CHAPTER 1

ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

The matter of our universe consists of elementary particles. Bodies - whether it be

our own body or a star - are systems of elementary particles differing iIi their number
and degree of organization. The existence of elementary particles - also called
fundamental particles - must therefore be felt in all phenomena in the universe. The
physics of elementary particles offers a deeper understanding and a more profound
insight into the structure and evolution of individual bodies like atoms, molecules,
crystals, rocks, planets, stars, stellar systems, and the whole universe. That is why the
study of elementary particles is of fundamental importance for contemporary physics
in general and for astrophysics in particular.

1.1. Properties
We can never see elementary particles and never hope to describe them in a familiar
way. We can only see the tracks they leave behind - tiny black clumps of silver in a
photographic emulsion (Figure 1.5), bubbles of gas in rapidly expanded liquid
hydrogen (Figure 1.1) a brief flash of light in a scintillator or a spark in a spark
chamber. Enormous quantities of experimental material have been accumulated and
interpreted theoretically in terms of particle properties.
Some of the properties are extensions of concepts from classical mechanics (e.g.
mass, energy, electrical charge), while others stem from relativistic mechanics
(proper time, proper length). Modern theory (quantum mechanics) had to introduce
supplementary concepts (like spin, leptonic charge, baryonic charge, isotopic spin,
strangeness, parity, quantum of action, annihilation, pair production, Pauli exclu-
sion, wave-particle duality) to describe properties and behavior of elementary
particles.
A set of numbers characterizes each particle, differentiates it from the other
particles, and describes its properties. Some properties are constant and characteris-
tic of the particle (rest mass, electric charge, spin, leptonic charge, baryonic charge,
strangeness, isotopic spin, parity) while others are related to the surrounding world
(momentum, angular momentum, total energy).

1.1.1. MASS

Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. It determines the magnitude of gravitational

force (e.g. its weight) and is a measure of resistance to acceleration by any force (that

J. Kleczek, The Universe

© D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland 1976
2 CHAPTER 1

is to say inertia). The mass of elementary particles is very small. Therefore they may
be easily accelerated to velocities much higher than those we know from practical
experience with relatively much more massive bodies. Particles with zero mass (such
as photons) move with the highest velocity, i.e. the velocity of light, immediately after
their birth.
The lightest particle with non-zero mass is the electron. Its mass, me = 9 X 10-28 g,
is often used as the unit for measuring masses of all the other particles. The mass of
the proton is mp = 1836 me, and that of the neutron, mn = 1838.6 me. Masses and
other characteristic values for elementary particles may be found in Figure 1.3.

1.1.2. ENERGY

The concept of energy has been used since about 1700 when it was called facultas
agendi which means capacity of a body for doing work. It may have different forms
such as kinetic, thermal, electric, chemical, gravitational, nuclear, radiative and rest
energy of mass. Its total amount remains the same although it changes its form like an
actor on stage. Due to its great variability it governs the whole hierarchy of the
universe, determines structure in space and evolution in time of all bodies and
systems, from elementary particles up to clusters of galaxies. The great diversity of
energy transformation may be reduced however to a few interactions of elementary
particles as will be discussed in Chapter 2.
A particle with rest mass mo moving with velocity v in a reference system (e.g. the
walls of a laboratory, satellite, Sun, center of Galaxy) has an energy
2
E= moe (1.1)

Jl-~
For small velocities Equation (1.1) reduces to
(1.2)
and at rest
2
E=moc. (1.3)
The term moc 2 is the rest energy and!- mov 2 in Equation (1.2) is the kinetic energy of
the moving particle. A particle with kinetic energy comparable to its rest energy is
called a relativistic particle. The velocity of a relativistic particle is an appreciable
fraction ofthe velocity of light. While the total energy (Equation (1.1) or (1.2» of the
moving particle depends on its motion relative to its surroundings, the rest energy
(Equation (1.3» is a characteristic independent of motion. Equation (1.3) expresses
the equivalence of energy and mass. When a system of particles (a body) has lost
energy L1E, then according to Equation (1.3) its mass has decreased by Llm = L1E/c 2 •
The process of squeezing out energy from matter by mass decrease is of interest not
only for astronomers but for any inhabitant of the Earth. The chemical processes
 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 3

(such as burning of fossil fuels) are very inefficient, because they lead to a relative
decrease t1m/m of only 10- 10 or so. Nuclear reactions (such as those in stars) are
more efficient because the relative mass decrease is of the order of 10-3 • By a
gravitational contraction of a star even a few tenths of its rest energy may be released.
However, the most efficient process is annihilation of matter and antimatter with
complete conversion of the rest energy into radiation. Particles associated with
radiation, i.e. photons, have zero rest mass.

1.1.3. MOMENTUM

The momentum of a particle with mass mo and velocity v is

mov

Jl- ~2
p= 2 (1.4)

which for small velocities v« c reduces to the classical expression p = mov. A relation
between energy and momentum

E2 2 2 2
2=P +moc (1.5)
c

follows from Equations (1.1) and (1.4). For zero-mass particles

E
p=-. (1.6)
c
Conservation of momentum and energy applied to the decay of particles has allowed
determination of their mass.

1.1.4. SPIN

Particles have their own angular momentum called spin. It is an intrinsic property
and cannot be changed. We visualize the spin as gyroscope rotation. Conservation of
angular momentum in decay or production reactions permits the determination of
! !
the spin of involved particles. Its values may be 0, Iii, 21i for bosons or Ii, Ii for
fermions. The unit of spin is Ii = h/27r = 1.05 X 10-27 g cm 2 s-1. For a particle with
spin j its angular momentum around some axis is restricted to integrally separated
numbers from - j to +j. For example a particle with spin j =! may be found in a
magnetic field with angular momentum or or ! ! -! or -! and no other value is
possible.
Particle's are divided in two groups according to spin: fermions with half-integer
spin (at the left in Figure 1.3) and bosons with integer spin (right part of the figure).
The behaviour of fermions is governed by the Pauli principle which leads among
other things to degeneration of very dense matter, e.g. in white dwarfs.
4 CHAPTER 1

1.1.5. ELECTRIC CHARGE

Electric charge is an important characteristic of elementary particles, but its true

nature is not yet known. Some particles bear a positive charge (e.g. proton), others
are negatively charged (e.g. electron) and the rest have no charge (e.g., neutron,
neutrino, photon). The quantity of charge -1.6 x 10- 19 coulomb - is the smallest,
indivisible and natural unit of electricity, attributed with incredible precision to all
charged particles irrespective of the other properties like mass, spin, etc. If a
difference should be found, then it must be less than 10- 17 of the electron charge.
Electric charge is the source of electric forces in the surrounding space i.e. of the
electrostatic field. When in motion it gives rise to magnetic forces (magnetic field). If
accelerated it emits photons, quanta of the electromagnetic field.
Electric charge Q is conserved in all processes (JQ = 0). It cannot be destroyed
nor created. This explains why an electron left by itself cannot decay into a lighter
particle: there exists none with electric charge.

1.1.6. BARYONIC NUMBER

The heavy particles (in the upper left corner of Figure 1.3) are called baryons. Left to
themselves the baryons decay. The only stable baryon is the proton. If it decays at all
then its lifetime should be longer than 1022 yr as shown by experiments. Such
processes as
or (1.7)
have never been observed, though they are energetically possible and the electric
charge would be conserved. In all observed processes the number of baryons is
always conserved. To describe the baryon conservation the baryonic number N has

p::
been introduced:
for baryons (proton, neutron, hyperons)
for antibaryons (antiproton, antineutron, antihyperons)
NYO for all other particles (mesons and leptons)

~>+1 for nuclei (N equal to mass number A)

\<-1 for anti nuclei.

The conservation law is then

.1N=O (1.8)
which means that the sum of baryonic numbers is not changed by any process. The
conservation law (Equation (1.8)) explains the stability of protons: there exists no
lighter baryon than the proton. Experiments (with a very large number of protons)
have shown that if the proton decays - its lifetime must be longer than 1022 yr, that is
10 12 times longer than the age of the universe.
 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 5

1.1. 7. LEPTONIC NUMBER

The leptonic number has been introduced for similar reasons. Leptons are light
fermions and leptonic number I is defined

/+1 for leptons (electron, muon, neutrino)

1 - 0 for non-leptons (baryons and bosons)
~-1 for antileptons (positron, positive muon, antineutrino)

The conservation law for leptonic number is then expressed as

111 = o. (1.9)

The sum of all the I before a reaction equals the sum of I's afterwards. For example,
materialization of high energy photons y
- +
y-+e +e (1.10)

conserves the leptonic number, because 1 of an electron (e-) is plus one and of a
positron (e +) is minus one.
Experiments with Na I give the lower limit for lifetime of electrons: if they decay at
all, then after more than 10 17 yr.

1.1.8. ISOSPIN

The strong interaction of nucleons in a nucleus does not depened on electric charge.
Proton-proton, neutron-neutron and neutron-proton interactions are all alike.
There is not much difference between neutral and charged nucleons. The difference
is expressed by the isospin.
Figure 1.3 shows that particles may be grouped into multiplets, such as p and n;
1:+, .Eo and 1:-; 17"+, 17"0 and 17"-. Particles of the same multiplet have the same spin,
the same baryonic number and approximately the same mass, but their electric
charge is different. The multiplet can be considered as different states of the same
particle. By similarity with optical multiplets a new quantum number I (isospin,
isotopic spin, isobaric spin) for particle multiplets is introduced.
To determine isospin e.g., for nucleons we move the charge origin in Figure 1.3
to the middle, viz. to +e/2. Then a new charge is assigned to the neutron and proton,
viz. -e/2 and +e/2, respectively, just as the Pauli spin has two projections -h/2 and
+h/2. A multiplet with isotopic spin I has (21 + 1) different charge states. The
nucleonic doublet with isospin 1=1 is in fact one particle called a nucleon, which
exists in two charge states viz. as proton and neutron. The proton has isospin state
+1, while the neutron has isospin state -1. Another example is the pion, which may
exist in three different charge states (pi plus, pi zero, pi minus) and therefore 1= 1.
There is of course a fundamental difference between spin, which is a vector in
ordinary space, and isospin, which is a vector in an artificial three-dimensional charge
space. Spin characterizes angular momentum while isospin corresponds to electric
charge.
6 CHAPTER 1

1.1.9. STRANGENESS

Strangeness has been introduced to explain a strange behavior of hyperons and K

mesons. These particles are produced by strong interactions and decay by weak
interactions. The hyperons were always observed to be created with K mesons (K+ or
KO but never K-). The creation in collisions of hadrons is very fast, which is
characteristic for strong interactions. For example:

TT+ +p~.r+ +K+

TT- +p~Ao+Ko (1.11)

TT+ +p~ :Ef1+K+ +K+.

Strangeness cannot be measured directly. It may be found for the multiplets in Figure
1.3. The charge center of the multiplet is shifted by a certain amount with respect to
the charge center of the nucleon doublet or pion triplet. The strangeness S is then
° i
equal to the double shift. Thus for A the charge shift is - so that its S = -1; also for
.r hyperons S = -1; for E doublet the shift is -1 and S = -2 while the strangeness of
the proton and neutron is zero. For K+Ko doublet the shift with respect to the pion
triplet is +i so that the strangeness of kaons is + 1, while for pions S = O.
Particles with strangeness different from zero are called strange particles. They are
created in a very short time ( _10- 23 s) and their strangeness is conserved

.1S=O. (1.12)

This may be seen in reactions (1.11), for example

TT+ +p~ :Ef1+K+ +K+}

with S (1. 11 a)
0+0=-2+1+1.

The reaction is allowed because strangeness is conserved. On the other hand

~+ +TT +
TT + +p~"" }
with S
0+0¥-1+0

is forbidden because Equation (1.12) does not hold.

Decay of strange particles violates Equation (1.12) and is therefore very slow, with
decay time ;310- 10 s, which is typical for weak interactions. To be specific:

I+_P+7T O }
withS (1.13)
-1¥0+0

where strangeness is not conserved. The decay occurs via weak interactions.
 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 7

1.1.10. PARITY

Parity is another property of elementary particles which corresponds to mirror

reflection of space coordinates. It is a symmetry property of a wave function. It may
be either plus or minus if the wave function is unchanged by reflection or changed
(i.e., even or odd). Parity is conserved in strong and electro-magnetic interactions
and violated in weak interactions.

1.2. Antiparticles
It follows from the principles of relativity and quantum mechanics that to each
particle there should exist an antiparticle with the same mass and the same spin. The
other quantum numbers (electric charge, isospin, strangeness, baryonic number,
leptonic number) have the same magnitude as for normal particles but the sign is
reversed. The relation of particles and antiparticles is seen in Figure 1.3. It should be
stressed that it is quite arbitrary to call electrons, protons, and neutrons particles
rather than antiparticles; it is however more natural to consider ourselves (and the
environment we live in) as consisting of matter rather than of antimatter.
For reasons of clarity, the matter of which our environment consists is called
koinomatter, as opposed to antimatter, which consists of antiparticles.
The laws of conservation are valid for reactions involving particles and antiparti-
cles. For example:
p+p~p+n+p+p+7T+

electric charge + 1 + 1 = + 1 + 0 + 1 -1 + 1 0.14)

baryonic number + 1 + 1 = + 1 + 1 + 1 - 1 + 0

where p denotes antiproton.

Two processes have to be mentioned when talking about antimatter: annihilation
(Figure 1.1) and pair production. A particle and its antiparticle annihilate in mutual
collision and their energy is converted into photons or mesons. For example:

(1.15)

and

(1.16)

with energy 0.5 MeV for each photon in Equation (1.15) and 938 MeV for each of
the photons in Equation (1.16).
Pair production (materialization) is a reverse process to annihilation. It is the
formation of a particle and its antiparticle from a photon with sufficiently high
energy. The pair production occurs through electromagnetic interaction of the
8 CHAPTER I

Figs. 1.1 a-b. An antiproton p enters from the top into a liquid hydrogen chamber (Saclay/Ecole
Polytechnique, Paris). The antiproton annihilates with a proton in point A. In the annihilation mesons KO,
K- and 7T + as well as a 7T O are formed. The latter cannot be observed directly and is found by kinematic
"I'
analysis of the event. The KO decays in B into 7T + and 7T -, the 7T + decays in C, giving p.. + and (Equation
°
(1.25»; the p.. + decays atDintoe +, "e' iiI' according to Equation (2.6). The K- interacts in E , giving A and
°
7TO• The A decays in F into a proton, which stops in G and a 7T - . The 7T O is not seen since it is neutral and
can leave no track. The 7T + produced in A scatters on a proton in H (CERN).

photon (or a high-energy particle) with the field of an atomic nucleus or other particle
(Figure 1.2). Another way of pair creation is through the de-excitation of an excited
nucleus (the so called internal pair production) . The best known example of pair
production is the creation of an electron-positron pair in the field of an atomic
nucleus N:

(1.17)
 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 9

Fig.l.1b.

The photon energy must exceed the combined rest energies of the produced particles
i.e. 1 Me V. By analogy
y+p~ n+1T+ (y energy> 140 MeV) (1.18)

y + N ~ N + P + P(y energy;2; 2 Ge V) (1.19)

y+y~ v+iI. (1.20)

Antiparticles are produced in large particle accelerators and generally in any place
where high energy particles occur, e.g., cosmic ray particles in the terrestrial
atmosphere, in interstellar space, in the Crab nebula, etc. But one still does not know
10 CHAPTER 1

Figs. 1.2a-b. Annihilation of an antiproton p arriving from below (track C) with a proton of the liquid
hydrogen (point A). Five particles are produced by the annihilation reaction: 'IT +, 'IT -, 'ITo and two gamma
photons. The gamma photons have enough energy for electron-positron pair formation in points D.
Another process occurs in point B, where a particle in the bubble chamber at E, collides with a hydrogen
nucleus (CERN).
 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 11

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
'1
I
I
I
I
I
I
10

~
C E
Fig.1.2b.

whether antimatter exists in large quantities in our universe. Unfortunately a photon

emitted by matter is the same as photon emitted by antimatter, so that by observing
only electromagnetic radiation one cannot decide whether a star consists of normal
matter (koinomatter) or antimatter. Neutrinos seem more promising in this respect:
stars of koinomatter should be sources of neutrinos, while antistars are sources of
antineutrinos. The sensitivity of present-day neutrino detectors is several orders of
magnitude too low, however, to decide whether antimatter exists in large enough
quantities to be important for the structure and evolution of the universe.
12 CHAPTER 1

It is probable that many antiparticles existed in the very early phase of the history
of the universe (see Chapter 5). But it is not known whether the number of particles
was equal to the number of antiparticles or whether there was a slight asymmetry in
favor of particles. The antimatter might have played an important role in the universe
because its annihilation with koinomatter is the most effective mechanism for
extracting the rest energy from material bodies.

1.3. System of Elementary Partides

The grouping of elementary particles according to their mass (or rest energy), spin,
electric charge, baryonic number and leptonic number is represented in Figure 1.3.
Resonance particles with lifetimes of about 10-23 s are not listed. They decay
strongly into hadrons, which may also be unstable. Their lifetime is so short that even
if they moved with the velocity of light, they would cover only a distance comparable
with the diameter of the atomic nucleus. They are not detected directly; one
recognizes their existence from peaks in experimental plots representing cross
section against energy of the bombarding particle. Though the study of resonance
particles occupies many laboratories in the world; their nature is not yet completely
understood. Are they entities similar to other elementary particles (e.g. excited states
of baryons and mesons)? We could extend Figure 1.3 by adding resonances, but they
are too many; it is not yet sure whether they are really elementary, and finally it does
not seem that they are important in the structure of the universe and its evolution.
Baryons are heavy particles represented in the upper left corner of Figure 1.3. The
group of baryons consists of two nucleons (proton and neutron) and hyperons
(A 0, .I+, 1;0, 1;-, :Ff1, S-, !r). Nucleons, being constituents of atomic nuclei, are the
most abundant baryons in the observable universe. Hyperons - heavier baryons - are
unstable under normal conditions; they are produced by collisions of cosmic ray
particles with atmospheric or interstellar atoms or by large accelerators (Figure 1.1).
Due to their instability hyperons would be rare guests in the universe - if it were not
for the highly condensed matter in degenerate stars (hyperon stars). There the Pauli
principle forbids decay of hyperons, so that they are stable particles (see Part 3). But
until now there is no estimate for the amount of hyperon matter in our Galaxy or
elsewhere in the universe.
The baryons and baryon resonances appear to be different exited states of one
particle only. In some very strong interactions they are really divested of all
differences and appear as one baryon particle. The left upper part of Figure 1.3
resembles a diagram of energy levels from atomic spectroscopy. In a similar manner
the four lepton particles (electron e-, muon IL -, neutrino Ve and neutretto v,..) are
sometimes considered to be different states of the same particle - the lepton.
Bosons are field quanta with integer spin (0, 1,2 in units h = h/2-rr, where h is the
Planck constant 6.6 x 10-27 erg s). Each field is produced by a source (see Chapter 2)
but it can propagate independently from the source, in the form of field quanta when
 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES I3

FERMIONS BOSONS

BARYONS LEPTONS

ANTI BARYONS BARYONS ANTI- J

LEPTONS LEPTONS

Charge -1 I
o +1 -1 0 +1 +1 0 -1 - 1 0 +1

Spin
\. _------.v-----------"
.....
1/ 2
) \" y
0 ·1 ' 2
}

Baryon '---,---I
+1 0 0 0 0
number
Lepton
number
o 0 -1 +1 0 0

Fig. 1.3. Elementary particles classified according to their mass (leptons, mesons, baryons), spin (bosons
and fermions), electric charge, baryon number and lepton number. Mesons and baryons are strongly
interacting particles (hadrons) . Baryons are subdivided into stable nucleons and unstable hyperons. No
resonances are represented. The intermediate boson (W+ and W- ) and the graviton are hypothetical
particles.
14 CHAPTER 1

Figs. 1.4a-b. This photograph shows a reaction in which a neutretto (A) strikes at (B) a nucleon of the
chamber liquid, producing several gamma photons (C). The photons in turn produce electron-positron
pairs (D) and above all a positive pion (H) and a negative pion (E). White rings (F) are due to the flashes
which light up the inside of the chamber. The curvature of the charged particles in this and other
photographs is caused by the Lorentz force; the bubble chamber is placed into a magnetic field (CERN).

the source is accelerated. The field quanta sometimes carry electric charge (1T +, 1T-,
K+, K-), strangeness (K+, KO), angular momentum, isospin or even rest mass
(mesons).
Gravitons are hypothetical particles with a spin 2, which have not yet been
observed, due to their very weak effects.
Photons are quanta of electromagnetic fields. They are produced by accelerated
charged particles, above all by the lightest ones - electrons. For example:
(1.21)
 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 15

Fig.l.4b.

Two particles in our table viz. IO and 7T 0 decay spontaneously into photons:

(1.22)

(1.23)

Photons have zero mass, spin 1 and always move with the highest velocity c =
3x10 1O cms- l •
Pions (7T mesons) and kaons (K mesons) are quanta of nuclear fields. They have no
spin but they carry mass and charge, in contrast to photons and gravitons. Their
source are baryons. They are emitted when a baryon is strongly accelerated or by a
decay of hyperons, as for example (Figure 1.5):

(1.24)
16 CHAPTER 1

The mesons themselves decay into leptons and y quanta:

+ +
1T ~ f.L+ VjL
1T - ~ f.L - + iijL

1T o ~ 2y (1.25)
KO~1T+ +1T-

KO ~ 1To+ 1T + + 1T - etc.
There are other different ways of meson decay.

---
... .....-- ... ~ .

.,
.- "",-.
~
. ~-,
• . . •• -# ..

, ~ .
} ...
.

Fig. 1.5. Decay of a A -hyperon into a proton (the full track to the right) and a 1T --meson (interrupted
track to the left). The charged particles ionize atoms of grains in a special (nuclear) emulsion and leave a
latent image of the particle track (Decay Equation 1.24).

For the sake of completeness one should mention the heavy boson or W -boson - a
hypothetical field particle for weak interactions. Its mass should be larger than the
mass of the K meson, otherwise the heavy boson would be produced by the decay of
the kaons.
A detailed discussion of field quanta and forces in the universe will be found in
Chapter 2.

Summary
Elementary particles are fundamental units for the structure of the universe.
According to their rest mass they are classified as baryons (heavy particles), leptons
(light particles) and mesons (medium weight particles). Mesons belong to a group of
field particles, bosons, which are produced by baryons and leptons, either by
acceleration or decay.
The particles important for the structure of the universe are ordered in Figure 1.3.
Short-lived resonances are not included. All the resonances and many of the particles
listed in the table are unstable - they decay into lighter and stable particles. While the
number of unstable particles is still growing through new discoveries, the list of the
few stable particles does not change.
 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 17

Most and possibly all elementary particles may be created by materialization of

energy. The minimum amount of energy E required for production of a group of
particles with total mass m follows from the equivalence equation E = me 2 •
Under high densities unstable particles (such as neutrons, hyperons, mesons)
acquire stability. On the other hand stable particles (e.g., electrons, protons) may be
destroyed in mutual collisions with their antiparticles. Nothing in the material
universe has a secure existence, if the stable fundamental units do not have a secure
existence.