Introduction

to Materials
Science and
Engineering

Lecture 5
 Quiz

- Draw Crystallographic Plane for intercepts 1, 1, ∞ and ½, ∞,

∞.

Good luck
 Materials Definition Examples Properties Applications
Class
Metals Metals are combinations of one or Steel, aluminium, Strong, dense, ductile, Electrical wiring, structures
more "metallic elements," such as titanium iron, gold, electrical and heat conductors, (buildings, bridges), automobiles
iron, gold, or lead. Alloys are metals lead, copper, opaque (body, springs), airplanes, trains
like steel or bronze that combine platinum, brass, (rails, engine components, body,
more than one element, and may bronze, pewter, wheels), shape memory
include non-metallic elements e.g. Solder materials, Magnets
carbon.
Ceramics Ceramic materials are inorganic Structural ceramics, Lower density than metals, Dinnerware, figurines, vases, art,
materials with non-metallic refractories, strong, low ductility (brittle), bathtubs, sinks, electrical and
properties usually processed at porcelain, glass low thermal conductivity, thermal insulation, sewage pipes,
high temperature at some time corrosion resistant floor and wall tile, dental fillings,
during their manufacture abrasives, glass Windows
Polymers A polymer contains many Plastics (synthetic, Low density, poor conductors Fabrics, car parts, packaging
chemically bonded parts or units nylon, liquid crystals, of electricity and heat, materials, bags, packing
that are bonded together to form a adhesives, elastomers different optical Properties materials (Styrofoam*), fasteners
solid. (rubber) (Velcro*), glue, containers,
telephone headsets, rubber
bands
Composites Composites are two or more Fibreglass (glass and a Properties depend on amount Golf clubs, tennis rackets, bicycle
distinct substances that are polymer), plywood and distribution of each type frames, tires, cars, aerospace
combined to produce a new (layers of wood and of material. Collective set of materials, paint
material with properties not glue), concrete properties are more desirable
present in either individual (cement and pebbles) and possible than with any
material. individual material.
Properties
The material's properties respond to the environment. The 7 main engineering
properties are:

• Chemical properties, such as the structural features and composition of the

compounds that make up the material...
• Physical properties such as material adhesion, density, melting ...
• Mechanical properties such as shrinkage, stiffness, hardness ....
• Thermal properties such as heat conduction efficiency ...
• Electrical properties such as electrical conductors ...
• Magnetic properties such as the magnetic field of the material.
• The optical properties such as the scattering of the light, the transparency of the
material ...
 CLASSIFICATION OF
MATERIAL PROPERTY:
 IMPORTANT ENGINEERING
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS

 Mechanical properties  Thermal properties

Density Thermal conductivity
Strength Coefficient of expansion
Hardness Melting point
Ductility
Toughness  Electrical properties
Fatigue resistance Conductivity
Creep
 Optical properties
Transmissivity
 Chemical properties Colour

Reactivity
Combustibility
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:
➢The properties of materials that determines its behaviour under applied
forces are called mechanical properties.

➢They are usually related to the elastic and plastic behaviour of the material.

➢These properties are expressed as the function of stress-strain.etc

➢A sound knowledge of mechanical properties of materials provides the basis

for predicting behaviour of materials under different load conditions and
designing the components out of them.
STRENGTH
A measure of the material’s ability to resist deformation and to maintain its shape.
The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand destruction under the action of
external loads.
It determines the ability of a material to withstand stress without failure.
The maximum stress that any material will withstand before destruction is called
ultimate strength.

High carbon steels and metal alloys have higher strength than pure metals.

Ceramics also exhibit high strengths.

 STRESS –STRAIN
➢Experience shows that any materials subjected to a load may either deform , yield or
break , depending upon-

• The magnitude of load

• Nature of the material
• Cross sectional dimension

➢The engineering stress and strain are based on the original sample dimension which
changes during test.

➢True stress and strain on other hand based on actual or instantaneous dimensions and
are better representation of deformation behaviour of the material.
Types of stresses
Normal
stress

Combined
stress
 Stress
➢ The sum total of all the elementary interatomic forces or internal resistances which the
material is called upon to exert to counteract the applied load is called stress.
➢ Mathematically, the stress is expressed as force divided by cross-sectional area.

Normal stress σ = Force / Area.

Where F or P is the applied normal load in Newton and

A is the area in mm2
 Shear Stress
Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress. It differs to tensile and compressive stresses,
which are caused by forces perpendicular to the area on which they act.
Shearing stress is also known as tangential stress.

• When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across the resisting section, as a result
of which the body tends to shear off the section, then the stress induced is called shear stress (τ), The corresponding
strain is known as shear strain (φ)
• Shear stress, 𝜏 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Where V is the resultant shearing force which passes which

passes through the centroid of the area A being sheared.
 Tortional stress
The stresses and deformations induced in a circular shaft by a twisting moment.
TORSION IS REALLY
A COMBINATION
OF
TENSION,
COMPRESSION,
AND SHEAR
 Strain
 Strain is the dimensional response given by material against mechanical
loading/Deformation produced per unit length.

 Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in dimension caused
by the applied force, to the original dimension.

Mathematically Strain is change in length divided by original length.

Where:
Δ is the deformation and L is the original length, thus the strain is dimensionless.
Types of strain:
• Tensile strain
• Compressive strain
• Shear strain
• Volumetric strain
Tensile strain

It is the ratio of the increase in length to its original length.

Tensile strain = increase in length,(l-l0)/original length,(l0)
Compressive strain

It is ratio of the decrease in length to its original length.

compressive strain = decrease in length,(l0-l)/original length,(l0)
 Shear strain

We can define shear strain exactly the way we do longitudinal strain: the ratio of
deformation to original dimensions.

tan
 Volumetric strain

Volumetric strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the change in volume of
the body to the deformation to its original volume.

Volumetric strain = change in volume/original volume

Stress-
strain
diagram
The curve starts from the origin ‘O’ showing thereby that there is no initial stress or
strain in the test specimen.
Up to point ‘A’ Hooke’s law is obeyed and stress is proportional to strain therefore ‘OA’ is
straight line and point ‘A’ is called the proportionality limit stress.
The portion between ‘AB’ is not a straight line, but up to point ‘B’, the material remains
elastic.

The point ‘B’ is called the elastic limit point and the stress corresponding to that is
called the elastic limit stress.
Beyond the point ‘B’, the material goes to plastic stage until the upper yield point ‘C’ is
reached.
At this point the cross-sectional area of the material starts decreasing and the stress
decreases to a lower value to a point ‘D’, called the lower yield point.
Corresponding to point ‘C’, the stress is known as upper yield point stress.

At point ‘D’ the specimen elongates by a considerable amount without any increase in
stress and up to point ‘E’.
The portion ‘DE’ is called the yielding of the material at constant stress.
From point ‘E’ onwards , the strain hardening phenomena becomes pre-dominant and
the strength of the material increases thereby requiring more stress for deformation,
until point ‘F’ is reached.
Point ‘F’ is called the ultimate point and the stress corresponding to this point is called
the ultimate stress.
It is the maximum stress to which the material can be subjected in a simple tensile
test.
At point ‘F’ the necking of the material begins and the crosssectional area starts
decreasing at a rapid rate.
Due to this local necking the stress in the material goes on decreasing inspite of the
fact that actual stress intensity goes on increasing.

Ultimately the specimen breaks at point ‘G’, known as the breaking point, and
the corresponding stress is called the normal breaking stress bared up to
original area of crosssection.
Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity E

• Hooke's law:- states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is
directly proportional to strain,

σ ∝ ε or σ=E×ε

• 𝐸 =𝜎 / 𝜀 = 𝑃.𝑙 / 𝐴.Δ𝑙
E is the slope of
the plot in the
elastic region
 Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
• It has been found experimentally that within the elastic limit, the shear stress
is directly proportional to shear strain.

Mathematically

τ∝φ or τ=G.φ or τ/φ=G

• Where, τ = Shear stress,
• φ = Shear strain,
• G = Constant of proportionality, known as shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.
3/11/2015
9
ELASTICITY:
 The property of material by virtue of which deformation caused by applied load
disappears upon removal of load.
Elasticity of a material is the power of coming back to its original position after
deformation when the stress or load is removed.

Elastic means reversible.

PLASTICITY:

 The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some degree of permanent

deformation without rupture or failure.
Plastic deformation will take only after the elastic limit is exceeded
It increases with increase in temperature.

Plastic means permanent.

STRESS STRAIN CURVE SHOWS ELASTICITY AND
PLASTICITY FOR MATERIALS:
DUCTILITY:

➢ It is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation without fracture.

It is the property of a material which enables it to draw out into thin wires.
E.g., Mild steel is a ductile material.
The percent elongation and the reduction in area in tension is often used as emperical
measures of ductility.
➢ There are two common measure of ductility:-
1). Percentage elongation:-% elongation describes the extent to which specimen structure
before repture.
% elongation = Lf-Lo/Lo*100
Where, Lf= final gauge length
Lo = initial gauge length
2). Percentage reduction:- % reduction is a measure % change in cross sectional area at point
of fracture before and after the test.
% reduction =Af-Ao / Ao*100
where,
Af= final cross sectional area
Ao= initial cross sectional area
➢ The amount of ductility is an important factor when considering forming operations
such as rolling and extrusion. Ductility is also used a quality control measure to assess
the level of impurities and proper processing of a material.
➢ For ductile material, breaking strength is less than UTS ,and necking precedes fracture.
➢ For brittle material, fracture usually occur before necking and possibly before the onset
of plastic flow.