Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

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Journal of Building Engineering

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Self-compacting concrete composites modified with nanoparticles:

A comprehensive review, analysis and modeling
Rabar H. Faraj a, *, Azad A. Mohammed a, Khalid M. Omer b
a
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Sulaimani, Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
b
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, University of Sulaimani, Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nanotechnology is bringing unique performance to materials, and during the last two decades,
Self-compacting concrete significant effort has been made to include nanoparticles (NPs) into self-compacting concrete
Nanoparticles (SCC) to increase performance and produce SCC with better features. In civil engineering, NPs are
Fresh properties promising materials, and some researchers have employed NPs into SCC, aiming to modify fresh,
Mechanical properties mechanical, and durability characteristics. Concrete’s durability and sustainability are becoming
Durability
increasingly essential in the construction sector, and SCC has generated much attention in this
Microstructure
regard. In the current comprehensive review paper, the effects of different NP types on the most
Modeling
essential fresh, mechanical, durability, and microstructure characteristics of various SCC com­
posites were reviewed, analyzed, and discussed in detail. In this regard, 76 previously published
papers were used to create an extensive database that includes the main features of SCC com­
posites modified with different NPs. In addition, the main mechanisms behind the influence of
different NP types on the properties of SCC composites were examined. Past progress, recent
drifts, current obstacles, and the benefits and drawbacks of these SCC composites enhanced with
NPs were also highlighted. Since nano-silica (NS) was the most used material among all types of
NPs, the main section of this study was devoted to proposing different models to predict the
compressive strength of SCC composites modified with NS. Based on the results reached in this
study, due to a significant enhancement through improving strength, durability, microstructure,
and producing additional C–S–H gel, the addition of NPs can have a promising future to develop
high-performance SCC composites to be implemented by the construction industry efficiently.

Nomenclature and abbreviations

C Cement
CA Coarse aggregate
C–H Calcium hydroxide
CNT Carbon nano tubes
CS Compressive strength
C–S–H Calcium silicate hydrate
ER Electrical resistivity

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [Link]@[Link], [Link]@[Link] (R.H. Faraj).

[Link]
Received 25 November 2021; Received in revised form 27 January 2022; Accepted 2 February 2022
Available online 4 February 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

FA Fine aggregate
FRSCC Fiber reinforced self-compacting concrete
FS Flexural strength
GGBFS Ground granulated blast furnace slag
HPSCC High performance self-compacting concrete
HSSCC High strength self-compacting concrete
ITZ Interfacial transition zone
LBR L-box height ratio
LR Linear regression model
MAE Mean absolute error
MLR Multi-logistic regression model
NA Nano Al2O3
NC Nano CuO
NCa Nano CaCO3
NCKD Nano cement kiln dust
NCl Nano Clay
NDT Non-destructive test
NF Nano Fe2O3
NFA Nano fly ash
NLR Nonlinear regression model
NM Nano MgO
NMF Nano MnFe2O4
NP Nano particle
NS Nano SiO2
NT Nano TiO2
NZ Nano ZnO2
NZr Nano ZrO2
RASCC Recycled aggregate self-compacting concrete
RCPT Rapid chloride permeability test
RMSE Root mean squared error
SCAAC self-compacting slag based alkali activated concrete
SCC Self-compacting concrete
SCGC Self-compacting Geopolymer concrete
SCLC Self-compacting light weight concrete
SCM Self-compacting mortar
SEM Scanning electron microscopy
SFD Slump flow diameter
SFT Slump flow time
SI Scatter index
SP Superplasticizer
STS Splitting tensile strength
t Curing time
TEM Atomic force microscopy
UPV Ultrasonic pulse velocity
VFT V-funnel flow time
W/b Water to binder ratio
WA Water absorption
XRD X-ray diffraction

1. Introduction
Innovative and high-performance materials are necessary for the development of sustainable and long-lasting infrastructure.
Because concrete is the most commonly used construction material, researchers and the construction industry have attempted to make
it as durable as possible by introducing new materials and methods. Among developed high-performance cement-based materials, one
can mention self-compacting concrete (SCC). The development of SCC can be regarded as a historical achievement in the construction
and concrete industry because of the numerous benefits compared to traditional concrete composites. It’s a kind of high-performance
concrete that can flow efficiently without the need for any compaction or mechanical work [1]. This concrete provides high passing
and filling ability performance compared to other cement-based composites without causing segregation and bleeding [2]. The passing
ability and flowability characteristics of SCC can be obtained through the addition of superplasticizer (high range water reducers)

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along with incorporating different mineral admixtures such as GGBFS, metakaolin, silica fume, and fly ash to maintain stability and
proper cohesiveness during the flow of the mixture [3,4] The most significant advantages of SCC compared to traditional concrete
include shorter periods for construction, minimizing the labor costs, and improved compaction in the structure, especially at very
congested locations when a high amount of rebars are present in the concrete elements.
Recently nanotechnology and nanomaterials have generated tremendous global interest due to their high performance in various
fields. Among areas in which nanotechnology can be used efficiently is the construction field, through using the NP materials in the
concrete industry to produce high-performance and innovative concrete composites. Generally, nanotechnology is the capability to
monitor and restructure the matter at the atomic and molecular levels in the area of 1–100 nm, and contribution to the distinguished
characteristics and phenomena at that size as equivalent to those correlating with single atoms and molecules or bulk behavior [5,6].
SCC is a multi-scale composite that can be considered from the nano-scale (10− 9 m) to the macro-scale (10− 2 m). This also holds for
SCC ingredients (from nano-powders to coarse aggregates) and SCC microstructure (nano-sized C–S–H gel to coarse aggregates). The
mechanism and process occurring between different components at the nano-scale level are responsible for the behavior and properties
of the SCC composite at the macro-level. Therefore, making positive modifications at the nano-size range through the addition of NPs
can significantly improve the performance of the bulk material. Since the smallest particle size in the traditional SCC ranges from 0.1 to
50 μm, therefore, the nano-materials can be introduced. By increasing the range of the particle sizes of SCC ingredients, its properties
can be improved to produce high-performance SCC composites. The incorporation of NPs will extend the SCC particles grading, making
the product a nano-engineered composite [7].
The main reason behind addition of NPs into all types of concrete composites including SCC is to enhance the microstructural
characteristics of the concrete composite. As a result, it would improve all other composite properties, namely mechanical and physical
properties as well as durability properties of the concrete composites [8]. The main product in the hydration process between cement
and water is the calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel and calcium hydroxide (C–H) crystals, which both are in the nano-structure level
[9,10]. However, C–H crystals are an unwanted product in the concrete composite matrix because they will lead to some drawbacks in
the nearer future in the cement matrix and consequently adversely affect the concrete performance. To tackle these problems of C–H
crystals in the concrete composite matrix, some researchers added NPs such as nano-silica (NS) to the concrete composite to change the
undesired C–H crystals to the C–S–H gels in the chemical reaction process, namely pozzolanic reaction. As a result of this pozzolanic
reaction, extra C–S–H gel is generated, and the presence of C–H crystals is reduced inside the concrete composite matrix. Finally, the
performance and microstructure of the concrete composite will be improved [11].
The addition of different NPs into the SCC is a very recent area of research. All the studies related to incorporating various NP types
into the SCC composites have been conducted within the last ten years. The most common used NP types in the SCC composites include
nanosilica (NS) in its powder or colloidal form [12–22], Nano Al2O3 (NA) [23–30], Nano TiO2 (NT) [24–26,31–34], Nano CuO (NC)
[35–39], Nano Fe2O3 (NF) [24,36,37,40], Nano Clay (NCl) [41–44], Nano CaCO3 (NCa) [13,45,46], Other NP types such as Nano ZnO2
(NZ) [47], Carbon nano tubes (CNT) [48], Nano MgO (NM) [49], Nano cement kiln dust (NCKD) [50], and Nano MnFe2O4 (NMF) [51]
are also incorporated into the SCC composites, but the researches on this regard are limited.
The main modifications and enhancements resulting from the addition of the above mentioned NP types include (i) improved
hydration of cement, (ii) higher mechanical properties, (iii) more excellent energy absorption and ductility, (iv) less water and gas
permeability, (v) better corrosion resistance due to increasing the electrical resistivity and (vi) improved resistance against extreme
environmental conditions.
As previously mentioned, a significant amount of research was conducted in the last decade regarding incorporating different NP
types in the various SCC composites. Moreover, few review papers were carried out [52,53]. The previous review papers partly
reviewed the effect of NPs on the SCC, and they did not provide detailed information on the topic. Also, various important research
works have been published recently which are not covered in previous review papers. Therefore, in this study, a comprehensive re­
view, analysis, and modeling including all previous and up-to-date research on the effect of different NP types on the performance of
various SCC composites are conducted. Moreover, the empirical equations among different properties were also developed. The most
important fresh, mechanical, durability, and microstructure characteristics were presented, investigated, analyzed, discussed, and
modeled. Since the most commonly examined and used NP type in the SCC is NS and the most surveyed property among all other
properties is compressive strength; therefore, a significant part of this study is devoted to proposing systematic multiscale models to
forecast the compressive strength of SCC containing NS particles. Various mixture proportions and curing times were used as input
parameters to develop reliable models to predict the compressive strength. Based on the best of the author’s knowledge, this is the first
comprehensive review paper on this topic which includes a comprehensive review, analysis, and modeling.

2. Methodology
Based on the extensive search which was done by the authors using different search engines of several databases, a total of 76
papers were found regarding the effect of different NP types (NS, NT, NA, NF, NCa, NZ, NC, NCl, NM, NMF, and CNT) on the properties
of various SCC composites such as SCC, high-strength SCC (HSSCC), high-performance SCC (HPSCC), self-compacting light weight
concrete (SCLC), self-compacting semi light weight concrete (SCSLC), fiber-reinforced SCC (FRSCC), recycled aggregate SCC (RASCC),
self-compacting Geopolymer concrete (SCGC), and self-compacting mortars (SCM). A large database including all the information
required from previous papers, such as the NP type, properties of NPs, SCC composite type, mix proportions, curing time, and all data
of the investigated properties, were extracted. The information and data extracted from previously published papers were used to
analyze how often each NP type was used in the SCC composite. Moreover, detailed figures and graphs using previous data were
redrawn and discussed in detail. The most important properties of SCC composites such as slump flow time and diameter, L-box height

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ratio, V-Funnel flow time, flexural strength, tensile and compression strength, elastic modulus, water absorption, electrical resistivity
(ER), rapid chloride permeability (RCPT), and microstructure characteristics were presented and discussed in detail. Since the different
types of NPs have a relatively similar impact on the behavior of SCC composites, they are not divided into different sections. The
empirical relationships among different properties were also developed. Finally, a significant part of the study is devoted to developing
mathematical models to predict the compressive strength of SCC modified with NS using various mixture proportions and curing times
extracted from the previous papers. Fig. 1 illustrates a flow chart process that followed in this study.

3. Data analysis
As mentioned previously, 76 scientific research papers were collected regarding the impact of different NP types on the properties
of SCC composites. Among different NP types used in various SCC composites, NS was the most common type in which 65.28% of the
studies conducted on this topic used NS. Fig. 2 illustrates the percentages of each NP type used in previous studies. The main reasons
behind commonly using NS compared to other NP types are its lower price and higher reactivity to produce additional C–S–H gel. More
information and an extensive database about the mixture proportions, composite types, types of NPs, cement replacement percentages,
binder content, curing ages, and w/b ratio for different mixture proportions reported in the past studies are presented in Table 1 in
detail. Regarding the mixture proportions, the most commonly used binder content quantity was 460 kg/m3, as shown in Fig. 3. The
most frequently used w/b ratio and NP content among all the mixtures used in the previous investigations were 0.38 and 2%,
respectively, as illustrated in the histograms presented in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. Moreover, Table 2 provides information about different
properties investigated in the previous studies. To illustrate the most commonly evaluated properties from previous studies, Fig. 6 is
provided. It is clear from Fig. 6 that the compressive strength is the most commonly investigated property among all mechanical
properties. Regarding the durability properties water absorption is the most evaluated property.

4. Properties and characterization of NPs

Generally speaking, any particle with a diameter less than 100 nm can be considered as NP. The main characteristics of NPs are

Fig. 1. The flow chart diagram process followed in this study.

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Fig. 2. The percentage of researches utilized different NP types used in the SCC composites.

their higher specific surface-to-volume ratio, extremely small diameter, and high purity [52,53]. The diameter range of the NPs used in
different SCC composites was in the range of 5 nm–200 nm, while the most preferred and frequently used NP sizes in the past studies
were between 20 nm and 30 nm size as shown in Fig. 7. The surface-to-volume ratio of the previously considered NPs was between 35
m2/g to 280 m2/g, which makes the NPs very reactive materials. The characterization of NPs generally conducted using transmission
electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) ana­
lyses [16,24,31,40]. Fig. 8 shows the images of some NP types used in past studies. Moreover, Fig. 9 illustrates the XRD patterns of
different NPs reported in the literature. It is evident from the figures that the NPs are in the amorphous form, making them suitable for
reaction with cement particles. They can fill the remaining voids between cement particles to produce a highly densified
microstructure.

5. Mixing procedure of NPs with other SCC ingredients

Since the diameter of NPs generally less than 100 nm and their specific surface area are very high compared to other cementitious
powders such as fly ash, GGBFS, and silica fume. Therefore, their specific gravity is very small compared to cement and other powders.
During the mixing process, if the NPs are in the powdered form and added to the mixer separately, they may be flying in the air or not
dispersed homogeneously; this results in the agglomeration of NPs inside the concrete matrix, and their effectiveness is significantly
reduced. To overcome this problem, using NPs in the colloidal form such as colloidal NS is recommended by different authors in the
literature [7,61,66,67,69]. However, due to the production process and availability in the market, the majority of previous studies
utilized different types of NPs in the powdered form. To prevent the agglomeration of NPs during the mixing procedure, various mixing
processes were utilized in the literature. Some investigators mixed the powdered NP with other powder materials (cement or SCMs) in
a dry form before adding to the other ingredients in the pan mixer [14,15,22,63]. The previous mixing procedure can be regarded as an
effective method for dispersing the NPs with other SCC ingredients without agglomeration. However, this procedure is more effective
when the amount of NPs addition is lower than 3% by the weight of cement. The previous mixing procedure containing NPs and other
ingredients is shown in Fig. 10 schematically. Moreover, a modified mixing procedure proposed by Girish et al., 2010 [89] was also
followed by other scholars [17,55]. In this procedure, the NPs were separately added to the mixer along with other powder materials.
This mixing procedure is also presented in Fig. 11 schematically. Dissolving NPs in water prior to the addition of other SCC ingredients
was also used in previous investigations [24,61].

6. Reviewing the properties of SCC composites modified with NPs

In order to modify the matrix and make more sustainable and high-performance SCC composites, NPs are commonly utilized in very
tiny dosages ranging from 0% to 5% of the total cement or binder content. The impact of various NP types on the fresh, mechanical,
durability, and microstructure properties of SCC composites is shown and explored in this section. Because different NP types generally
have similar impacts on SCC composite performance, they will be shown in the same figures and sections to better illustrate the
similarities and differences of NP influence on SCC composite attributes.

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Table 1
Properties and mix proportions of SCC composites modified with NPs reported in the literature.

Refs. Composite Type of NPs Cement replacement with NPs: Testing age Binder w/b ratio Properties of NPs
types wt% content

[7] SCC Powder Nano 0, 3.8 1. 3, 7, 28, 91 519.4 0.29 Surface–volume ratio (m2/
SiO2 days g) = 56
Density (g/cm3) = 2.15
Purity (%) > 99.9
Colloidal Nano Surface–volume ratio (m2/
SiO2 g) = 50
Density (g/cm3) = 1.4
Purity (%) > 99.9
[12] FRSCC Nano SiO2 0, 2, 4, 6 28 days 413 0.39 Diameter (nm) = 15 ± 5
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 160 ± 20
Density (g/cm3) < 0.15
Purity (%) > 99.9
[13] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 28 days 515 0.32 Diameter (nm) = 30
Nano CaCO3 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 28 d 515 0.32 Diameter (nm) = 90
[14] SCLC Nano SiO2 0, 2.5, 5 28 and 90 days 450, 550, 0.25, 0.37, Diameter (nm) = 14
600 0.5 Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 150 ± 15
Specific gravity = 2.2
Purity (%) > 99
[15] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 2, 4, 6 28 days 570 0.33 Diameter (nm) = 14
Surface surface area (m2/g)
= 150
Specific gravity = 2.2
Purity (%) > 99.8
[54] SCLC Nano SiO2 0, 2.5, 5 28 days 450, 550, 0.25, 0.37, Diameter (nm) = 14
600 0.5 Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 150 ± 15
Specific gravity = 2.2
Purity (%) > 99
[16] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 7 and 28 days 350 0.41, 0.45, Diameter (nm) = 7-25
0.5 Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 240
Purity (%) > 90
[17] HPSCC Nano SiO2 0, 2 3, 7, 28, 90 400, 450, 0.38 Diameter (nm) = 15 ± 3
days 500 Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 165 ± 17
Density (g/cm3) = < 0.15
Purity (%) > 99.9
[18] HSSCC Nano SiO2 0, 4 28 days 450 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 800
Density (g/cm3) = 0.3
Purity (%) > 99.9
[19] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 2, 4 28, 90 days 460 0.42 Diameter (nm) < 20
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 450
Density (g/cm3) = 2.4
Purity (%) > 99.5
Nano TiO2 Diameter (nm) < 25
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 50
Density (g/cm3) = 3.9
Purity (%) > 99.7
[20] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 2, 7, 28 days 450 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15 ± 3
Blaine fineness (m2/g) =
165 ± 17
Density (g/cm3) < 0.15
Purity (%) > 99.9
[21] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2, 3 7, 28, 90 days 450 0.35, 0.4, Diameter (nm) = 20-30
0.45 Density (g/cm3) = 0.13
Purity (%) > 98
[22] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 2, 4 28, 90 days 550 0.35 Diameter (nm) = 20-30
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 150
Purity (%) > 99.8
(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued )

Refs. Composite Type of NPs Cement replacement with NPs: Testing age Binder w/b ratio Properties of NPs
types wt% content

[23] SCC Nano Al2O3 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5, 7, 28, 90 days 385 0.43 Diameter (nm) = 20
1.75, 2, 2.25, 2.5, 2.75, 3 Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 138
Density (kg/m3) = 3890
Purity (%) > 99
[24] SCC Nano TiO2 0, 3, 5 7, 28, 90 days 425, 375 0.32, 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 18 ± 3
Blaine fineness (m2/g) = 48
± 10
Density (g/cm3) < 0.24
Purity (%) > 99.9
Nano Al2O3 0, 3, 5 Diameter (nm) = 15 ± 2
Blaine fineness (m2/g) = 60
±5
Density (g/cm3) < 0.13
Purity (%) > 99.9
Nano Fe2O3 0, 3, 5 Diameter (nm) = 10 ± 5
Blaine fineness (m2/g) = 65
±5
Density (g/cm3) < 0.1
Purity (%) > 99.9
[25] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 0.5, 2, 4 28, 90 days 460 0.42 Diameter (nm) = 10-20
Purity (%) > 99.5
Nano TiO2 0, 0.5, 2, 4 Diameter (nm) < 25
Purity (%) > 99.7
Nano Al2O3 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3 Diameter (nm) < 50
[26] SCLC Nano SiO2 0, 2, 4 3, 7, 28 days 541 0.38 Diameter (nm) = 50-100
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 50- 200
Density (g/cm3) = 0.2
Purity (%) > 99.9
Nano TiO2 0, 2, 4 Diameter (nm) = 30
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 35-60
Density (g/cm3) = 23.4
Purity (%) > 99.9
Nano Al2O3 0, 1, 2 Diameter (nm) = 20
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 138
Density (g/cm3) = 3.89
Purity (%) > 99
[27] FRSCC Nano SiO2 0, 2, 3 28, 90 days 420 0.38 Diameter (nm) = 20
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 220
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
0.05
Nano Al2O3 Diameter (nm) = 8
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 200
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
0.12
[28] SCC Nano Al2O3 0, 3 28 days 460 0.42 Diameter (nm) < 50
[29] SCM Nano Al2O3 0, 1, 3, 5 3, 7, 28, 90 700 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15
days Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 200
Purity (%) > 99.8
[30] SCM Nano Al2O3 0, 1, 3, 5 3, 7, 28, 90 700 0.4 Diameter (μm) = 15
days Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 200
Purity (%) > 99.8
[31] HSSCC Nano TiO2 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 7, 28, 90 days 450 0.38 Diameter (nm) = 20 ± 5
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 165 ± 17
Density (g/cm3) = < 0.15
Purity (%) > 99.9
[32] SCC Nano TiO2 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 2, 7, 28 days 450 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15 ± 3
Blaine fineness (m2/g) =
155 ± 12
(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued )

Refs. Composite Type of NPs Cement replacement with NPs: Testing age Binder w/b ratio Properties of NPs
types wt% content

Density (g/cm3) < 0.13

Purity (%) > 99.9
[33] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 4 365 days 460 0.42 Diameter (nm) < 20
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 450
Density (g/cm3) = 2.4
Purity (%) > 99.5
Nano TiO2 Diameter (nm) < 25
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 50
Density (g/cm3) = 3.9
Purity (%) > 99.7
Nano Al2O3 Diameter (nm) < 50
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 40
[34] SCM Nano SiO2 0, 0.5, 0.75, 1 7, 28, 91 days 700 0.43 Diameter (nm) = 20
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 260
Nano TiO2 0, 0.75, 1.5, 3 Diameter (nm) = 20
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 50
[35] SCC Nano CuO 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,5 2, 7, 28 days 450 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15 ± 3
Blaine fineness (m2/g) =
155 ± 12
Density (g/cm3) < 0.13
Purity (%) > 99.9
[36] SCC Nano CuO 0, 1, 3, 4, 5 7, 14, 28, 42 450 0.38 Diameter (nm) = 50-80
days Purity (%) > 99
Nano Fe2O3 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 Diameter (nm) = 40-120
Purity (%) > 99.9
Nano SiO2 0, 3, 4, 5, 7 Diameter (nm) = 30-60
Purity (%) > 98
[37] SCM Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 3, 7, 28, 90 700 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15
days Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 200
Purity (%) > 99
Nano Fe2O3 Diameter (nm) = 60
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 60
Purity (%) > 98
Nano CuO Diameter (nm) = 15
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 200
Purity (%) > 99
[38] SCM Nano CuO 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 7, 28, 90 days 700 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15± 3
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 165 ± 17
Purity (%) > 99.9
[39] FRSCC Nano CuO 0, 1, 2, 3 28, 90 days 460 0.38 Diameter (nm) = 15± 3
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 200
Purity (%) > 99
[40] HSSCC Nano Fe2O3 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 2, 7, 28 days 450 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 80
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 800
Density (g/cm3) = 0.3
Purity (%) > 99.9
[41] SCC Nano clay 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1 7, 28, 56 days 450 0.4 Diameter (μm) = 6
Density (g/cm3) = 1.66
Moisture content (%) = 2
[42] SCC Nano clay 0, 1, 2, 3 3, 7, 14, 28, 90 500 0.34 Diameter (nm) = 1-2
days Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 265
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
0.7
Purity (%) > 95
[43] SCC Nano clay 0, 1, 2, 3 90 day 500 0.34 Diameter (nm) = 1-2
Specific surface area (m2/g)
(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued )

Refs. Composite Type of NPs Cement replacement with NPs: Testing age Binder w/b ratio Properties of NPs
types wt% content

= 265
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
0.7
Purity (%) > 95
[44] SCC Nano clay 0, 2, 4, 6 7, 28, 56, 90, 450 0.37 –
120 days
[45] SCC Nano CaCO3 0, 1 28 days 535 0.36 Diameter (nm) = 15-40
Purity (%) > 97.5
[46] SCM Nano SnO2 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 3, 7, 28, 90 700 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 20 ± 3
Nano ZrO2 days Surface–volume ratio (m2/
Nano CaCO3 g) = 200
Purity (%) > 99
[47] SCC Nano ZnO2 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 2, 7, 28 days 450 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15 ± 4
Blaine fineness (m2/g) =
166 ± 17
Density (g/cm3) < 0.1
Purity (%) > 99.9
[48] SCC Carbon nano 0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5 7, 28 days 500 0.356 Diameter (nm) = 20-40
tubes Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 110
Density (g/cm3) = 0.07
Purity (%) = 90
[49] SCC Nano MgO 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 7, 28 days 350 0.44 Diameter (nm) = 20
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 60
Density (g/cm3) = 3.58
Purity (%) > 99
[50] SCM Nano cement 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 7, 28, 90 days 600 0.35 Diameter (nm) = 62.3
kiln dust Purity (%) > 99.9
[51] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2, 3 7, 28, 56 days 450 0.35 Diameter (μm) = 9-19
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 560
BulkDensity (g/cm3) = 0.2
Nano MnFe3O4 0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7 Diameter (μm) = 3–25.85
[55] HPSCC Nano SiO2 0, 2 7, 28, 90 days 400, 500 0.38 Diameter (nm) = 15 ± 3
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 165 ± 17
Density (g/cm3) = < 0.15
Purity (%) > 99.9
[56] SCLC Nano SiO2 0, 2.7 28 days 444 0.44 Diameter (nm) = 80
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 160
Density (g/cm3) = 0.3
Purity (%) > 99.9
[57] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 2, 7, 28 days 450 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15 ± 3
Blaine fineness (m2/g) =
165 ± 17
Density (g/cm3) < 0.15
Purity (%) > 99.9
[58] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 0.5, 2, 4 28, 90 days 460 0.42 Diameter (nm) = 10-20
Purity (%) > 99.5
Nano TiO2 0, 0.5, 2, 4 Diameter (nm) < 25
Purity (%) > 99.7
Nano Al2O3 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3 Diameter (nm) < 50

[59] RASCC Nano SiO2 2 7, 14, 28 days 447.3 0.41 Diameter (nm) = 100-200
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 200
Purity (%) > 99.9
[60] SCLC Colloidal Nano 0, 1, 3, 5 28 days 400, 450 0.35, 0.45 Diameter (nm) = 10-20
SiO2 Solid content (%) = 30
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
1.2
Thermal stability = 5
C–35 ◦ C
[61] SCSLC Colloidal Nano 0, 1, 3, 5 28 days 400, 450 0.35, 0.45 Diameter (nm) = 10-20
SiO2 Solid content (%) = 30
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
(continued on next page)

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Table 1 (continued )

Refs. Composite Type of NPs Cement replacement with NPs: Testing age Binder w/b ratio Properties of NPs
types wt% content

1.2
Thermal stability = 5
C–35 ◦ C
[62] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2, 3 7, 28, 90 days 450 0.45 Diameter (nm) = 14
Density (g/cm3) = 0.13
Purity (%) > 98
[63] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 2, 4 Before casting 550 0.35 Diameter (nm) = 20-30
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 150
Purity (%) > 99.8
[64] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 7, 28, 90 days 450 0.36 Diameter (nm) = 15
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 200
Density (g/cm3) = 1.29
Purity (%) > 99.9
[65] SCLC Nano SiO2 0, 2, 4, 6 7, 28, 90 days 450 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15-20
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 200
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
0.5
Purity (%) > 99.98
[66] SCC Colloidal Nano 0, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 28 days 490 0.34–0.36 Strength activity index (%)
SiO2 = 170 pH = 9.5
Purity (%) = 24.5
[67] HSSCC Colloidal Nano 0, 0.3, 1, 2 14, 28, 90 days 580 0.3 Diameter (nm) = 10–50 pH
SiO2 = 9.5
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
0.5
Solid content (%) = 7
[68] HSSCC Nano SiO2 0, 5 28, 90 days 550 0.38 Diameter (nm) = 15± 3
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 165 ± 17
Density (g/cm3) = 0.1
Purity (%) > 99.9
[69] HPSCC Colloidal Nano 0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 28 day 450 0.36 Diameter (nm) = 15
SiO2 Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 200
Density (g/cm3) = 1.29
Purity (%) > 99.9
[70] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2, 3 7, 28, 90 days 450 0.44 Purity (%) > 99.8
[71] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2, 3 28, 90 days 530 0.38 Diameter (nm) = 17
Specific surface area (m2/g)
= 202
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
2.4
Purity (%) > 99.8
[72] SCC Colloidal Nano 0, 3, 7 7, 28, 60 days 450 0.43 Diameter (nm) = 50
SiO2 Density (g/cm3) = 1.03
Purity (%) > 99.2
[73] SCM Nano SiO2 0, 1, 3, 5 3, 7, 28, 90 700 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15 ± 3
Nano Al2O3 days Surface–volume ratio (m2/
Nano TiO2 g) = 200
Purity (%) > 99
[74] SCM Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 3, 7, 28, 90 550 0.5 Diameter (nm) = 20-30
days Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 230
Purity (%) > 99
[75] SCM Nano Cr2O3 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 3, 7, 28, 90 700 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 15
Nano ZnO2 days Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 200± 30
[76] SCGC Nano SiO2 2 28, 56, 90 days 450, 500 – Diameter (nm) = 17
Surface surface area (m2/g)
= 202
Density (g/cm3) = 2.3
[77] SCC Nano TiO2 0, 1, 2, 3 7, 28, 90 days 500 0.38 –
[78] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 2 3, 7, 28 days 500 0.4 Diameter (nm) = 11-13
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
(continued on next page)

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Table 1 (continued )

Refs. Composite Type of NPs Cement replacement with NPs: Testing age Binder w/b ratio Properties of NPs
types wt% content

g) = 200
Density (g/cm3) = 2.4
Carbon nano 0, 0.08 Diameter (nm) = 10-30
tubes Length (μm) = 10
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 270
[79] HPSCC Colloidal Nano 0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 28 day 450 0.36 Diameter (nm) = 15
SiO2 Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 200
Density (g/cm3) = 1.29
[80] SCC Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2, 3 7, 28, 90, 180 450 0.44 Diameter (nm) = 17
days Surface surface area (m2/g)
= 202
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
2.2
Purity (%) > 99.88
[81] SCC Colloidal Nano 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 Only fresh 400–560 0.33–0.46 Diameter (nm) = 35, 17, 5
SiO2 properties Density (g/cm3) = 1.4, 1.3,
1.1
[82] FRSCC Nano Al2O3 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3 28 days 450 0.48 Diameter (nm) = 20
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 138
Density (g/cm3) = 3.89
Purity (%) > 99
[83] SCC Nano MnFe2O4 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 7, 28 days 650 0.28 Diameter (nm) = 49
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 27.28
Purity (%) > 98
[84] SCC Nano fly ash 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 7, 14, 28 days 450 0.37 Diameter (nm) = 49
Surface–volume ratio (m2/
g) = 17.2
[85] SCGC Nano SiO2 0, 1, 2 28 days 450 – Purity (%) > 99
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
2.2
[86] SCAAC Nano SiO2 0, 2 28 days 500 – Purity (%) > 99
Specific gravity (g/cm3) =
2.2
[87] SCC Colloidal Nano 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 28, 120 days 400–560 0.33–0.46 Diameter (nm) = 35, 17, 5
SiO2 Density (g/cm3) = 1.4, 1.3,
1.1
[88] HSSCC Graphene oxide 0, 0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08, 0.1 7, 28, 56, 90 450 0.34 –
days

6.1. Fresh properties

The fresh properties of SCC composites are evaluated according to the EFNARC, 2005 [90] standard. The flowability, passing
ability, and filling ability are the most important parameters which are necessary to be measured in terms of slump flow diameter and
time, L-box height ratio, and V-funnel flow time tests. In order for SCC to satisfy the standard criteria, the test results should satisfy the
values for different classes of applications, as presented in Table 3.

6.1.1. Slump flow diameter (SFD)

Fig. 12 shows the findings of numerous past investigations on the effect of various NP types on the slump flow diameter (SFD)
values of SCC composites. The results show that with the addition of NPs, the SFD values were significantly reduced, regardless of the
NP type. Since the flowability of SCC mixtures was reduced with the addition of NPs, they still meet the criteria required for SCC
mixtures by the EFNARC [90] standard. The majority of the previous SCC composite mixtures obtained from previous investigations
can be categorized as SF2 slump flow class. Beigi et al., 2013 [12] studied the effect of four different percentages of NS (0%, 2%, 4%,
and 6%) on the fresh behavior of FRSCC mixtures, including different types of fibers (stell, glass, polypropylene). They concluded that
the incorporation of NS has adverse effects on the flow behavior and workability of the SCC mixtures with and without fibers due to
increasing the viscosity and shear strength against flowability. The stability of the fibers inside SCC mixtures was improved with the
addition of NS. Ghanbari et al., 2020 [65] also investigated the impact of different percentages of NS (0%, 2%, 4%, and 6%) on the
performance of SCLC mixtures containing scoria as lightweight aggregates. Their results also proved that at the same superplasticizer
content, the SFD values were reduced with increasing the NS content. The SFD values were 747 mm, 717 mm, 692 mm, and 617 mm at
0%, 2%, 4%, and 6% NS content, respectively. Comparable results regarding the effect of NS addition on the SFD values were also
reported by other scholars [13–16,60,63].
The influence of the NA on the fresh behavior of SCC composites was also investigated in the literature [23,24,82]. Faez et al., 2020

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Fig. 3. Normal distribution of binder content used in different SCC composite mixtures.

Fig. 4. Normal distribution of w/b ratio used in different SCC composite mixtures.

[23] investigated the rheological behavior of SCC containing silica fume modified with thirteen different percentages of NA from 0% to
3% with an increment of 0.25%. Although the amount of SP was increased from 2.76 kg/m3 to 4.92 kg/m3 with increasing the NA from
0% to 3%, still the SFD values were reduced from 749 mm to 663 mm. This means that in order to prevent a higher slump flow loss, the
amount of SP should be increased by elevating the amount of NA addition. The authors also reported that all the mixtures modified
with different NA particles had good flowability and segregation resistance performance that can be used for regular concrete works.
Other NP types such as NT, NF, NCl, NM also had a similar impact on the SFD values of SCC mixtures. Jalal et al., 2013 [31] studied

Fig. 5. Normal distribution of NPs content used in different SCC composite mixtures.

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 Table 2

R.H. Faraj et al.

Different properties and characteristics investigated in the past studies.

Refs. Slump flow Sulmp V-funnel L-box Compressive Tensile Flexural Elasticity Micro Water Electrical RCPT Other Tests
diameter flow time flow time height strength strength strength modulus structure absorption resistivity
ratio

[7] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Freeze-thaw resistance,

conductivity
[12] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Toughness
[13] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[14] ✓ ✓ drying shrinkage, Gas
permeability
[15] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Rheology parameters
[16] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Sorptivity, water penetration
depth, abrasion resistance
[17] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[18] ✓
[19] ✓ ✓ ✓ Brittleness, fatigue strength,
Accoustic emmision
[20] ✓ ✓
[21] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Shrinkage
[22] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Fracture parameters, Gas
pemeability
[23] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[24] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Water penetration depth
[25] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Air content
[26] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Acid resistance
13

[27] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[28] ✓ ✓ ✓
[29] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[30] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[31] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[32] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[33] Creep
[34] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Carbonation depth
[35] ✓ ✓
[36] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Residual properties at
elevated temperatures
[37] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

[38] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[39] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[40] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[41] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[42] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ UPV, Corrosion
[43] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Freeze-thaw resistance, mass
loss
[44] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Density, UPV
[45] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Air content, Drying shrinkage
[46] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[47] ✓ ✓
[48] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[49] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[50] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
(continued on next page)
 R.H. Faraj et al.
Table 2 (continued )

Refs. Slump flow Sulmp V-funnel L-box Compressive Tensile Flexural Elasticity Micro Water Electrical RCPT Other Tests
diameter flow time flow time height strength strength strength modulus structure absorption resistivity
ratio

[51] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Water penetration

[54] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[55] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[56] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[57] ✓ ✓
[58] ✓ ✓ Porosity
[59] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[60] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ NDT
[61] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Fracture parameters
[62] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Water penetration depth
[63] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Rheology parameters
[64] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[65] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ UPV
[66] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[67] ✓ ✓ Residual strength subjected to
sulfuric acid
[69] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Freeze-thaw resistance,
Carbonation depth
14

[70] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[71] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[72] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Drying shrinkage
[73] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[74] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[75] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[76] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[77] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[78] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Toughness
[79] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[80] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Sulphate attack, drying
shrinkage

Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

[81] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Rheology parameters
[82] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ UPV
[83] ✓ ✓ Thermogravimetric Analysis
[84] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Density, UPV, residual
strength
[85] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Bond strength, fracture
parameters
[86] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Load-displacement behavior
[87] ✓ ✓ ✓ Porosity
[88] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

the effect of NT (0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5%) on the behavior of SCC containing a low volume of fly ash. The SFD value decreased
from 800 mm to 730 mm at constant SP content by increasing NT content from 0% to 5%. They also reported that NT addition made the
mixtures more viscous, less bleeding, and less segregated. The addition of NCl was also negatively affected the SFD of SCC at the same
SP content [41]. Elevating the NCl content from 0% to 1% by an increment of 0.25% reduced the SFD value form 740 mm–640 mm.
However, Joshaghani et al., 2020 [24] reported opposite results compared to the above-mentioned results. They reported an in­
crease in the SFD with the addition of NT, NA, and NF into the SCC mixtures. The reason for this was due to increasing the amount of SP
dosage considerably after the incorporation of NPs. They increased the amount of SP by 157% when the NPs content increased from 0%
to 5%.
The main mechanism behind reducing the SFD values with the addition of NPs is that the diameter of NPs are extremely small, and
their specific surface-to-volume ratio is very high. Therefore, they increase the SP and water demand in order to maintain the flow­
ability behavior. If the same SP or water content is used, the NPs tend to absorb more water, and the amount of water required to
lubricate other granular materials is decreased; consequently, the flowability or SFD is reduced.

6.1.2. Slump flow time (SFT)

The slump flow time test (SFT), also called T50 test, can be used to assess the viscosity of SCC composites according to EFNARC,
2005 [90] standard. In this test, the time required for the fresh concrete to reach the diameter of 500 mm on the slump base plate is
recorded and reported as T50 slump flow time in seconds. The lower SFT value indicates higher workability and flowability but less
viscosity. The outcomes of the previous studies of different SCC composites and NP types are extracted and presented in Fig. 13.
Regardless of composite and NP type, the addition of NPs always leads to the decrease of SFT values, which means a reduction in the
flowability of SCC composites with the incorporation of NPs. Niewiadomski et al., 2018 [25] investigated the impact of three different
NPs on the rheological performance of SCC mixtures. The investigated NPs include NS (0%, 0.5%, 2%, and 4%), NT (0%, 0.5%, 2%, and
4%), and NA (0%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, and 3%) particles. The authors found that incorporating NS and NA significantly increased the SFT
and reduced the fluidity due to the irregular shape and very high specific surface area of these NPs. For example, increasing the NS
content from 0% to 4% resulted in the increase of SFT from 2.87 s to 6.85 s. However, they reported that the incorporation of NT had a
negligible impact on the SFT of the SCC mixtures due to the spherical shape of the NT particles. Similar findings regarding the NT effect
on the SFT were also reported by Jalal et al., 2013 [31]. Hani et al., 2018 [16] stated that, even with the addition of small percentages
of NS content, the SFT was considerably increased at the same SP content and w/b ratio. They reported that the SFT was increased from
1.6 s to 6.3 s with elevating the NS dosage from 0% to 0.75%
Moreover, other NP types also have similar influences on the SFT of SCC composites. For example, Faez et al., 2020 [23] found that
the SFT was increased by 105% due to the addition of 3% NA compared to the same mixture with 0% NA. Jafari and Vafaei, 2015 [36]
reported an increase from 1.87 s to 3.15 s due to incorporating 5% NC particles. Moreover, Naseri et al., 2017 [39] reported similar
findings in which SFT increased from 1.95 s to 3.5 s when 3% of NC particles were added.
Finally, Fard and Jabbari, 2017 [49] investigated the effect of different dosages of NM particles (0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%) on the
performance of the SCC composite. Although they increased the amount of SP dosage with the addition of NM particles, still the SFT
was considerably elevated. The SFT value was increased from 2.95 s to 4.91 s due to 4% NM content. A similar mechanism causing the
decrease of SFT is also responsible for reducing SFD with the inclusion of NPs.

Fig. 6. Number of studies conducted for various properties of SCC composites modified with NPs.

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Fig. 7. Normal distribution of NPs size used in previous SCC composite mixtures.

Fig. 8. Microscopic images of different NPs used in previous SCC composites (a) TEM photographs of NS [16]; (b) SEM micrograph of NT [31]; (c) SEM micrograph of
NS [55]; (d) SEM micrograph of NF [40]; (e) SEM micrograph of NC [35]; (f) SEM micrograph of NZ [47].

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Fig. 9. XRD patterns of different NPs used in previous SCC composites (a) NS [16]; (b) NT [31]; (c) NA, NF and NT [24]; (d) NF [40]; (e) NC [35]; (f) NZ [47].

Fig. 10. Schematical representation of SCC mixing procedure containing NPs [14,15,22,63].

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Fig. 11. Schematical representation of modified mixing procedure proposed for SCC incorporated NPs [17,55].

6.1.3. V-funnel flow time (VFT)

V-Funnel test is conducted to evaluate the filling ability of SCC mixtures and provides valuable information regarding the viscosity
of the composite. In this test, a standard funnel is filled with fresh concrete, and the flow time is measured between two-time intervals;
the opening of the orifice and the complete emptying of the funnel. The outcomes of some previous investigations on the impact of
different NP types on the VFT of SCC composites are illustrated in Fig. 14. It was evident from the results that the VFT was increased
with increasing the NPs content at the same SP content. Moreover, with the inclusion of NPs and maintaining the VFT of the mixtures,
the amount of SP dosage should be increased.
The effect of NS particles on the VFT of SCC mixtures was investigated in the literature [15,16,60,65]. Güneyisi et al., 2015 [15]
examined the influence of NS particles on the rheological behavior and fresh characteristics of SCC mixtures containing fly ash. The NS
utilized at various contents, 0%, 2%, 4%, and 6%. They reported that the NS addition made the SCC mixtures more viscous and
cohesive, in which increasing the NS content from 0% to 6% caused an increase in the VFT from 7.5 s to 9.5 s. Moreover, with the
incorporation of %6 NS, SP demand was considerably elevated to 21.38 kg/m3 at a constant w/b ratio compared to the 3.42 kg/m3 for
the mixture containing 0% NS. Ghanbari et al., 2020 [65] also found that the VFT was increased from 8.1 s to 10.6 s with the addition
of 6% NS at the same SP content.
Faez et al., 2020 [23] investigated the effect of different NA particle percentages (0%–3% with an increment of 0.25%). Although
the amount of SP dosage was amplified by 69% with 3% NA, the VFT was still increased from 6 s to 11.29 s. However, Joshaghani et al.,
2020 [24] concluded that due to increasing the SP dosage, the VFT was decreased from 13 s to 8 s with the incorporation of 3% NA,
then it was also increased to 12 s after the addition of 5% NA particles. In the same context, Moghaddam et al., 2021 [82] also reported
that at the same SP and fiber content, the VFT of FRSCC mixtures was amplified from 7.4 s to 10.1 s due to increasing the NA particles
content from 0% to 3%.
Like NS particles and NA particles, other NPs such as NT, NC, NF, and NCl also behaved similarly inside the SCC composite
mixtures. For example, Jalal et al., 2013 [31] also found that for the HSSCC mixture, the VFT was increased from 5 s to 6.2 s with
increasing NT content from 0% to 5% at the same SP dosage. Jafari and Vafaei, 2015 [36] reported that the VFT was increased by 111%
with the addition 5% NC compared to the control mixture.
To provide a clear idea about the viscosity classes of different SCC composite mixtures modified with dissimilar NP types, the values
for different mixtures obtained from previous studies regarding the VFT and SFT is presented in Fig. 15. The figure provides valuable
information regarding the viscosity classes according to EFNARC, 2005 [90] limitations. It is evident from the figure that the majority
of the results can be categorized as VS2/VF2 viscosity class, in which the mixtures in this class are cohesive and more viscous.

Table 3
SCC criteria based on the EFNARC, 2005 [90].

Assessment Test type Classes

Slump class Slump flow (mm)

Flow ability Slump flow test SF1 550–650

SF2 660–750
SF3 760–850
Filling ability T 50 Viscosity class T 50 time (seconds)
VS1/VF1 ≤2
VS2/VF2 >2
V-funnel test Viscosity class V-funnel time (seconds)
VS1/VF1 ≤8
VS2/VF2 9–25
Passing ability L-box test Passing class H2/H1 ratio
PA1 ≥0.8 with two rebar
PA2 ≥0.8 with three rebar

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Fig. 12. SFD values versus NPs content of different SCC composites and NP types.

However, a smaller portion of the previous mixtures can be classified as VS1/VF1 viscosity class, in which the majority of control
mixtures containing 0% of NPs belong to this category. Moreover, the figure can demonstrate that the addition of NPs, regardless of
their types, makes the SCC composite mixtures more viscous and cohesive, in which a higher amount of SP dosage is required to
maintain the filling ability of the mixtures modified NPs.

6.1.4. L-box height ratio (LBR)

L-box test is used to evaluate the passing ability of SCC mixtures. SCC is an ideal candidate for the structural elements made with a

Fig. 13. SFT values versus NPs content of different SCC composites and NP types.

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Fig. 14. VFT values versus NPs content of different SCC composites and NP types.

high amount of reinforcements because, in this case, the spacing between rebars is decreased, and the compaction work is difficult.
Therefore, the SCC mixtures used in these congested areas should have a high passing ability to prevent segregation. During the L-box
test, the L-box height ratio in terms of H2/H1 ratio can be determined to evaluate the passing ability of the SCC mixtures. In this test, the
ability of SCC to pass through congested reinforcement can be simulated using a two or 3-bar L-box test according to EFNARC, 2005
[90] criteria. For SCC mixtures to have good passing ability without causing segregation, the H2/H1 ratio should be greater than 0.8.
The higher LBR values mean higher fluidity and passing ability. The past investigations regarding the influence of NP types on the
passing ability of SCC composites are reported in Fig. 16. Generally, the effects of NP types on the passing ability of SCC mixtures are

Fig. 15. VFT values versus T50 SFT of different SCC composites and NP types.

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Fig. 16. LBR values versus NPs content of different SCC composites and NP types.

similar to other fresh properties. At a constant SP dosage, the addition of NPs caused a reduction in the passing ability of SCC mixtures.
Beigi et al., 2013 [12] stated that the LBR value was decreased from 0.87 to 0.8 with the addition of 6% NS and a constant SP content.
Similar findings were also reported by Ghanbari et al., 2020 [65] which found that the LBR value was reduced by 13% with 6% NS.
Güneyisi et al., 2015 [14] and Güneyisi et al., 2016 [54] investigated the effect of three different percentages of NS (0%, 2.5%, 5%) on
the fresh behavior of the SCLC made with treated and untreated light weight aggregates. They concluded that the LBR value was

Fig. 17. CS versus NPs content of different SCC composites and NP types at 28 days curing age.

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

slightly reduced from 0.84 to 0.81 with the incorporation of 5% NS.

However, Faez et al., 2020 [23] reported that with increasing the NA content from 0% to 3%, the LBR value was increased from
0.81 to 0.95; this increase was due to amplifying the SP dosage for the mixture containing 3% NA, which incorporated 4.65 kg/m3
compared to 2.65 kg/m3 for the control mixture containing 0% NA.
Among different NP types, NCl had the most adverse effects on the passing ability of SCC mixtures. For example, Hosseini et al.,
2015 [41] investigated the effect of five different percentages of the NCl particles on the short-term behavior of SCC mixtures. They
observed that for the same SP dosage, which was 9 kg/m3, the LBR value was significantly reduced from 0.94 to 0.75 with the addition
of only 1% of NCl. As can be seen from Fig. 16, at the same SP content, all other NP types such as NT, NF, NM, and NC also reduced the
LBR value of the SCC mixtures in which the passing ability of SCC composites was reduced. Therefore, in order to maintain the ability
to pass through congested rebars, the SP dosage should be increased appropriately for the SCC mixtures containing NPs due to the very
high specific surface area of NPs, which increase the viscosity and reduce the flowability of the SCC mixtures.

6.2. Mechanical properties

This section presents and discusses the most important and widely evaluated mechanical properties reported in the literature. The
mechanical properties discussed in this study include Flexural and tensile strength, compressive strength, and elastic modulus.

6.2.1. Compressive strength (CS)

The compressive strength (CS) property was comprehensively investigated in the literature for different SCC composite types
incorporated dissimilar NPs. Since the CS can be considered the essential mechanical property to evaluate the concrete performance,
the results of many previous studies regarding the impact of the NPs on the 28 days CS of various SCC composites are presented in
Fig. 17. Regardless of their type, the addition of NPs to a certain content positively affected SCC composites’ CS. Beigi et al., 2013 [12]
experimentally investigated the effect of NS content (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%) on the performance of FRSCC made with three different fibers
(steel, glass, and polypropylene). The authors reported that the CS was significantly improved with increasing the NS content up to 4%,
which was an optimum value, then it was decreased at 6% NS content but still higher than the control mixture. At 4% NS content, it was
about 18% improvement in the CS at 28 days compared to the mixture with 0% NS. Güneyisi et al., 2015 [15] also found that the
optimum NS content was 4% among different replacement percentages from 0% to 6%. They also reported about 16.4% improvement
in the CS with the addition of 4% NS, this improvement percentage was decreased to about 12.5% when the NS content was increased
to 6%. Similar findings for the SCLC were also reported by Ghanbari et al., 2020 [65], in which 4% NS content was the optimum
content to improve the CS. The improvement of the compressive strength with the addition of NS can be attributed to: (1) The
pozzolanic reaction of NS, which reacts with the C–H crystals to produce additional C–S–H gel, which is the primary source related to
the CS of the cement-based materials, (2) Due to the tiny particles of NS, they can fill the nano voids and pores present in the C–S–H gel
which in turn improves the density and packing of the micro and nano structure of the paste [91,92], (3) NS and other NPs acting as
nucleus creating a powerful bond with C–S–H gel particles. As a result, the stability of hydration products improves, and the

Fig. 18. STS versus NPs content of different SCC composites and NP types at 28 days curing age.

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

mechanical characteristics are also enhanced [12].

Other NP types such as NA, NT, NF, NM, NCl and NCKD were also positively influenced the CS of different SCC composites. For
example, Faez et al., 2020 [23] reported that the CS of SCC was considerably improved by elevating the NA content up to 2.5%, then
decreased for higher replacement percentages. The CS of the control mixture containing 0% NA was only 26.1 MPa, and this value was
amplified to 49.14 MPa with the addition of 2.5% NA. Increasing the NA content beyond 2.5% was no longer beneficial to improve the
CS. Moreover, Joshaghani et al., 2020 [24] reported a continuous improvement in the CS with the addition of NA up to 5%. They
reported that the CS was 34.36 MPa, 42.72 MPa, and 45.27 MPa for the mixtures containing 0%, 3%, and 5% NA, respectively.
Moghaddam et al., 2021 [82] also observed that the CS was improved due to increasing the NA content up to 2.5%, then it was
decreased for 3% NA content. The main mechanisms for this improvement are related to the reactivity of NA particles with the cement
during the hydration process and the nano-filling ability.
The effect of NT particles on the performance of SCC composites was also investigated in the literature. Jalal et al., 2013 [31]
argued that the addition of NT particles into the HSSCC mixtures improved CS up to 4% NT; a higher replacement level decreased the
compressive strength. They reported a 27% enhancement with the addition of 4% NT particles, but the improvement percentage
decreased to 20% with increasing the NT particles to 5%. However, Joshaghani et al., 2020 [24] found that the CS for the mixture made
with 5% NT particles was higher than the mixtures containing 0% and 3% NT particles. The CS was elevated from 34.36 MPa to 42.9
MPa by increasing the NT content from 0% to 5%.
Similar observations for other NP types and different SCC composites were also reported. Although the CS of SCC composites was
improved with the addition of NPs, an optimum percentage was different for various NP types and mixtures. It is worth mentioning that
adding NPs higher than an optimum value is not beneficial to improving the CS. This can be related to the fact that a high dosage of NPs
are agglomerated due to high surface energy and can not be dispersed homogeneously and adequately inside the mixture, leading to
the formation of voids and weak zones caused the CS reduction [92].

6.2.2. Splitting tensile strength (STS)

The splitting tensile strength (STS), also known as the indirect tensile test or Brazilian test, is an indirect method to measure and
evaluate the tensile performance of concrete composites. Since concrete is weak material in tension, it is necessary to improve its
tensile strength. Among different materials, NPs utilization can also improve the tensile strength of SCC composites. The outcomes of
some past studies about the effect of different NP types on the STS of SCC composites are present in Fig. 18. Similar performance can be
seen from the results for different NP types and SCC composites in which the STS was improved with the addition of NPs up to certain
content. Some previous studies reported that 4% was the optimum dosage of NPs to improve the STS of SCC composites [12,31,40,65].
On the other hand, an optimum value of 3% was reported by other scholars [20,35,49,60]. Khoshakhlagh et al., 2012 [40] investigated
the effect of different percentages (0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5%) of NF on the strength and water permeability of HSSCC. They
reported that with the addition of 4% NF particles, the STS was elevated to 3.1 MPa compared to the 1.6 MPa for the control mixture.
For the mixture made with 5% NF particles, the STS was decreased to 2.8 MPa, but still higher than the reference mixture (0% NF).

Fig. 19. Flexural strength versus NPs content of different SCC composites and NP types at 28 during age.

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Hosseini et al., 2015 [41] examined the influence of the small percentages (0%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, and 1) of NCl on the STS of SCC
mixtures. They reported that the highest STS was achieved for the mixture containing 0.75% NCl, which was improved by 21%
compared to the mixture without NCl content. Since the failure mechanism in tension is related to the micro-cracks present in the
matrix, propagating these micro-cracks to form a larger network of cracks causes the matrix to fail as the load reaches its maximum
value. Incorporating extremely small NPs such as NCl can significantly improve the micro-structure through nanofiller ability, which
makes the composite denser with very small micro-cracks; as a result, the STS can be improved. Other investigations have been carried
out regarding the influence of other NP types (NS. NT, NA, NC and NM), and similar results were also achieved [16,39,65,82].
Among different NP types, multi-walled CNT was the most effective type for improving the STS of SCC composites [48]. Bar­
odawala et al., 2019 [48] found about 80.56% improvement in the STS with the addition of only 0.5% of CNTs which is significantly
essential for the applications that require higher tensile strengths such as pavements.

6.2.3. Flexural strength (FS)

Flexural strength or modulus of rupture is another indirect method to evaluate the tensile strength of concrete. This property is
crucial for the concrete elements subjected to bending stress, such as pavements and reinforced concrete slabs and beams. Fig. 19
illustrates the results of the previous investigations regarding the influence of different NP types on the FS of SCC composites. Since NPs
addition significantly improves the matrix structure and reduces the micro-cracks and voids, the FS of SCC composites can be highly
improved due to the utilization of NPs up to an optimum dosage. An experimental investigation has been carried out by Rad et al., 2020
[27] about the influence of NS dosage (0, 2%, and 3%) on the flexural strength of FRSCC. The authors revealed that 2% NS was an
optimum percentage to improve the FS, in which 14% in FS was reported; these improvement percentages were decreased to 10.5%
with the inclusion of 3% NS. Moreover, Beigi et al., 2013 [12] and Ghanbari et al., 2020 [65] reported a continuous improvement of up
to 4% NS addition, while a higher percentage (6%) was no longer beneficial for improving the FS. Afzali-Naniz and Mazloom, 2018
[60] observed that for different w/b ratios (0.35 and 0.45), an optimum percentage of NS was found to be 3% for improving the FS of
SCLC.
The impact of other NP types such as NT, NA, NZ, NF, and NM have also been investigated. For example, Fard and Jabbari, 2017
[49] investigated the effect of NM particles on the performance of SCCs. The mixtures of SCC were made, including different NM
dosages from 0% to 4% with an increment of 1%. The authors noticed that the FS was considerably improved by 59% and 69% with the
inclusion of 2% and 4% NM particles, respectively. Since the amount of enhancement beyond 2% was only 10%, the authors rec­
ommended 2% NM as an optimum percentage to modify the FS. Similarly, Khoshakhlagh et al., 2012 [40] found that the addition of NF
particles was significantly enhanced the FS of HSSCC. They reported an increase of about 76% with the addition of 4% NF particles. As
a result of enhanced crystalline C–H quantity, NF particles as a foreign nucleation site might speed up C–S–H gel formation and
therefore boost the FS of HSSCC [40].
Regarding the NT addition, Nazari and Riahi, 2011 [32] argued that there was about 27.7% development in the FS of SCC modified
with 3% NT which was an optimum percentage. Finally, Rad et al., 2020 [27] also reveled that NA addition had lower impacts on the

Fig. 20. Modulus of elasticity versus NPs content of different SCC composites and NP types at 28 days curing age.

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FS of FRSCC copared to NS particles. The improvement ratio was only 5% due to the addition of 2% NA particles compared to the 14%
enhancement for the same percent NS content.

6.2.4. Modulus of elasticity

Modulus of elasticity or elastic modulus is an essential property for cement-based materials, including SCC, because it provides
information about the material’s stiffness in the elastic stage. SCC with a higher elastic modulus provides more excellent resistance for
deformation. Since the elastic modulus of concrete is more affected by the aggregate types and content, the addition of NPs slightly
influenced the elastic modulus of different SCC composites. The number of research investigating the influence of different NP types on
the modulus of elasticity of various SCC composites is less than other mechanical characteristics. The outcomes of the previous in­
vestigations are presented in Fig. 20. As can be seen, from the figure, regardless of NP and composite type, a slight change can be
observed for most of the results. Beigi et al., 2013 [12] reported that the elastic modulus was increased from 38 GPa to 41 GPa due to
the incorporation of 4% NS; however, it was then decreased to 40.8 GPa after increasing the NS content to 6%. Similarly, Atewi et al.,
2019 [22] observed that the elastic modulus was elevated from 44.1 GPa to 47.8 GPa due to increasing the NS dosage from 0% to 4% in
the FRSCC composite. Moreover, other investigations concluded that 2% was an optimum dosage of NS addition regarding the elastic
modulus improvement [25,27,66]. Opposite to the other studies, Bernal et al., 2018 [64] indicated that the elastic modulus was
systematically reduced by increasing the NS content from 0% to 5%. The elastic modulus was reduced from 43.1 GPa to 37.1 GPa after
increasing the NS content from 0% to 5%.
Rad et al., 2020 [27]also investigated the influence of NA particles on the elastic modulus of the SCC composites. The authors
noticed that the elastic modulus was slightly elevated from 40.71 GPa to 42.9 GPa due to the utilization of 3% NA particles. The NCl
incorporation improved the elastic modulus from 32.5 GPa to 35.5 GPa, elevating the NCl dosage from 0% to 3% [43].

Table 4
Effects of different NPs on the less commonly evaluated durability properties of SCC composites.

Refs. NPs Optimum SCC Primary findings and remarks

Type percentage composite
Type

[7] Colloidal NS 3.8 SCC Freeze–thaw resistance and conductivity were significantly improved with the addition of 3.8% of both
Powder NS types of the NS. Moreover, the SCC with colloidal NS showed slightly better properties than the SCC with
powder NS.
[14] NS 5 SCLC Drying shrikage was reduced by 23% due to the addition of 5% NS compared to the control sample. Moreover,
gas permeability was reduced by 70% at 90 days, regardless of different w/b ratios.
[16] NS 0.75 SCC The water penetration depth was reduced by 43.5% for the mixtures with w/b ratio of 0.41. Also the abrasion
resistance was decreased by 46.2% for the same w/b ratio. Moreover, the water sorptivity was declined by
48.5% for the same conditions compared to the control specimens.
[19] NS 2 SCC The positive impact of NPs on the fatigue strength of SCC, may be of particular importance in the case of objects
NT 4 and structural elements loaded repeatedly in a variable manner. Thus the durability and safety of structures will
be higher
[24] NT 5 HPSCC The 91-day water penetration depth for mixes with 5% NT, NS and NF replacement was approximately 51%,
NA 59%, and 64% lower than that of the control mix, respectively, at w/b ratio of 0.32.
NF
[58] NS 0.5 SCC Due to the addition of optimum percentages of NS, NT, and NA the amount of micropores smaller than 300 μm
NT 2 was significantly reduced, thus the porosity was improved.
NA 1
[33] NS 4 (only SCC The addition of NS and NA increased the creep coefficient and the addition of NT reduced the creep coefficient.
NA added) However, the difference between the mean values of the creep coefficient for the different NPs was not more
NT than 6.7%. Therefore, it can be said that the addition of NPs did not significantly affect the creep of the cement
matrix of SCCs.
[62] NS 2 SCC The water penetration depth was lowered by 13% due to the inclusion of 2% NS.
[26] NS 2 SCLC The NPs addition can significantly improve the acid resistance of SCC composites interms of weight loss. The
NT 4 lowest weight loss is for the sample with 4% of NT after 70 days among different types and percentages of NPs.
NA 2
[42] NCl 3 SCC The water penetration depth was decreased by 64.3% due to the addition of 3% NCl.
[43] NCl 3 SCC The freeze-thaw resistance and mass loss were considerably improved due to the addition of 3% NCl. The
specimens containing 3% NCl showed the least deterioration among other samples after exposure of 300 cycles.
Moreover, the mass loss of specimens with 3% NCl was only 3.96% after exposure of 300 cycles.
[69] NS 7.5 HPSCC After 200 days of exposure, the samples containing 7.5% NS did not exhibited carbonation. Moreover, the
samples with 7.5% NS showed significant differences with respect to the reference concrete, reducing the loss of
material by up to 92.38% after exposure of 28 cycles of freezing and thawing.
[50] NCKD 5 SCM Total porosity was decreased by about 34% due to the inclusion of 5% NCKD compared to the control sample
(0% NCKD).
[46] NS 4 SCM Mixes containing 4% NS, 5% NZr, and 3% NCa exhibited the highest reductions in the capillarity values (i.e.
NZr 5 58%, 57%, and 61%, respectively). Among the three NPs, NCa showed the best performance in reducing the
NCa 3 capillary water absorption up to an inclusion rate of 3%.
[51] NS 3 SCC It was observed that adding 3% NS decreased the water permeability by 58%, thus improving durability.
[71] NS 2 SCC It was found that the mixture made with 2% NS showed lower loss of strength after exposure to sulphates for 90
days which was only 5.56 lower than the control sample.

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6.3. Durability performance

As previously mentioned, one of the main advantages of NPs addition is producing high-performance materilas that have a longer
service life than traditional materials. To evaluate the durability performance of SCC composites under aggressive environmental
conditions, some standard tests should be conducted. In this section, the most commonly used tests to evaluate the durability-related
properties such as water absorption, chloride ion penetration, and electrical resistivity of different SCC composites modified with
numerous types of NPs are reported and discussed in detail. Moreover, Table 4 presents the results and analysis of some other
durability properties which are not commonly evaluated in the literature compared to the previously mentioned properties for SCC
composites modified with NPs.

6.3.1. Water absorption (WA)

Generally, the water absorption test can be used to determine the resistance against water penetration. This test was conducted
according to the procedures reported in ASTM C642, 2013 [93]. The procedure required that the samples be cured for 28 days, then
oven-dried at a temperature of 110 ◦ C for not less than 24 h. The samples are then immersed in water at approximately 21 ◦ C for 2 days,
and the saturated mass after immersion is measured. Some of the previous studies regarding the effect of different NP types on the WA
percentages of SCC composites are presented in Fig. 21. Since all NP types have the nanofiller ability, which reduces the micropores
inside the matrix, the addition of NPs considerably decreases the WA percentage of SCC composites up to a certain dosage. Similar to
the mechanical properties, due to the agglomeration and poor dispersion of NPs, the dosages higher than an optimum content were not
effective in improving the WA. Beigi et al., 2013 [12] reported that, the WA percentage was 1.7%, 1.5%, 1.35%, and 1.3% for the
mixtures incorporated 0%, 2%, 4%, and 6% NS particles. It can be seen that the NPs addition higher than 4% was less effective in
improving the WA compared to other dosages (2% and 4). Moreover, Ghanbari et al., 2020 [65] found that the WA percentage was
significantly reduced with the addition of NS content up to 4%, then it was increased for 6% NS content, but still much lower than the
control mixture containing 0% NS. The WA percentage reduction was about 41% for the mixture made with 4% NS particles; this value
was decreased to 35% with further NS content (6%). Al Ghabban et al., 2018 [13] studied the influence of different NS content (0%,
1%, 2%m 3%, and 4%) on the performance of SCC. The mixtures were produced with 515 kg/m3 cement content and a w/b ratio of
0.32. The authors revealed that the amount of WA percentage was reduced by elevating the NS content up to 3%, then it was increased.
There was about a 24% reduction in the WA percentage with the utilization of 3% NS particles.
A positive influence on the water absorption percentage for other NP types was also reported in the literature. For example, an
experimental investigation has been carried out by Kadhim et al., 2020 [50] about the impact of NCKD on the WA percentage of SCM at
five different percentages from 0% to 5%, with an increment of 1%. The authors noticed that the WA percentage was systematically
reduced due to the addition of NCKD particles, in which about 34% reduction of WA percentage was obtained due to the utilization of
5% NCKD particles. Barodawala et al., 2019 [48] also reported that the addition of tiny dosages of CNTs reduced the WA percentages of
SCCs remarkably. The incorporation of 0.5% CNTs into the SCC composite reduced the WA percentages by about 27%. Other NP types
such as NT, NA, NF, NCl, NCa had relatively similar effects on the WA percentage reduction, as shown in Fig. 21. The primary

Fig. 21. Water absorption percentage versus NPs content of different SCC composites and NP types at 28 days curing age.

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mechanism behind the reduction of WA percentage due to the addition of NPs is also related to improving the hydration process to
produce more packing C–S–H gel with fewer micropores and enhancing the matrix porosity due to the filling ability of tiny particles.

6.3.2. Electrical resistivity

One of the most important tests that can measure concrete’s durability performance is the electrical resistivity test. The electrical
resistivity test can evaluate the resistance of SCC composites against corrosion when a metal such as rebar is present inside the matrix.
This test can be performed according to guide lines of ACI 222, 2001 [94] on 50 mm cubic specimens after 28 or 90 days of curing. The
apparatus used for the test consists of an electrical resistance measurement device and two electrodes attached to both sides of the
sample. The electrical resistivity (ρ) is determined using the following Equation:
RA
ρ=
L

where R, A, and L are the resistance (Ω), area of the specimen (cm2), and is the length of the specimen (cm), respectively. Moreover,
The relationship between the corrosion rate and electrical resistivity is given in Table 5 to assess the durability performance of SCC
composites. As can be seen from the table, the higher electrical resistivity indicated a lower corrosion rate and better performance in
severe environmental conditions.
The ion’s movement inside the concrete matrix can be described by measuring its electrical resistivity [95]. By controlling the
movement of the ions inside the microstructure of SCC composites, the probability of corrosion can be reduced. Therefore, it can be
mentioned that the higher the compactness of the microstructure, the lower the ions can be transferred; as a result, the corrosion of
rebars inside the matrix can be prevented. As previously described for other mechanical and durability properties, the addition of NPs,
regardless of their type, considerably improved the microstructure of different SCC composites. The results of past investigations about
the impact of different NP types on the electrical resistivity of various SCC composites are illustrated in Fig. 22. As can be seen from the
figure, the corrosion rate for the majority of control mixtures (0% NPs content) can be categorized as “High” class, while it was shifted
to “Low to moderate” and “Low” classes due to the addition of different NP types. Fig. 22 also demonstrated that similar behavior
regarding the electrical resistivity values could be observed for different NP types because all NP types were similarly improved the
microstructure due to the nanofilling ability. An experimental investigation has been carried out by Naniz and Mazloom, 2018 [60]
about the effect of different dosages of colloidal NS (0%, 1%, 3%, and 5%) on the electrical resistivity of SCLC. The experimental
program contained 16 different mixtures with two w/b ratios of 0.35 and 0.45. The authors reported that, regardless of the w/b ratio,
the amplification of NS content from 0% to 5% caused about %200 increase in the electrical resistivity of SCLCs, which significantly
decreased the probability of corrosion occurrence. Reyes et al., 2020 [79] also investigated the impact of colloidal NS on the per­
formance of HPSCC. The authors noticed that the electrical resistivity was elevated by 300% due to the addition of 5% NS. The
electrical resistivity category was shifted from “High” to “Low” due to 5% NS. Comparable results regarding improving electrical
resistivity with the addition of NS for different SCC composites were also reported in the literature [37,65,74].
Madandoust et al., 2015 [37] and Naseri et al., 2017 [74] investigated the performance of SCC composites when NC was added at
different percentages. Both studies reported that the corrosion rate class was shifted from “High” to “Low to moderate” after adding 3%
of NC particles. Similar improvement was also reported for other NP types such as NCl [41], NA [73,82], NZ [75], and NT [73].

6.3.3. Rapid chloride permeability (RCPT)

The RCPT test can be performed according to ASTM C1202, 2000 [96]. The total charges passed are measured over 6 h by rapid
chloride penetration, and, as a result, the electrical conductance of hardened SCC is evaluated. This method is based on the electrical
conductivity used as an indicator to reveal the resistance of the SCC mix to chloride ion penetration. ASTM C1202 reported five
different performance categories for mixtures according to the charge passed through the specimens as presented in Table 6.
The results obtained from past investigations about the influence of NPs on the rapid chloride penetration of different SCC com­
posites are presented in Fig. 23. The higher values of charge passed indicate a higher chloride penetration for the SCC samples. It is
evident from the results that, regardless of NPs type and SCC composite, the chloride penetration was considerably decreased due to
the addition of NPs. Because of the high reactivity of NS and its reaction with Ca(OH)2, which is leachable in aggressive environments,
additional compact C–S–H gel can be produced which improve the microstrucre of the matrix. Therefore, due to the aforementioned
reasons as reported from previous studies, the addition of NS particles drastically reduced the Chloride penetration of SCC composites.
For instance, Beigi et al., 2013 [12] revealed that due to the incorporation of 6% NS particles to the FRSCC mixtures, the charge passed
dramatically reduced from 1622 coulumbs to 800 coulumbs, which means that the low category was shifted to very low category for
chloride penetration classes. Atewi et al., 2019 [22] also reported that with the addition of 4% NS particles there was about 43%
reduction in the rapid chloride permeability of SCC mixtures. Comparable results regarding the NS particles addition were also re­
ported in the literature [37,71,73,74]. The effect of NT particles was also investigated in the literature [24,73,77]. An experimental

Table 5
Relationship between electrical resistivity and corrosion rate (ACI 222, 2001).

Electrical resistivity (kΩ cm) Corrosion rate

>20 Low
10–20 Low to moderate
5–10 High
<5 Very high

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Fig. 22. Electrical resistivity versus NPs content of different SCC composites and NP types at 90 days curing age.

Table 6
Chloride permeability based on charge passed (ASTM C1202, 200).

Charge passed (Coulombs) Chloride permeability

>4000 High
2000–4000 moderate
1000–2000 Low
100–1000 Very low
<100 negligible

investigation have been carried out by Joshaghani et al., 2020 [24] about the impact of NT particles on the chloride penetration of SCC
mixtures made with 425 kg/m3 binder content and 0.32 water to binder ratio. The authors incorporated NT particles at three different
dosages 0%, 3%, and 5% to replace cement content by weight. They found that the charge passed in coulumbs was reduced from 3450
to 1580 due to the addition of 5% NT particles. Producing a denser microstructure due to the addition of NT and other NPs was the
main reason behind reducing the chloride permeability of SCC composites. Comparable reduction of chloride permeability was also
noticed by other researchers using different NPs such as NA particles [29,73], NF particles [24,37].
Among different NP types, multi-walled CNTs can be considered the most effective type to reduce the chloride permeability and
improve the durability performance of SCCs. In this regard, Barodawala et al., 2019 [48] reported that the incorporation of only 0.5%
of CNTs reduced the charge passed from 1270 coulombs to only 137 coulombs, which means that the mixture containing 0.5% of CNTs
can be considered a negligible category of chloride penetration performance.

6.4. Microstructure
As previously mentioned, the primary mechanism behind improving the performance of SCC composites with the addition of
different NP types is related to microstructure enhancement. Due to the pozzolanic reaction and nanofilling ability of NPs, the
interfacial transition zone (ITZ) and pore structure are considerably improved. Hani et al., 2018 [16] carried out SEM investigations to
examine the effect of different percentages of NS additions (0%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 0.75%) on the microstructure of the SCC composite.
Their results are presented in Fig. 22, which illustrates the microstructure of the ITZ and paste of the mixes containing 0% NS and
0.75% NS. They concluded that, for the mixtures containing 0% NS, the microstructure and ITZ were porous and very weak; the
crystals of C–H and voids are present in the paste with non-homogenous C–S–H gel can be seen in Fig. 24. However, adding 0.75% of
NS particles resulted in a more dense and compact microstructure, including fewer pores and more homogenous C–S–H gel, because of
the transformation of C–H crystals to the additional C–S–H gel due to the pozzolanic reaction of NS particles with C–H crystals. In the
same context, Albakkar and Behfarnia, 2020a [21] also found that the mixtures made with 2% NS contained fewer pores and voids
than the mixture made with 0% NS particles, as shown in Fig. 25.
Moreover, an experimental investigation has been conducted by Dolatabad et al., 2020 [26] about the effect of NS, NT, and NA

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Fig. 23. Charge passed versus NPs content of different SCC composites and NP types at 28 days curing age.

Fig. 24. Microstructure of SCC composites containing (a) 0% NS particles, and (b) 0.75% NS particles [16].

particles on the performance of SCCs. They observed that the improvements in the fresh, mechanical, and durability properties were
directly related to the microstructure enhancements due to the NPs utilization. For example, they revealed that adding NT particles
helped produce more C–S–H gel, which leads to the improvement of all mechanical and durability characteristics. The authors also
noticed that the micropores and C–H crystals were considerably reduced, and more homogenous microstructure was obtained due to

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Fig. 25. Microstructure of SCC composites containing (a) 0% NS particles, and (b) 2% NS particles [21].

the addition of NPs, as shown in Fig. 26.

7. Empirical models among different properties

Since the most important and easily measured property is the compressive strength, other mechanical and durability properties are
directly or indirectly related to compressive strength. Therefore, in this section, the empirical relationships and models among
compressive strength and different properties are developed and proposed to be used by the construction industry efficiently. These
proposed equations and models can be helpful to determine other properties of SCC composites modified with NPs from their known
compressive strength. The effect of the specimen geometry was excluded from the proposed relationships.

7.1. Compressive strength and splitting tensile strength

For proposing an empirical model between the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength, the data extracted from past
studies were plotted in Fig. 27. However, a strong direct relationship between compressive and splitting tensile strength was not

Fig. 26. Microstructure of SCLC composites containing (a) 0% NPs, (b) 4% NS particles, (c) 2% NA particles, and (d) 4% NT particles [26].

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Fig. 27. Empirical relationship between normalized splitting tensile strength and compressive strength of SCC composites modified with NPs.

existed due to the lower R2 value, which is about 0.44. Therefore, normalized values (Splitting tensile strength/Compressive strength)
are used to find a stronger relationship, as shown in Fig. 27. The following model (equation (1)) with R2 equal to 0.65 is proposed to
determine the tensile strength from a known compressive strength regardless of SCC composite and NPs type.
ft
= 0.7773fc (− 0.603)
(1)
fc

where ft and fc are the splitting tensile and compressive strength in MPa of SCC composites made with various NP types, respectively.
′

7.2. Compressive strength and flexural strength

Similar to the previous relationship, a direct relationship between compressive and flexural strength of SCC composites modified
with NPs did not exist. Therefore, normalized flexural strength values were plotted with compressive strength values obtained from
previous studies. A linear relationship (Equation (2)) with R2 value of 0.55 is proposed, regardless of the NP type used, as shown in
Fig. 28.
fr
= − 0.0018fc + 0.2385 (2)
fc

where fr and fc are the flexural and compressive strength in MPa of SCC composites containing various NP types, respectively.
′

7.3. Compressive strength and elastic modulus

A power relationship between normalized values of elastic modulus and the compressive strength also existed with R2 value of
0.675, as illustrated in Fig. 29. The ratio of elastic modulus/compressive strength is significantly reduced with increasing the
compressive strength. The following equation as an empirical formula is proposed for calculating the modulus of elasticity from a
known compressive strength for the SCC composites containing different types of NPs.

Fig. 28. Empirical relationship between normalized flexural strength and compressive strength of SCC composites modified with NPs.

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Fig. 29. Empirical relationship between normalized modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of SCC composites modified with NPs.

Ec
= 108.24fc (− 1.281)
(3)
fc

where Ec and fc are the elastic modulus in GPa and compressive strength in MPa of SCC composites made with various NP types,
′

respectively.

7.4. Compressive strength and water absorption

Generally, the durability tests are time-consuming, and it is not easy to perform in the construction field in many cases. Therefore, it
is crucial to propose empirical relationships to characterize the durability performance of SCC composites modified with NPs from
their compressive strength. In this regard, the following model (Equation (4)) is proposed to evaluate the water absorption from known
compressive strength with R2 value of 0.485, as can be seen from Fig. 30. The ratio of water absorption (%) to compressive strength
(MPa) is considerably reduced by increasing the composite’s compressive strength.
WA
= 429.35fc (− 2.183)
(4)
fc

where WA and fc are the water absorption in (%) and compressive strength in MPa of SCC composites made with various NP types,
′

respectively.

7.5. Compressive strength and chloride permeability

One of the most critical durability evaluations is the chloride permeability performance evaluated by the rapid chloride penetration
test (RCPT). This permeability can be determined by the empirical equation proposed below with R2 value equal to 0.69, as shown in
Fig. 31 for the SCC composites modified with different NP types.
RCP
= 1, 000, 000fc (− 2.748)
(5)
fc

where RCP and fc are the rapid chloride permeability in (coulumbs) and compressive strength in MPa of SCC composites made with
′

various NP types, respectively.

7.6. Compressive strength and electrical resistivity

Opposite to all other relationships, a direct power relationship between electrical resistivity and compressive strength of SCC
composites modified with various NPs exists with an R2 value of 0.5, as shown in Fig. 32. The following equation can be used to
determine the electrical resistivity of different SCC composites regardless of NP types. It is evident from the figure and the equation that
the electrical resistivity is considerably improved with increasing the compressive strength.

ER = 0.0134fc (1.8748) (6)

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Fig. 30. Empirical relationship between normalized water absorption and compressive strength of SCC composites modified with NPs.

Fig. 31. Empirical relationship between normalized RCP and compressive strength of SCC composites modified with NPs.

Fig. 32. Empirical relationship between ER and compressive strength of SCC composites modified with NPs.

33
R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

where ER and fc are the electrical resistivity in (kΩ cm) and compressive strength in MPa of SCC composites made with various NP
′

types, respectively.

8. Modelling the compressive strength of SCC composites modified with NS

As previously mentioned, other mechanical and durability properties can be obtained from the compressive strength (CS) by the
relationships reported in the previous section since CS is the most commonly evaluated property among other properties. Moreover, as
illustrated in Fig. 2, NS particles are the most used NP type in the SCC composites. Therefore, this section is devoted to predicting the
CS of SCC composites modified with NS particles. In this regard, a total of 325 experimental data from previous papers reported in
Table 1were collected and split into three groups. The first and more prominent group comprised 220 datasets that were utilized to
create the models. Each with 52 data points, the second and third groups were utilized to test and validate the models [6,97]. Since the
compressive strength is affected by all mixture ingredients, therefore, to develop the models, several independent variables were
extracted from previously published papers, including NS% content, cement (C) content in kg/m3, w/b ratio, Superplasticizer (SP)
content in kg/m3, fine aggregate (FA) content in kg/m3, coarse aggregate (CA) content in kg/m3, and curing time (t) in days.
The models developed in this paper are used to estimate the CS of SCC and choose the best one that offers a better estimate of CS
concerning the CS from measured data. The following assessment criteria were used to compare the predictions of different models: the
model had to be scientifically accurate, have a more minor percentage error between observed and measured data, have a lower MAE,
RMSE, OBJ, SI, and a higher R2 value.

8.1. Linear regression model (LR)

The linear regression model (LR), as illustrated in Equation (7), is the most general technique for predicting the CS of concrete [98]:
( )
σc = a + b w/c (7)

where, a and b σc and w/c, respectively, denote equation parameters, CS, and water to cement ratio. Other components and variables of
SCC mix adjusted with NS, such as curing time and other mix proportions, are not included in the above equation, although they impact
the CS. Equation (8) is presented to incorporate all different mix proportions and factors that may affect CS to obtain more reliable
scientific findings.
( )
σc = a + b(NS) + c(C) + d w/b + e(t) + f (SP) + g(FA) + h(CA) (8)

where NS stands for nano-silica content (percentage), C stands for cement content (kg/m3), w/b stands for water to binder ratio, t
stands for curing time (days), SP stands for superplasticizer content (kg/m3), FA stands for fine aggregate (kg/m3), and CA stands for
coarse aggregate (kg/m3). Furthermore, the model parameters are a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h. Because all variables may be modified
linearly, the suggested Equation (8) can be an extension of Equation (7). Although all of the numerous variables may impact CS and
interact with one another, this may not always be the case. As a result, to accurately estimate the CS, the model should be updated
regularly [98,99].

8.2. Nonlinear regression model (NLR)

The following Equation (9) may be used to create a nonlinear regression model in general [100,101]. To estimate the CS of typical
SCC mixes and SCC mixtures enhanced with NS, the connection between different variables in Equations (7) and (8) can be expressed
in Equation (9) to estimate the CS.
( / )d ( / )j
σc = a(C)C w b (t)e (SP)f (FA)g (CA)h + b(C)i w b (t)k (SP)l (FA)m (CA)n (NS)o (9)

where: C stands for the cement content (kg/m3), w/b stands for the water to binder ratio (%), t stands for curing time (days), SP stands
for the superplasticizer content (kg/m3), FA stands for fine aggregate (kg/m3), CA stands for the coarse aggregate (kg/m3), and NS
stands for the nano-silica content (%). Moreover, the model parameters are a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, I, j, k, l, m, n, and o, calculated based on
the least square method.

8.3. Multi-logistic regression model (MLR)

The MLR, also a regression procedure, can be employed when the predictable variable has a parameter greater than two stages.
MLR is a statistical approach that is comparable to multiple linear regression. Equation (10) can be used to find the variance between a
predictable variable and independent variables.
( / )d
σc = a(NS)b (C)C w b (t)e (SP)f (FA)g (CA)h (10)

Equation (10), on the other hand, has a drawback in that it cannot be used to forecast the CS of SCC without NS content. As a result,
the NS content in this model should be larger than zero (NS content >0%). The least-square approach was used to find the model
parameters (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h) and model variables.

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

8.4. Assessment criteria for models

Various performance metrics, including the coefficient of determination (R2), Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute
Error (MAE), Scatter Index (SI), and OBJ, were utilized to analyze and assess the effectiveness of the suggested models, which can be
computed using the formulae below:
⎛ ⎞2
∑p ( ′ )( ′)
⎜ t − t y − y ⎟
(11)
p=1 p p
R2 = ⎝√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
[∑ ( ̅⎠
p ) ][∑p (
′ 2
)]
′ 2
p=1 t p − t p=1 y p − y

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√∑ )2̅
p (
p=1 yp − tp
RMSE = (12)
p

∑p ⃒⃒( )⃒⃒
p=1 ⃒ yp − tp ⃒
MAE = (13)
p

RMSE
SI = (14)
t′
( ) ( ) ( )
ntr RMSEtr + MAEtr ntst RMSEtst + MAEtst nval RMSEval + MAEval
OBJ = * + * + * 2
(15)
nall R2tr + 1 nall R2tst + 1 nall Rval + 1

where yp and tp are, respectively, the expected and measured values of the path pattern, and t′ and y′ are the averages of the measured
and forecasted values. Training, testing, and validating datasets are referred to as tr, tst, and val, respectively, and n is the number of
patterns (collected data) in the associated dataset.
Except for R2, the optimum value for all other assessment factors is zero; nevertheless, R2 has the best value of one. When it comes
to the SI parameter, a model has (bad performance) when it is > 0.3, (fair performance) when it is between 0.2 and 0.3, (good per­
formance) when it is between 0.1 and 0.2, and (great performance) when it is less than 0.1 [102,103]. In addition, the OBJ parameter
was employed as an integrated performance parameter in equation (15) to measure the efficiency of the suggested models.

Fig. 33. Comparison between measured and predicted the compressive strength of NS modified SCC mixtures using Linear Regression model (LR) (a) training data, (b)
testing data, and (c) validating data.

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

8.5. Results and analysis

8.5.1. Relationships among forecasted and actual CS
[Link]. The LR model. Fig. 33a, b, and 33c illustrate the relation between forecasted and actual CS of SCC mixes altered with NS for
training, testing, and validating datasets, respectively. According to the model parameters, the w/b ratio and NS content have a
substantial impact on the CS of SCC modified with NS. The weight of each parameter on the CS of SCC altered with NS was calculated
for the current model by optimizing the least square method, and a sum of error squares in Excel using Solver to determine the ideal
value (a specific value, minimum or maximum) for the equation in one cell named the objective cell. The values of other equation cells
in the worksheet were used to set limitations or restrictions on this object cell [104,105]. The following is the equation for the LR model
with various weight parameters (Equation (16)):
σc = 31.743 + 0.991NS + 0.058C − 116.66 w/b + 0.266t + 1.115SP + 0.0046FA + 0.0196CA (16)

The w/b ratio has the most impact on lowering the CS among all factors, as seen in the equation above. This may be consistent with
the experimental findings reported in the literature [16,24,54]. The R2, RMSE, and MAE assessment parameters for this model are
0.877, 5.39 MPa, and 4.77 MPa, respectively. Furthermore, as shown in Figs. 36 and 37, the current model’s OBJ and SI values for the
training dataset are 5.86 and 0.119, respectively.
[Link]. NLR model. Fig. 34a, b, and 34c represent the forecasted compressive strength against actual compressive strength obtained
from experimental programs of SCC mixes enhanced with NS for training, testing, and validating datasets, respectively. According to
this model, the w/b ratio, cement amount, and CA content are the most critical elements that determine the compressive strength of
SCC mixes. Several experimental programs from previous research confirmed this, with reducing the w/b ratio and increasing the
amount of cement considerably improving the compressive strength of SCC mixes [16,24,54,61,68]. The following (Equation (17)) is
the proposed equation for the NLR model with various variable parameters:

( / )− 0.714
σc = 0.00038(C)0.767 w b (t)0.188 (SP)0.058 (FA)0.457 (CA)0.016
( / )− 0.257
+ 266627(C)− 1.247
w b (t)− 0.0203
(SP)0.843 (FA)0.211 (CA)− 1.03
(NS)0.406 (17)

Fig. 34. Comparison between measured and predicted the compressive strength of NS modified SCC mixtures using NonLinear Regression model (NLR) (a) training
data, (b) testing data, and (c) validating data.

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Fig. 35. Comparison between measured and predicted the compressive strength of NS modified SCC mixtures using MultiLinear Regression model (MLR) (a) training
data, (b) testing data, and (c) validating data.

Fig. 36. Comparison between model predictions of compressive strength SCC mixtures modified with NS using all data.

The R2, RMSE, and MAE assessment parameters for this model are 0.76, 7.79 MPa, and 7.17 MPa, respectively. Furthermore, the
current model’s OBJ and SI values for the training dataset are 8.16 and 0.166, respectively.
[Link]. Multi-logistic regression model (MLR). Fig. 35a, b, and 35c demonstrate the comparison of estimated compressive strength
versus actual compressive strength obtained from experimental programs of SCC mixes enhanced with NS for training, testing, and
validating datasets, respectively. As shown in previous research, the most influential parameter that influences the CS of SCC mixes
modified with NS is the w/b ratio, similar to other models [16,54,61]. The following is the created model for the MLR model with
different variable parameters: (Equation (18)):
( / )− 0.748
σc = 0.0309 (NS)0.097 (C)0.341 w b (t)0.164 (SP)0.2 (FA)0.225 (CA)0.313 (18)

The assessment parameters for this model, such as R2, RMSE, and MAE are 0.89, 5.6 MPa, and 4.78 MPa, respectively. Moreover,
the OBJ and SI values for the current model are 5.86 and 0.117 for the training dataset.

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Fig. 37. Variation in predicted values of compressive strength for NS modified SCC mixtures based on three different approaches in comparison to observed values.

Fig. 38. The OBJ values for all developed models.

8.5.2. Comparison between developed models

As previously stated, five distinct statistical techniques were used to evaluate the efficacy of the suggested models: RMSE, MAE, SI,
OBJ, and R2. When comparing the three models, the MLR model has a better R2 and lower RMSE and MAE values than the LR and NLR
models. In addition, using all data, Fig. 36 compares model estimates of CS of NS modified SCC mixtures. Furthermore, Fig. 37 depicts
the residual error for all models that use training, testing, and validating datasets. The predicted and observed compressive strength
values for the MLR model are more closely aligned in both Figures, indicating the MLR model’s more excellent performance when
compared to other models.
Fig. 38 shows the OBJ values for all proposed models. LR, NLR, and MLR have values of 5.86, 8.16, and 5.16, respectively. The LR
and MLR models have a lower OBJ value than the NLR model by 28%. This also shows that the MLR model is more effective at
estimating the CS of SCC mixes modified with NS.
Fig. 39 shows the SI assessment parameter values for the proposed models during the training, validating, and testing stages. The
figure also illustrates that the SI values for all models and stages (training, testing, and validating) were between 0.1 and 0.2, sug­
gesting that all models performed well. However, the MLR model, like the other performance factors, has lower SI values than other
models. The MLR model has a 2% lower SI value than the LR model in the training phase. Furthermore, the MLR model has lower SI
values in all stages than the NLR model, including 42.2% lower SI value in the training phase, 9.5% lower SI value in the testing phase,
and 20.13% lower SI value in the validating phase. This also demonstrated that the MLR model is more economical and performs better
at forecasting the CS of SCC mixes changed with NS than the LR and NLR models.

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

Fig. 39. Comparing the SI performance parameter of different developed models.

9. Economic and environmental assessment of utilizing NPs

In the previous studies, there was a significant gap on direct cost-effectiveness, which may address the construction industry’s real
concern about employing NPs in construction applications. The cost of NPs is regarded as one of the most significant limitations for the
utilization of NPs into the SCC composites. Despite the long-term advantages that may be achieved via using these materials, the initial
investment required has a significant influence on this cost. Because of the complexity of the equipment needed to prepare and
characterize NPs, the prices of equipment and technologies are relatively expensive. Costs are expected to drop over time as production
technology advances and demand rises. The OPC is the most expensive component in traditional SCC (approximately 50 USD per ton)
while NPs are approximately 1000 times more expensive, though the price varies according to type and grade and this could limit of
the commercialization of NPs in SCC [106]. Since the optimum percentage of NPs addition to improve SCCs properties is about 2%,
therefore, the final cost for the production of one cubic meter of SCC can be minimized by optimizing the percentage addition of NPs.
The cost-effectiveness of using NPs in SCC may be determined indirectly from the structures’ durability, service life, and lower
maintenance costs. NPs incorporation in SCC can extend the life cycle of structures and thus reduce the associated life cycle main­
tenance costs. Moreover, some recently produced NPs such as nano fly ash (NFA) and NCKD that obtained from by-product ashes by the
milling process can be an alternative to the other expensive NPs such as NA, NT, NZ, NF, NC and NCA. Because NFA and NCKD are
synthesized by grinding or milling, rather than from molecular precursors, they are cheaper than synthetic NPs by approximately a
factor of 100, though still more expensive than OPC. Additional studies and investigations about naturally occurring or other low-cost
NPs from the waste materials of other industries would improve the potential for financial feasibility. Moreover, with the ongoing
research on the greener and relative low cost production route of precipitated NS from the dissolution of the natural dunite rocks as
well as new sources of waste NS from other processes, NS becomes available in the future for a lower price so that its application in SCC
composites becomes more attractive [107].
Since the use of NPs is growing so quickly, some health protection, and environmental regulations have been swift to issue warnings
about some of the disadvantages of NPs, such as toxicity. Leakage of NPs into groundwater, release into the air through the creation of
dust, and exposure to potentially dangerous compounds during construction and maintenance activities are some of the issues that
might arise. Moreover, NPs can damage the cell function in the human body by directly affecting the cell area, cell proliferation and
cell membrane as these particles can penetrate easily through the cell membrane in the
absence of endocytosis [108]. Among different NP types, NT and NA are considered the most toxic than their macro-sized particles
[109]. However, if NPs are handled properly during transportation and mixing, the health issues can be minimized along with their
optimum utilization in the construction sector. Moreover, suitable safety measures need to be adopted while dealing with the utili­
zation of NPs in the construction industry.

10. Discussion
A complete overview, analysis, and modeling of past studies on this topic is given in this paper. Following are some of the points
that may be made based on the thorough evaluation of research data that has been reported and analyzed:
• After reviewing all of the important and recent studies on applying NPs in SCC composites, it is feasible to infer that SCC nano­
technology’s potential will undoubtedly be the key to a new construction paradigm. Concrete manufacturing is a major source of

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

CO2 emissions, as well as a variety of other pollutants. In this regard, the use of NPs in the SCC should be considered not only for
improving material characteristics such as physical, mechanical, and durability but also for environmental protection and energy
savings.
• From all the NPs presented, NS seems to be the nanomaterial that is more advantageous when production of SCC. Due to its lower
price than other NP types and its higher reactivity, it is the most used NP to produce SCC.
• Since different NPs have different physical and chemical properties when characterized by TEM and XRD patterns, still their impact
on the behavior of SCC composites is relatively similar. It seems that the specific surface-to-volume ratio and particle diameter has
more impacts on the SCC mixtures behavior in terms of fresh, mechanical, and durability performance than the NP type.
• NPs in the SCC usually work in two levels. The first stage is the chemical reaction that occurs when silica reacts with Calcium
Hydroxide in a pozzolanic reaction. This creates more C–S–H gel, the primary component of the tough binder paste’s strength and
density. The higher surface area of pozzolanic particles enhances pozzolanic reactivity, which raises the rate of pozzolanic activity.
Because NPs are roughly 100 times smaller than cement, the second level is a physical effect. It has the capacity to (i) fill residual
spaces in the young and partially hydrated cement paste, (ii) enhance the final density, (iii) reduce porosity and permeability, and
(iv) lower the amount of cement required in the mix.
• Due to the extremely large specific surface area of NPs compared to the cement and other supplementary cementitious materials the
viscosity and cohesiveness of SCC composites significantly increased after adding NPs. Moreover, NPs adsorb large quantity of
water from the mix due to smaller particles and larger surface area, caused the fresh mixtures of SCC composites less workable.
Thus, the flowability and workability related properties of the SCC mixtures modified with NPs are reduced. Since, SCC is char­
acterized by higher workability interms of flowability, passing ability, and filling ability compared to traditional concrete.
Therefore, it is essential for the SCC mixtures to meet the criteria provided by the EFNARC in order to apply for real structural
applications without any compaction or mechanical vibration even with the presence of NPs. To maintain the workability-related
properties of SCC composites modified with NPs, the dosage of SP should be increased. Previous investigations also demonstrated
that, the incorporation of fly ash for the mixtures modified with NPs can improve the rheological performance without increasing
the SP dosage. However, if all variables kept constant, the addition of NPs consumed more water caused to decrease the
workability-related properties of SCC composites. Moreover, the NP addition reduces the bleeding and segregation of SCC com­
posites by producing a more homogeneous mixture with out the need for using viscosity modifying admixtures. It is worth to
mention that, in order for SCC mixtures to meet the workability criteria even with the inclusion of NPs, the addition of fly ash or
increasing the SP dosage and maintaining the constant water content are the best methods for producing a workable, flowable, and
cohesive mixtures. For the constant amounts of NPs content and SP dosage, the partial replacement of cement with fly ash tends to
increase the workability properties of SCC composites, due to the spherical shape particles of fly ash compared to irregular shape
particles of cement.
• The inclusion of NPs resulted in a homogenous microstructure, defined by compact and small-sized C–S–H gel, according to the
microstructural study of the hardened SCC. As a result, a denser ITZ was created. Moreover, the utilization of NPs resulted in a
refinement of the microstructure (fewer interconnected pores and more refined pores) and the precipitation of small-sized C–S–H
gels with greater stiffness and lower CaO/SiO2 ratio.
• Because the pozzolanic gel structure produced by the NPs addition, especially NS, has better mechanical properties than the C–S–H
gel precipitated in traditional SCC, the improved microstructure resulted in higher mechanical resistance (compressive strength,
splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity). Moreover, due to the microstructural densification and
enhanced tortuosity within the pore system, the durability of SCC composites was considerably improved interms of low water
absorption, low chloride penetration, excellent electrical resistance, higher resistance to freezing and thawing cycles, and improved
resistance when exposed to acid and sulphate attacks.
• Since the addition of NPs was positively influenced the mechanical and durability performance of different SCC composites,
however, an optimum percentage for the maximum improvement should be considered. Due to the agglomeration of NPs and poor
dispersion when larger dosages were added, the lower mechanical and durability properties may be obtained. Therefore, it is
essential to find an optimum percentage for different NPs to be used efficiently. The sequence and mixing time also considerably
impact the dispersion of the powdered NPs.
• Since the NS is the most used NP among other types and CS is the most widely investigated property for civil engineering projects.
Therefore, developing mathematical models for predicting the CS is crucial to be used by the construction industry without any
restrictions. The CS of SCC composites modified with NS is affected by interconnected parameters such as NS content, cement
content, w/b ratio, SP content, curing time, FA content, and CA content. Among different models, the MLR regression model can
forecast the CS of SCC modified with NS efficiently compared to other models. Moreover, the proposed equations for different
models depicted that the w/b ratio and curing time are the most influencing variables for the CS prediction of SCC modified with NS
particles.

11. Conclusion and future research

The mechanism relating to the influence of various NPs on the main properties of different SCC composites, including fresh,
mechanical, durability, and microstructure, was presented and discussed in detail in this thorough analysis. The following findings can
be drawn as a result of this comprehensive literature review:

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R.H. Faraj et al. Journal of Building Engineering 50 (2022) 104170

(i) Generally, all NP types were used as cement replacement during the production of different SCC composites, with small per­
centage substitutions mostly lower than 5%.
(ii) Among various types of NPs used in the production of SCC composites, NS is the most common one, in which 65.71% of the
previous studies conducted on this topic used NS particles.
(iii) The fresh properties of SCC composites were reduced with increasing the NP content regardless of their types, which related to
the increasing water demand.
(iv) The mechanical properties were improved when the NPs were added. However, increasing the NP content beyond an optimum
percentage resulted in decreasing strength and other mechanical properties.
(v) The addition of NPs caused an improvement in the durability performance of SCC composites. The probability of corrosion,
water absorption, and chloride penetration was remarkably reduced due to the addition of NPs.
(vi) The empirical relationships among different mechanical and durability properties were developed that can be used to obtain
other properties from a known or predicted CS.
(vii) Among three different modeling approaches (LR, NLR, and MLR), a MLR model can accurately predict the CS compared to other
models, giving higher R2 with lower MAE and RMSE.
(viii) Based on the results obtained, presented, and discussed from previous studies, with the addition of tiny amounts of different
NPs, high-performance, sustainable, and more durable SCC composites can be produced.
The utilization of NPs into the different SCC composites as construction materials has been an ongoing topic for a substantial
number of studies in recent years. However, a limited number of studies have focused on the production of NPs from waste materials.
Therefore, to produce cheaper and sustainable NP types, more research in this regard is highly beneficial. Moreover, the performance
of NPs exposed to fire and elevated temperature required more investigations. Since, with the addition of NPs, the mechanical and
durability performance of SCC composites are significantly improved; therefore, it is highly recommended to incorporate these NPs
into other SCC composites that have lower mechanical and durability performance, such as SCC containing recycled plastic aggregates
and SCC containing crumb rubber aggregates to modify their matrix positively. Finally, for these composites to be used in large-scale
construction projects, the investigations regarding the structural performance (flexural and shear behavior) of these SCC composites
are crucially important.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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