESULT, DATA ANALYSIS AND

DISCUSSION

3.1 RESULT

Weir breadth,b = 0.3m

Weir Upstrea Flow Flow Flow

Opening m Flow Depth Depth Rate, Q 𝑦3
𝑦g (m) depth Above Below (𝑚3/𝑠 ) 𝛥H V1 𝛥𝐻
𝑦o (m) Jump Jump
𝑦1 (m) 𝑦3 (m) 𝑦1 𝑦1

0.024 0.056 0.0240 0.036 0.0046 0.0005 0.2738 0.021 1.500

 0.024 0.078 0.0264 0.045 0.0056 0.0014 0.2363 0.053 1.7045

0.024 0.102 0.0288 0.046 0.0066 0.0010 0.1697 0.035 1.5972

0.024 0.145 0.0282 0.056 0.0076 0.034 0.1270 0.121 1.9858

0.024 0.176 0.0290 0.059 0.0086 0.039 0.1037 0.134 2.034

Table 6.1: Hydraulic Jumps

Weir breadth,b = 0.3m

Weir Upstrea Downstre Flow Gate Trust Hydrostatic

Openi m Flow a m Flow Rate 𝐹g (N) Thrust
n g 𝑦g depth Depth (𝑚3/𝑠 ) 𝐹H (N) 𝐹𝑔 𝑦𝑔
(m) 𝑦o (m) 𝑦1 (m) 𝐹𝐻
𝑦𝑜

0.024 0.2 0.0288 0.0090 -971724.54 151.94 -6395.45 0.12

0.029 0.140 0.0328 0.0090 -768184.87 63.75 -12049.96 0.20

0.034 0.120 0.0360 0.0090 -626377.14 32.98 -18992.64 0.29

0.039 0.097 0.0388 0.0090 -494875.21 14.84 -33347.39 0.41

0.044 0.083 0.0416 0.0090 -392056.49 7.46 -52554.49 0.53

Table 6.2: Force on the Sluice Gate

3.2 CALCULATION

Table 6.1: Hydraulic Jumps

3
(𝑦3−𝑦1)
a) Total head loss, ∆H= 4(𝑦1𝑦3)

3
(0.036−0.024)
∆H= 4(0.024×0.036)
= 0. 0005
3
(0.045−0.0264)
∆H= 4(0.0264×0.045)
= 0. 0014
3
(0.046−0.0288)
∆H= 4(0.0288×0.036)
= 0. 0010
3
(0.056−0.0282)
∆H= 4(0.0282×0.056)
= 0. 0034
3
(0.059−0.029)
∆H= 4(0.029×0.059)
= 0. 0039
 Where 𝑦1 = flow depth above jump (m)

𝑦3 = flow depth below jump (m)

𝑄
b) Velocity, 𝑉1 =
𝑦𝑜× 𝑏

0.0046 3
𝑉1 = 0.056×0.3
= 0.2738 𝑚 /𝑠

0.0056 3
𝑉1 = 0.079×0.3
= 0.2363 𝑚 /𝑠

0.0066 3
𝑉1 = 0.110×0.3
= 0. 1697𝑚 /𝑠

0.0076 3
𝑉1 = 0.147×0.3
= 0.1270𝑚 /𝑠

0.0086 3
𝑉1 = 0.190×0.3
= 0. 1037 𝑚 /𝑠

Table 6.2 Force on the Sluice Gate

2
1 2 𝑦0 ρ𝑔 𝑦1
𝐹𝑔 = 2
ρ𝑔𝑦1( 2 − 1)− 𝑏𝑦1
(1 − 𝑦0
)
𝑦1

2
1 2 0.2 (1000)(9.81) 0.0288
𝐹𝑔 = 2
1000(9. 81)(0. 0288 )( 2 − 1) − (0.3)(0.0288)
(1 − 0.2
) = -971724.54
0.0288
2
1 2 0.143 (1000)(9.81) 0.0328
𝐹𝑔 = 2
1000(9. 81)(0. 0328 )( 2 − 1) − (0.3)(0.0328)
(1 − 0.143
) = -768184.87
0.0328
2
1 2 0.116 (1000)(9.81) 0.0360
𝐹𝑔 = 2
1000(9. 81)(0. 0360 )( 2 − 1) − (0.3)(0.0360)
(1 − 0.116
) = -626377.14
0.0360
2
1 2 0.094 (1000)(9.81) 0.0388
𝐹𝑔 = 2
1000(9. 81)(0. 0388 )( 2 − 1) − (0.3)(0.0388)
(1 − 0.094
) = -494875.21
0.0388
2
1 2 0.083 (1000)(9.81) 0.0416
𝐹𝑔 = 2
1000(9. 81)(0. 0416 )( 2 − 1) − (0.3)(0.0416)
(1 − 0.083
) = -392056.49
0.0416
 2
Hydrostatic Thrust 𝐹𝐻 (N)= ½ ρg(𝑦0 − 𝑦𝑔)

1 2
𝐹𝐻 = 2
(1000)(9.81)(0. 2 − 0. 024) = 151.94
1 2
𝐹𝐻 = 2
(1000)(9.81)(0. 143 − 0. 029) = 63.75
1 2
𝐹𝐻 = 2
(1000)(9.81)(0. 116 − 0. 034) =32.98
1 2
𝐹𝐻 = 2
(1000)(9.81)(0. 094 − 0. 039) = 14.84
1 2
𝐹𝐻 = 2
(1000)(9.81)(0. 083 − 0. 044) = 7.46

𝐹𝑔 𝑦𝑔
𝐹𝐻 𝑦𝑜

−971724.54 0.024
151.94
= -6395.45 0.2
= 0.12

−768184.87 0.029
63.75
= -12049.96 0.140
= 0.21

−626377.14 0.034
32.98
= -18992.64 0.120
= 0.28

−494875.21 0.039
14.84
= -33347.39 0.097
= 0.40

−392056.49 0.044
7.46
= -52554.49 0.083
= 0.53

3.3 DATA ANALYSIS

 ∆𝐻 𝑦3
Graph
𝑦1
vs 𝑦1
for hydraulic jump

𝑦𝑔 𝐹𝑔
Graph
𝑦𝑜
vs 𝐹𝐻
for sluice gate
4.0 DISCUSSION
Hydraulic Jump
Application where the loss of energy in hydraulic jump would be desirable and, how is the
energy dissipated: The hydraulic jump is a process that can be illustrated by using the specific
energy concept. Equation loss energy can be written in term of the specific energy.
2
𝑉
𝐸 = 𝑦𝑜 + 𝑔

Where 𝑦𝑜 and E are feet. The head loss across the jump, upstream values of E are different.

∆𝐻 𝑦3 𝑦𝑔 𝐹𝑔
Based on the graph
𝑦1
vs 𝑦1
and
𝑦𝑜
vs 𝐹𝐻
, the fluid does not proceed along the specific

energy curve and pass through the critical condition . The energy dissipates when water flow
at 𝑦𝑜 and the energy is 0 because 𝑦𝑜 and 𝑦3 has adverse force. 𝐹𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝐹𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟.

A hydraulic jump can be thought of as a series of discontinuous waves of all frequencies

(wavelengths) that originate and propagate from a location near the jump. Waves travel
upstream and downstream. Because the waves have a high friction and are shallow gravity
waves moving at the same speed for a given depth, they flow upstream at the same time. The
water flow upstream slows quickly, but a pretty large variety of wavelengths and frequencies
remain, therefore Fourier analysis suggests that a relatively abrupt wave front can occur,
which must be noted in practise. This experiment shows how the features of a water flow can
change. An open flow contains a free surface. As a result, the flow pressure remains constant.
Flow circumstances can be classified into two types: steady flow and unstable flow. If the
volume of water entering and exiting is roughly equal. These might be uniform or
non-uniform.

Sluice gate
Based on the graph, the value of 𝐹𝑔 is negative (-ve) and value of 𝐹𝑔is positive (+ve). 𝐹𝑔 is

resultant gate thrust (N) and 𝐹𝐻 is resultant hydrostatic thrust (N). We can conclude that

before the water is flow to the sluice gate , the force are 𝐹𝐻 are in positive (+ve) by follow the

direction of water flow. The force are happen after sluice gate, 𝐹𝑔in negative (-ve) because

the resultant foce of the flow is opposite the direction. From the result, the increases the flow
rate, the decreases thrust for both of gate and the hydrostatic because of the decreasing
pressure.
This measurement of total force will be made using the flow via a channel where a gate
partially obstructs the flow. A sluice gate is the term for this barrier. This calculation of the
horizontal force on a sluice gate will be based on three assumptions. At the inlet and outlet
portions, the flow is uniformly distributed at a constant velocity, with little viscous force at
the channel's bottom and energy dissipation at the [Link] side walls have the effect and
there is uniform flow in both the upstream and downstream sections. Conversely, the
increased flow rate has no effect on the flow depth at flow depth 𝑦1.

5.0 CONCLUSION
According to the experiment results (Part A Hydraulic Jump), the higher the flow rate
applied, the greater the hydraulic jump over the constant weir opening. According to the
hydraulic jump, as the flowrate rate increases, the velocity of the flow decreases, as does the
total head loss. In this experiment, the undershot weir must maintain constant weir opening.
However, from the (Part B Sluice gate) probed that the weir opening affects the thrust on the
sluice gate of an undershot weir. As the results show that yg affects the gate thrust Fg,
upstream flow depth yo, and hydrostatic thrust Fh. When the weir opening increase, the
upstream flow depth will decrease, and the downstream flow depth will increase.

6.0 REFERENCES

1. El-Seddik. MM (2017) Hydraulic Jump experiment in a rectangular channel flume.

2. Keulegan, G.H (2009). Laws of turbulent flow in open channel.
3. Chanson, H, & Brattberg. T. (2000). Experimental study of the air-water flow in a
hydraulic jump.