Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

Semester: Spring 2024

Course: Curriculum Development
(8603)

NAME:
ID:
PROGRAM BEd
SEMESTER SPRING 2024
 ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q. 1 Analyze different definitions of curriculum and
discuss the main principles of curriculum development
based on these definitions.

Answer

Introduction

What should be taught at school has been a critical inquiry for many
relevant stakeholders in education. Another important query is what a
country intends to produce or what the objective of education is.
According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2013), the objective of education is
to enable the citizens of a country to mobilize upwardly and to reconstruct
the society. Whenever there is reconstruction, there is a development of
society, which in turn needs the change in education or curriculum (Wiles
& Bondi, 2015). In my opinion, the objective of education is for the
survival and growth of the citizens of a country, emphasizing their ability
to be competitive and mutually beneficial in the locality and beyond.

The goals of education are controversially divided into four

characteristics: vocational, social, intellectual, and personal (Kovin,
2018). Kovin contended that the purposes of schooling/curriculum, the
sub-sect of education, include three interrelated elements: political
development, social development, and economic development. Notably,
social changes and the growing body of knowledge of individuals have
resulted in changing curriculum, especially new visions of school
purposes (Wiles & Bondi, 2015). Once these new visions develop,
curriculum would be arranged, organized, and translated (Wiles & Bondi,
2015; Zais, 1976). Many educators may have wondered what a curriculum
is and how to effectively and successfully manage it to accomplish
educational goals.
This article aims to define curriculum and curriculum management,
illustrate three types of curriculum based on the author’s conviction, and
offer a definition of curriculum management.

There is no perfect single definition of “curriculum.” According to Wiles

& Bondi (2015), curriculum is like a “racecourse” because learners begin
from the starting point till the end-point of a program. Given that learners
can learn from everywhere not only from print documents or from school,
the definition of curriculum should not just be a product or an experience.
In the past, it was everything learnt in the program, including course
guides, syllabi, or textbooks. Now curriculum can be seen as a plan for
learning, visionary aspects, the intended purpose of education in society,
and the process of structuring the curriculum itself (Wiles & Bondi, 2015).

A broader meaning of curriculum refers to:

Plan of action for learners (such as content, structure of chapters of the

book, etc.)

Field of study (process and procedure, such as “curriculum development

and curriculum change”) (Zais, 1976).

Taba (1962, as cited in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2013) tried to compromise

the definitional concept of curriculum as aspects of the learning process,
curriculum development activities, and specific methods of teaching.
Curriculum, according to Caswell & Campbell (2006), refers to a planned
program of studies and “hidden curriculum” as well as all educational
experiences learners encounter under the auspices of the school, which
has been well taken by many curriculum specialists.

The four intertwined components of curriculum are objectives, contents,

organization, and evaluation (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2013, 2018; Wiles &
Bondi, 2015). Curriculum has currently become the field of study which
concerns various curriculum development process such as analysis,
design, implementation, and evaluation, all of which are also under the
purview of curriculum management.

Types of curriculum

Different types of curriculum have been designed and developed, namely

a content-based curriculum, discipline-based curriculum, student-based
curriculum, standard-based curriculum, competency-based curriculum,
outcome-based curriculum, and the like with their different purposes in
education (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2013, 2018; Wiles & Bondi, 2015).
However, I would categorize them into three types: the intended,
implemented, and attained curriculum, each of which will be explained
below.

Intended curriculum is initially associated with the educational policy or

educational purposes (from macro/national to micro/school levels) and
with the first and second components of curriculum objective
identification and content selection/organization as well as curriculum
analysis and design. The curriculum leaders must make the intended
curriculum or innovation clear and uncomplicated because not many
people are willing to do new things if they are not precise. Truly, it is
common that no one is interested in encountering complicated process in
their professions. To make people welcome the innovation, they need to
understand its worth, usability, and quality.

Regarding the implemented curriculum, it requires the actual

implementers, mostly responsible instructors, to fully understand it before
delivering the contents or organizing learning experiences. In education,
various stakeholders such as faculty members, administrators, students,
consultants, supervisors, principals, state employees, university
instructors, parents, lay citizens, and political officials can involve in
curriculum implementation. Each bears diverse responsibilities. For
example, a school principal may take a leading role in revising the old
vision, missions, or strategic plans to align them with the new educational
goals of education at the national level. Faculty members can form a
committee to provide support, train responsible curriculum implementers,
and communicate with them. To successfully implement a curriculum, it
is more than just submitting new courses and materials. It needs
committees and their active involvement thorough planning and
engagement of teachers (who also need supports) and other key players.
The trust from the community is also needed.

Implementers or school leaders can gather data and reflect on the success
or effectiveness of the innovation through monitoring and evaluation.
This process is called attained curriculum. In reality, evaluation is not a
one-off approach, for curriculum development is recursive and demands
a continuous, cyclical formative and summative assessment.

Curriculum management and educational management

Management is literally defined as “the process of dealing with or

controlling things or people” (Oxford Living Dictionary, 2018). In the
educational context, though management, leadership and/or
administration are used interchangeably, they have been used in different
parts of the globe. For example, Britain, Europe, and Africa tend to use
“management”, yet Australia, Canada and the United States seem to
prefer “administration” (Bush, 2006, 2011). To manage an educational
institution, school leaders face numerous challenges, including the
balance of advanced/cognitive tasks designed to foster the performance of
faculty staff, students, and schools; habitual operations; and lower order
responsibilities or tasks.

According to Sapre (2002, p. 102), “Management is a series of actions

and tasks relevant to highly well-organized and effectual application of
resources within the organization in order to attain organizational
objectives.” Cutbert (1984, as cited in Ghasemi, 2006, p. 14) categorized
educational management theories into five groups: “analytic-rational,
pragmatic-rational, political, phenomenological, and interactionist
models”, while Bush (2011, p. 2) raised four theoretical elements of
educational management categorized under six clusters: “formal,
collegial, political, subjective, ambiguity and cultural models”.

In light of these categorizations, knowing and understanding the function

of educational management provides educators with the concepts and
strategies on how to administer the curriculum, control the process, and/or
deal with people involving in implementing the curriculum in an
educational organization.
Curriculum development and its process are part of curriculum
management which has four essential components: analysis, design,
implementation, and evaluation. According to Sawekngam (2017), threats
or matters affecting the curriculum development are problems from the
stakeholders (teachers, students, managers/ responsible supervisors in an
organization, experts in the field, parents, and the community); problems
of the curriculum development process (policy, command, political
intention, preparedness of resources, expenditure, supports, follow-up
processes, curriculum evaluation, economy, cultures, technology,
changes in society); and other influential factors (stages of determining
goals and subject matters as well as experiences; stages of curriculum
implementation, including understanding the curriculum and prospective
materials and contacting relevant personnel; stages of curriculum
evaluation; and stages of curriculum improvement and change).

Thus, curriculum management takes all sorts of crucial stages in the

curriculum field, including the curriculum development process,. In this
respect, curriculum stakeholders need to study the entire educational
institution and consider the needs of a society; educational policies;
schools’ vision, missions, and goals; the curriculum framework and its
model; the curriculum design, process, and evaluation; and the results of
students’ learning.

Principles of Curriculum Development: A Multifaceted Approach

The various definitions of curriculum inform different principles for its

development. Let's explore some key principles:

Focus on the Learner:

Child-Centered: Building on the "planned learning experiences" and

"student-centered" definitions, this principle emphasizes tailoring the
curriculum to students' needs, interests, and learning styles.

Totality of Experiences: Considering the "educational program"

definition, this principle ensures the curriculum encompasses all learning
experiences, both inside and outside the classroom.

Content and Design:

Balance and Integration: Derived from the "course of study" and

"content-oriented" definitions, this principle ensures a balanced
curriculum that integrates different subjects and skills.
Relevance and Utility: This principle, rooted in the "societal influence"
definition, emphasizes the importance of curriculum content being
relevant to students' lives and preparing them for future endeavors.

Flexibility and Evaluation:

Adaptability and Differentiation: Considering the ever-changing world

and student needs, the curriculum should be flexible to accommodate
diverse learning styles and allow for differentiation of instruction.

Goal-Oriented and Measurable: Drawing on the "goal-oriented"

definition, curriculum development should define clear learning goals and
incorporate methods to measure student progress and curriculum
effectiveness.

Additional Considerations:

Community Engagement: The curriculum can reflect the local

community's values and resources, fostering a sense of belonging and
connection for students.

Future-Oriented: While grounded in core knowledge, the curriculum

should consider future skills needed by students in a rapidly changing
world.
Equity and Inclusion: The curriculum should address the needs of all
learners, promoting diversity and ensuring access to a quality education
for everyone.

By considering these principles, curriculum developers can create well-

rounded educational programs that cater to the whole student and prepare
them for success in a complex world. Remember, the "hidden curriculum"
also plays a role. Educators should be mindful of the unintended messages
conveyed by the school environment and strive to promote positive values
alongside academic content.
Q. 2 Analyze the reasons that led the Colonial British
Government to establish a curriculum in the subcontinent.
Discuss the consequences on the educational system of
Pakistan.

Answer

Motives Behind the British Curriculum in the Subcontinent: A

Multifaceted Approach

The British Raj established a curriculum in the subcontinent not solely for
educational purposes, but with a mix of political, economic, and cultural
agendas. Let's delve into the reasons:

Administrative Efficiency:

Creating a Work Force: The British needed Indians who could understand
and communicate in English to function as clerks, interpreters, and low-
level administrators. English literacy facilitated communication within
the colonial government and simplified administrative tasks.

Control and Subjugation:

Weakening Local Traditions: By promoting English language and
Western knowledge systems, the British aimed to undermine traditional
Indian education systems and cultural values. This could potentially
weaken resistance to colonial rule.

Creating a Loyal Elite: The British envisioned creating a class of Indians

educated in their system, who would be loyal to the British crown and act
as intermediaries between the rulers and the ruled.

Cultural Hegemony:

Spreading British Values: The curriculum often promoted British

literature, history, and political systems. This aimed to instill admiration
for British culture and create a sense of British superiority.

Limited Scope:

Focus on Practical Skills: Generally, the curriculum emphasized

practical skills like mathematics and basic science relevant to clerical
work, rather than fostering critical thinking or a well-rounded education.

It's important to note that the impact of this curriculum was complex:
Unequal Access: Education was often limited to elites, creating a social
divide.

Nationalist Movements: Exposure to Western ideas, ironically, also

sparked nationalist movements questioning British rule.

Legacy of Education System: The British system, though flawed, laid

the foundation for modern education systems in the subcontinent.

In conclusion, the British curriculum in the subcontinent served a

multifaceted purpose, aiming to establish administrative control, promote
British cultural values, and create a loyal, English-educated class. While
it had negative consequences, it also inadvertently contributed to the rise
of nationalist movements and left a lasting legacy on the educational
systems of the region.

The Enduring Legacy: Consequences of the British Curriculum on

Pakistan's Education System

The British curriculum's implementation in the subcontinent has had a

lasting impact on Pakistan's educational system, with both positive and
negative consequences:
Positive Influences:

Standardization and Infrastructure: The British laid the groundwork for a

centralized education system, establishing schools and colleges across the
region. This provided a framework for future development.

Importance of English: English proficiency, a product of the curriculum,

has opened doors to international education and employment
opportunities for some Pakistanis.

Negative Influences:

Content Disconnect: The curriculum's focus on Western knowledge

systems often neglected Pakistani history, culture, and languages. This
disconnect can create a sense of alienation among students and hinder
national identity development.

Rote Learning and Exams: Emphasis on rote memorization and

standardized testing, a feature of the colonial system, persists in many
Pakistani schools. This approach discourages critical thinking and
creativity.

Social Stratification: The colonial system prioritized education for elites,

creating a social divide that continues to affect access to quality education
in Pakistan.
Limited Vocational Training: The curriculum's focus on clerical skills
often overshadowed practical vocational training, leaving many graduates
unprepared for the job market.

Additional Considerations:

Language Debate: The medium of instruction remains a contentious

issue. While English offers advantages, promoting local languages
alongside English can enhance learning and inclusivity.

Need for Reform: Educational reforms are necessary to address the

limitations inherited from the colonial system. This includes developing a
curriculum more relevant to Pakistan's context and needs while retaining
valuable aspects like standardized procedures and English proficiency.

Looking Ahead:

Pakistan's education system faces the challenge of balancing the legacy of

the British curriculum with the need for a system that fosters critical
thinking, cultural identity, and skills relevant to the 21st century. By
acknowledging the historical context and implementing effective reforms,
Pakistan can create a more inclusive and well-rounded educational
experience for its future generations.
Q. 3 Compare and contrast various foundations of
curriculum development. Discuss how culture and society
influence curriculum.

Answer

Foundations of Curriculum Development: A Balancing Act

Curriculum development doesn't happen in a vacuum. It's influenced by

various philosophical, psychological, sociological, and historical factors.
Let's explore some key educational philosophies and their contrasting
views on curriculum:

Philosophical Foundations:

Perennialism: Focuses on timeless knowledge and values. Curriculum

emphasizes core subjects like literature, history, and mathematics to
cultivate critical thinking and moral reasoning. Contrast: May neglect
contemporary issues and student interests.

Essentialism: Similar to perennialism, but emphasizes core skills like

reading, writing, and arithmetic. Aims to develop well-rounded
individuals with a strong foundation in essential knowledge and skills.
Contrast: Can be rigid and standardized, neglecting individual student
needs.

Progressivism: Focuses on student needs and interests. Curriculum

emphasizes problem-solving, critical thinking, and social responsibility.
Learning is seen as an active process where students learn by doing.
Contrast: May lack a strong foundation in core knowledge and skills.

Reconstructionism: Aims to address social problems and prepare students

to be agents of social change. Curriculum focuses on critical analysis of
social issues and developing skills to create a more just society. Contrast:
Can be controversial due to its emphasis on specific social agendas.

Psychological Foundations:
Learning Theories: Different theories like Piaget's developmental stages
or Vygotsky's social learning theory inform how curriculum is designed
and delivered based on student cognitive development and social
interaction needs. Contrast: No single theory encompasses all aspects of
learning, requiring a balanced approach.

Sociological Foundations:

Social Needs and Values: Curriculum reflects societal values and

prepares students for their future roles. Contrast: Needs to consider
diverse societal perspectives and avoid perpetuating social inequalities.

Historical Foundations:

Lessons from the Past: Curriculum can be influenced by past educational

practices and historical events. Contrast: Needs to be adapted to the
present context and avoid clinging to outdated methods.

The takeaway?

These foundations offer valuable perspectives, but using them effectively

requires a balancing act. Here are some key points to remember:
No single foundation is perfect. A well-designed curriculum considers
multiple perspectives.

Context matters. Adapt the curriculum to the specific needs of students

and the local community.

Balance is key. Ensure the curriculum includes both core knowledge and
skills development alongside opportunities for critical thinking and social
engagement.

By understanding and thoughtfully integrating these diverse foundations,

curriculum developers can create learning experiences that are not only
informative but also empowering and relevant for students in a complex
and ever-changing world.

Culture and society act as powerful sculptors, shaping the curriculum in

intricate ways. Here's a deeper dive into their influence:

Culture's Enduring Mark:

Values as Guiding Principles: A society's core values, be it respect for

elders in collectivist cultures or individualism in more independent ones,
are woven into the curriculum. Subjects and teaching methods are chosen
to reinforce these values.

Knowledge Beyond Textbooks: Cultural knowledge systems,

encompassing everything from traditional medicine to folktales, can
enrich the curriculum. This fosters cultural identity and a sense of
belonging for students.

Navigating Languages: The language of instruction significantly impacts

learning. Including local languages alongside dominant ones like English
allows for deeper understanding and promotes cultural awareness.

Society's Shifting Demands:

Workforce Ready: The curriculum adapts to societal demands for

specific skills. Math and science may be emphasized in societies driven
by technology, while business or agricultural programs take center stage
in others.

Citizens Engaged in Change: The curriculum can become a platform to

address pressing social issues. Climate change awareness or social justice
movements can be integrated, aiming to prepare informed and responsible
citizens who can tackle these challenges.

The Tech Tapestry: The curriculum isn't immune to the ever-evolving

world of technology. Digital literacy skills and the use of new
technologies can be incorporated to prepare students for a future heavily
reliant on them.

Finding the Balance:

The ideal curriculum considers both cultural foundations and societal

needs. It should equip students with essential knowledge and skills while
fostering cultural identity and preparing them to be active participants in
a dynamic world. It's a balancing act, but by carefully considering these
influences, educators can create a meaningful learning experience for all
students.

Q. 4 Discuss the criteria for content selection and explain

the necessity of evaluation for curriculum improvement.

Answer

Criteria for Content Selection

Choosing the right content is crucial for various purposes, from building
a curriculum to curating a social media feed. Here are some key criteria
to consider when selecting content:

Relevance: Does the content directly connect to your goals or the needs
of your audience? For example, a teacher wouldn't include advanced
calculus in an elementary math lesson.

Accuracy and Credibility: Is the information reliable and up-to-date?

Content should come from trustworthy sources and be factually correct.

Interest: Will the content engage your audience? Consider the age,
background, and interests of your target group.

Utility: Is the content useful and applicable? Will it help your audience
learn something new or solve a problem?

Learnability: Is the content presented in a way that can be easily

understood? The complexity of the content should be appropriate for the
intended audience.
Objectivity: Is the content presented in a neutral and unbiased way? Be
mindful of potential biases in the information you select.

Balance: Does the content offer a variety of perspectives? Consider

including different viewpoints to provide a well-rounded picture.

Currency: Is the content recent and up-to-date? Information can become

outdated quickly, so consider the timeliness of the content.

Accessibility: Can your target audience easily access the content? Think
about factors like language, format, and any technological barriers.

Feasibility: Is it practical to include this content considering time,

resources, and budget?

Evaluation is an essential step in curriculum improvement for several

reasons:
Measures Effectiveness: It allows us to assess how well the curriculum is
achieving its intended learning outcomes. Are students actually grasping
the concepts and skills the curriculum aims to teach? Evaluation helps
identify areas where students might be struggling and where the
curriculum might need adjustments.

Identifies Strengths and Weaknesses: Evaluation goes beyond just

measuring student outcomes. It can also reveal strengths and weaknesses
in the curriculum itself. This includes things like the clarity of content, the
appropriateness of teaching methods, and the effectiveness of learning
materials.

Informs Decision-Making: Evaluation data provides valuable insights

that can be used to make informed decisions about curriculum
improvement. Should certain topics be expanded upon? Are there more
engaging teaching strategies available? Evaluation helps educators and
curriculum developers target their efforts for maximum impact.

Adapts to Change: The world is constantly evolving, and the knowledge

and skills students need are constantly changing as well. Curriculum
evaluation helps ensure the curriculum stays relevant and up-to-date. It
allows educators to incorporate new information, technologies, and
societal needs into the learning process.

Accountability and Transparency: Evaluation provides evidence to

stakeholders, like parents and policymakers, about the effectiveness of
the curriculum. This fosters transparency and accountability,
demonstrating that educators are committed to providing a high-quality
education.

Q. 5 Elaborate psychological principles, which are used as

a basis for curriculum development. Discuss the role of
psychological foundation of curriculum for assessment
and measurement of learning outcomes.

Answer

Psychological Principles in Curriculum Development

Psychology plays a vital role in shaping effective curriculums. Here are
some key psychological principles that inform curriculum development:

Learner-Centered Approach: This principle emphasizes the importance

of understanding how students learn best. It acknowledges that learners
are active participants in the learning process, not passive recipients of
information. Curriculums designed with this principle in mind cater to
different learning styles, prior knowledge, and developmental stages.

Cognitive Development: Building on the work of Piaget and others,

curriculum development considers the stages of cognitive development.
Younger students might benefit from more concrete, hands-on activities,
while older students can handle abstract concepts. Curriculum
complexity should gradually increase as students' cognitive abilities
develop.

Motivation and Engagement: Effective curriculums incorporate

strategies to keep students motivated and engaged. This may involve
incorporating real-world applications, providing opportunities for choice
and collaboration, and fostering a positive learning environment.
Psychological theories like self-determination theory emphasize the
importance of intrinsic motivation, where students are driven by a desire
to learn rather than external rewards.

Prior Knowledge and Scaffolding: This principle acknowledges the

importance of building on what students already know. New information
should be presented in a way that connects to existing knowledge
schemas. Scaffolding, a concept from Vygotsky's sociocultural theory,
involves providing temporary support to help students reach their zone of
proximal development, the range of tasks they can't do independently but
can with guidance.

Social Learning: Learning is often a social process. Curriculums that

incorporate opportunities for collaboration, group work, and peer
interaction can leverage the power of social learning. Students can learn
from each other, share ideas, and build on one another's strengths.

Memory and Retention: Psychological research on memory informs how

information is best presented and practiced for optimal retention.
Curriculum development can benefit from incorporating strategies like
spaced repetition, interleaving (mixing topics during practice), and
retrieval practice (actively testing knowledge).

Assessment and Feedback: Assessment is not just about measuring what

students know at the end of a unit. Regular, formative assessments can
provide valuable information about student progress and identify areas
where they might need additional support. Effective feedback should be
specific, actionable, and focused on improvement.

By integrating these psychological principles, curriculum developers can

create learning experiences that are not only informative but also
engaging and effective in promoting long-term learning.

Unfortunately, I don't have access to information about educational

psychology and educational assessment libraries. However, I can share
some general thoughts on the role of the psychological foundation of
curriculum for assessment and measurement of learning outcomes.
A curriculum with a strong psychological foundation can play a
significant role in effectively assessing and measuring student learning.
Here's how:

Understanding How Students Learn: By understanding the cognitive

processes involved in learning, curriculum developers can create
assessments that accurately measure a student's grasp of the material. This
includes considering factors like memory, prior knowledge, and
information processing abilities.

Alignment with Learning Objectives: A well-designed curriculum has

clear learning objectives that outline what students are expected to know
and be able to do by the end of a unit or course. Assessments should be
directly aligned with these objectives to ensure they are measuring the
intended learning outcomes.

Variety in Assessment Methods: Effective assessment goes beyond just

traditional tests. A curriculum informed by psychological principles may
incorporate a variety of assessment methods, such as projects, portfolios,
presentations, and observations. This allows for a more comprehensive
picture of student learning and caters to different learning styles.
Formative and Summative Assessment: Psychological foundations
emphasize the importance of both formative and summative assessment.
Formative assessments provide ongoing feedback throughout the learning
process, allowing educators to identify areas where students need help and
adjust instruction accordingly. Summative assessments measure student
learning at the end of a unit or course to gauge overall achievement of
learning objectives.

Focus on Transferable Skills: A curriculum that considers psychological

principles goes beyond rote memorization and emphasizes the
development of transferable skills, such as critical thinking, problem-
solving, and communication. Assessments should also consider these
skills and provide opportunities for students to demonstrate their ability
to apply knowledge in new contexts.

In conclusion, a curriculum with a strong psychological foundation can

provide a framework for creating assessments that are not only effective
in measuring learning outcomes but also informative in guiding
instruction and promoting student progress.