Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Unit – 1

Materials and Manufacturing Techniques

• Recent advances in Mechanical Engineering

• Role of Computer Aided Design
• Simulation and 3D printing
• Units and Measurements,
• Engineering materials and materials response,
• Basic Manufacturing processes,
• Conventional and non-conventional fabrication processes,

slide 1/8
 Recent advances in Mechanical Engineering

Technological Development in the areas of:

1. Aerospace
2. Automobile
3. Manufacturing
4. Design - Simulation

Mechanical Engineering; The Top Ten achievements:

1. The automobile
2. The Apollo program
3. Power generation
4. Agricultural mechanization
5. The airplane
 Recent advances in Mechanical Engineering

1-The automobile:
Two factors responsible for the growth of automotive technology have been high-power, lightweight
engines and efficient processes for mass manufacturing.
German engineer Nicolaus Otto is credited with designing the first practical four-stroke internal-combustion
engine.
In addition to engine improvements, competition in the automobile market has led to advances in the areas
of safety, fuel economy, comfort, and emission control (Figure-1).
Some of the newer technologies include hybrid gas-electric vehicles, antilock brakes, run-flat tires, air bags,
widespread use of composite materials, computer control of fuel-injection systems, satellite-based
navigation systems, variable valve timing, and fuel cells.
Figure-1: Mechanical engineers design, test, and
manufacture advanced automotive systems, such
as this (a) suspension system, (b) automatic
transmission, and (c) six-cylinder gas-electric
hybrid engine.
 Recent advances in Mechanical Engineering

2-The Apollo program.

In 1961, President John F. Kennedy challenged the United States to land a man on the Moon and return him
safely to Earth. The first portion of that objective was realized fewer than ten years later with the July 20,
1969 landing of Apollo 11 on the lunar surface. The three-man crew of Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins,
and Buzz Aldrin returned safely several days later. Because of its technological advances and profound
cultural impact, the Apollo program was chosen as the second most influential achievement of the
twentieth century.
 Recent advances in Mechanical Engineering

4-Agricultural mechanization:
Mechanical engineers have developed technologies to improve significantly the efficiency in the agricultural
industry. Automation began in earnest with the introduction of powered tractors in 1916 and the development
of the combine, which greatly simplified harvesting grain. Decades later, research is underway to develop
the capability for machines to harvest a field autonomously, without any human intervention using advanced
machinery, GPS technology, and intelligent guidance and control algorithms. Other advances include
improved weather observation and prediction, high-capacity irrigation pumps, automated milking machines,
and the digital management of crops and the control of pests.
5-The airplane:
The development of the airplane and related technologies for safe powered flight were also recognized as a key
achievement of the profession. Mechanical engineers have developed or contributed to nearly every aspect
of aviation technology. One of the main contributions has been in the area of propulsion. Early airplanes
were powered by piston-driven internal-combustion engines, such as the 12-horsepower engine (Wright Flyer).
General Electric Corporation’s engines that power some Boeing 777 jetliners can develop a maximum thrust
of over 100,000 pounds-force. Mechanical engineers design the combustion systems, turbines, and control
systems of such advanced jet engines. Using testing facilities such as wind tunnels, engineers spearheaded
the design of turbines, development of control systems, and discovery of lightweight aerospace-grade
materials, including titanium alloys and graphite- fiber-reinforced epoxy composites.
 Recent advances in Mechanical Engineering

6-Integrated-circuit mass production:

The electronics industry has developed remarkable technologies for miniaturizing integrated circuits,
computer memory chips, and microprocessors. The mechanical engineering profession made key contributions
during the twentieth century to the manufacturing methods involved in producing integrated circuits. While
the vintage 8008 processor that was first sold by the Intel Corporation in 1972 had 2500 transistors, the
current Tukwila processor from Intel has over 2 billion transistors. Mechanical engineers design the
machinery, alignment systems, advanced materials, temperature control, and vibration isolation that enable
integrated circuits to be made at the nanometer scale.

7-Air conditioning and refrigeration:

Mechanical engineers invented the technologies of efficient air conditioning and refrigeration. Today, these
systems not only keep people safe and comfortable, but also preserve food and medical supplies in refrigeration
systems. Mechanical engineers apply the principles of heat transfer and energy conversion to design
refrigeration systems that preserve and store food at its source, during transportation, and in the home.
 Recent advances in Mechanical Engineering

8-Computer-aided engineering technology

The term “computer-aided engineering” (CAE) refers to a wide range of automation technologies in
mechanical engineering, and it encompasses the use of computers for performing calculations, preparing
technical drawings, simulating performance, and controlling machine tools in a factory (Figure 2). Over the
past several decades, computing and information technologies have changed the manner in which mechanical
engineering is practiced. Most mechanical engineers have access to advanced computer-aided design and
analysis software, information databases, and computer-controlled prototyping equipment. In some industries,
these CAE technologies have replaced traditional paper-based design and analysis methods.

Figure 2
(a) Mechanical engineers use computer simulations to analyze and
visualize the flow of air around aircraft including the Harrier Jet.

(b) A dynamic simulation of the flow of blood through an artery of the

brain is used to observe the interaction between plasma and blood,
helping engineers design medical devices and helping doctors
understand disease diagnosis and treatment.
 Recent advances in Mechanical Engineering

9-Bioengineering
The discipline of bioengineering links traditional engineering fields with the life sciences and medicine.
Engineering principles, analysis tools, and design methods are applied to solve problems that occur in
biological systems. Although bioengineering is considered an emerging field, it ranked in the American
Society of Mechanical Engineer’s top ten list not only for the advances that have already been made, but also
for its future potential in addressing medical and health-related problems.

10-Codes and standards

The products that engineers design must connect to, and be compatible with, the hardware that is developed by
others. Because of codes and standards, you can have confidence that a stereo will plug into an electrical outlet
in one part of world just as well as it does in other part of world and that the outlet’s voltage will be the same;
that the gasoline purchased next month will work in your car just as well as the fuel purchased today; and that
the socket wrench purchased at an automobile parts store in the United States will fit the bolts on a vehicle that
was manufactured in Germany. Codes and standards are necessary to specify the physical characteristics of
mechanical parts so that others can clearly understand their structure and operation.
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Unit – 1

Materials and Manufacturing Techniques

• Recent advances in Mechanical Engineering

• Role of Computer Aided Design
• Simulation and 3D printing
• Units and Measurements,
• Engineering materials and materials response,
• Basic Manufacturing processes,
• Conventional and non-conventional fabrication processes,

slide 2/8
 Role of Computer Aided Design (CAD)

CAD (computer-aided design) is the use of computer-based software to aid in design processes.

CAD software is frequently used by different types of engineers and designers.

CAD software be used to create two-dimensional (2-D) drawings or three-dimensional (3-D) models.

The purpose of CAD is to optimize and streamline the designer's workflow, increase productivity,
improve the quality and level of detail in the design, improve documentation communications and
often contribute toward a manufacturing design database.

CAD software outputs come in the form of electronic files, which are then used accordingly for
manufacturing processes.

CAD is often used in tandem with digitized manufacturing processes. CAD/CAM (computer-aided
design/computer-aided manufacturing) is software used to design products such as electronic circuit
boards in computers and other devices.
 Role of Computer Aided Design (CAD)

Who uses CAD?

Computer-aided design is used in a wide variety of professions. CAD software is used heavily within
various architecture, arts and engineering projects. CAD use cases are specific to industry and job
functions. Professions that use CAD tools include, but are not limited to:
• Architects
• Engineers
• City planners
• Graphic designers
• Animation illustrators
• Drafters
• Fashion designers
• Interior designers
 Role of Computer Aided Design (CAD)

CAD benefits:
Compared to traditional technical sketching and manual drafting, the use of CAD design tools can have
significant benefits for engineers and designers:
• Lower production costs for designs;
• Quicker project completion due to efficient workflow and design process;
• Changes can be made independent of other design details, without the need to completely re-do a
sketch;
• Higher quality designs with documentation (like angles, measurements, presets) built into the file;
• Clearer designs, better legibility and ease of interpretation by collaborators, as handmade
drawings are not as clear or detailed;
• Use of digital files can make collaborating with colleagues more simple; and
• Software features can support generative design, solid modeling, and other technical functions.
 Role of Computer Aided Design (CAD)

CAD software/tools:
A number of CAD tools exist to assist designers and engineers. Some CAD tools are tailored to fit
specific use cases and industries, such as industrial design or architecture. Other CAD software tools
can be used to support a variety of industries and project types. Some widely-used CAD tools are:

• MicroStation (offered by Bentley Systems)

• AutoCAD (offered by Autodesk)
• CorelCAD
• IronCAD
• CADTalk
• SolidWorks
• Onshape
 Simulation

Simulation is experimentation with a model.

The behavior of the model imitates some salient aspect of the behavior of the system under study and the user
experiments with the model to infer this behavior.

This general framework has proven a powerful adjunct to learning, problem solving, and design.

A model is an entity that is used to represent some other entity for some defined purpose.

In general, models are simplified abstractions, which embrace only the scope and level of detail needed to satisfy
specific study objectives.

Models are employed when investigation of the actual system is impractical or prohibitive. This might be because
direct investigation is expensive, slow, disruptive, unsafe, or even illegal. Indeed, models can be used to study
systems that exist only in concept.
 Simulation

Simulation is a particular approach to studying models, which is fundamentally experiential or experimental.

In principle, simulation is much like running field tests, except that the system of interest is replaced by a physical
or computational model.

Simulation involves creating a model which imitates the behaviors of interest; experimenting with the model to
generate observations of these behaviors; and attempting to understand, summarize, and/or generalize these
behaviors.

In many applications, simulation also involves testing and comparing alternative designs and validating,
explaining, and supporting simulation outcomes and study recommendations.

We might divide applications of simulation broadly into two categories.

The first includes so-called man-in-the-loop simulations used for training and/or entertainment.
 Simulation

Many professionals hone their skills and learn emergency procedures in simulated environments which are safe
from the consequences of inexperience and failure.

Pilots train in flight simulators in order to experience the cockpit of a particular aircraft; nuclear power-plant
operators routinely recertify in control-room simulators; physicians learn new procedures employing simulated
patients.

In the realm of entertainment, we have all played computer games that simulate everything from driving a train to
navigating the fanciful unrealities of virtual worlds. The emphasis here is experiential—learning (or just having
fun) by doing.

In many applications, simulation also involves testing and comparing alternative designs and validating,
explaining, and supporting simulation outcomes and study recommendations.
 Simulation

The second category includes the analysis and design of artifacts and processes.

This is the technical domain which engineers and operations researchers most commonly associate with
simulation.

Consider for example the design of a new air-craft. The Wright brothers invented the wind tunnel in order to
simulate aerodynamic phenomena using scale models.

Wind tunnel tests are still used to calibrate highly-complex aerodynamic computer simulations.

Simulation stands in contrast to analytical approaches to the solution of models.

In an analytical approach, the model is expressed as a set of equations that describe how the system state changes
over time.
 Simulation

We solve these equations using standard mathematical methods—algebra and calculus—to determine the
distribution of the state at any particular time.

The result is a general, closed-form solution, which gives the state at any time as a function of the initial state, the
input, and the model parameters.

When models can be solved analytically this is always the preferred approach. However, for complex systems
this is almost never the case.

Simulation Software:

AnyLogic MATLAB SimScale

Simul8 COMSOLE Multiphysics Simulink

Arena SimSolid Ansys SpaceClaim

And many more softwares…..
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Unit – 1

Materials and Manufacturing Techniques

• Recent advances in Mechanical Engineering

• Role of Computer Aided Design
• Simulation and 3D printing
• Units and Measurements,
• Engineering materials and materials response,
• Basic Manufacturing processes,
• Conventional and non-conventional fabrication processes,

slide 2/8
 3D Printing

General explanation of 3D Printing:

A method of manufacturing known as ‘Additive manufacturing’, due to the fact that instead of
removing material to create a part, the process adds material in successive patterns to create the
desired shape.
Main areas of use:
• Prototyping
• Specialized parts – aerospace, military, biomedical engineering, dental
• Hobbies and home use
• Future applications– medical (body parts), buildings and cars

3D Printing uses software that slices the 3D model into layers (0.01mm thick or less in most cases).
Each layer is then traced onto the build plate by the printer, once the pattern is completed, the build
plate is lowered and the next layer is added on top of the previous one.
 3D Printing

3D Printing eliminates such waste since the material is placed in the location that it is needed only, the
rest will be left out as empty space.
Advantages and Limitations:
Layer by layer production allows for much greater flexibility and creativity in the design process.
No longer do designers have to design for manufacture, but instead they can create a part that is lighter
and stronger by means of better design.
Parts can be completely re-designed so that they are stronger in the areas that they need to be and
lighter overall.
3D Printing significantly speeds up the design and prototyping process.
There is no problem with creating one part at a time, and changing the design each time it is produced.
Parts can be created within hours. Bringing the design cycle down to a matter of days or weeks
compared to months.
 3D Printing

Also, since the price of 3D printers has decreased over the years, some 3Dprinters are now within
financial reach of the ordinary consumer or small company.
The limitations of 3D printing in general include expensive hardware and expensive materials.
This leads to expensive parts, thus making it hard if you were to compete with mass production.
It also requires a CAD designer to create what the customer has in mind, and can be expensive if the
part is very intricate.
3D Printing is not the answer to every type of production method; however its advancement is helping
accelerate design and engineering more than ever before.
Through the use of 3D printers designers are able to create one of a kind piece of art, intricate building
and product designs and also make parts while in space!
We are beginning to see the impact of 3D printing many industries.
There have been articles saying that 3D printing will bring about the next industrial revolution, by
returning a means of production back within reach of the designer or the consumer.
 Units and Measurements

Units:
Engineers specify physical quantities in two different—but conventional— systems of units: the
United States Customary System (USCS) and the International System of Units (SI).
Practicing mechanical engineers must be conversant with both systems.
They need to convert quantities from one system to the other, and they must be able to perform
calculations equally well in either system.
A unit is defined as an arbitrary division of a physical quantity, which has a magnitude that is agreed
on by mutual consent. Both the USCS and SI are made up of base units and derived units.
A base unit is a fundamental quantity that cannot be broken down further or expressed in terms of
any simpler elements.
Base units are independent of one another, and they form the core building blocks of any unit system.
As an example, the base unit for length is the meter (m) in the SI and the foot (ft) in the USCS.
 Units

Derived units, as their name implies, are combinations or groupings of several base units.
An example of a derived unit is velocity (length/time), which is a combination of the base units for
length and time.
The liter (which is equivalent to 0.001 m3) is a derived unit for volume in the SI.
Likewise, the mile (which is equivalent to 5280 ft) is a derived unit for length in the USCS.
Unit systems generally have relatively few base units and a much larger set of derived units.
International System of Units:
In an attempt to standardize the different systems of measurement around the world, in 1960 the
International System of Units was named as the measurement standard structured around the seven
base units.
In addition to the mechanical quantities of meters, kilograms, and seconds, the SI includes base
units for measuring electric current, temperature, the amount of substance, and light intensity.
 Units

The SI is colloquially referred to as the metric system, and it conveniently uses powers of ten for
multiples and divisions of units. The base units in the SI are today defined by detailed international
agreements. However, the units’ definitions have evolved and changed slightly as measurement
technologies have become more precise.

Base Units in the SI Base Units in the USCS

 Units

Base and derived units in the SI are

often combined with a prefix so that
a physical quantity’s numerical value
does not have a power-of-ten
exponent that is either too large or
too small. Use a prefix to shorten the
representation of a numerical value
and to reduce an otherwise excessive
number of trailing zero digits in your
calculations.

Certain derived Units in the SI

 Units

Good practice is not to use a prefix

for any numerical value that falls
between 0.1 and 1000. Thus, the
“deci,” “deca,” and “hecto” prefixes
in adjacent Table are rarely used in
mechanical engineering.

Order-of-Magnitude prefixes in
the SI unit
Units

Certain derived Units in the

USCS
 Measurements

Measurement: The word measurement is used to tell us the length, the weight, the temperature, the
colour or a change in one of these physical entities of a material.

Measurement provides us with means for describing the various physical and chemical
parameters of materials in quantitative terms.

Measurement Terms:
Significant digits or figures are the number of digits in a
value, often a measurement, that contribute to the degree
of accuracy of the value. We start counting significant
figures at the first non-zero digit.
 Measurements

The accuracy of an instrument indicates the deviation of the reading from a known input. In other
words, accuracy is the closeness with which the readings of an instrument approaches the true values
of the quantity measured. It is the maximum amount by which the result differs from the true value.

The precision of an instrument indicates its ability to reproduce a certain reading with a given
accuracy. In other words, it is the degree of agreement between repeated results.
 Measurements

Resolution is the smallest change in a physical property that an instrument can sense. For example, a
weighing machine in a gymnasium normally senses weight variations in kilograms, whereas a weighing
machine in a jewellery shop can detect weight in milligrams. Naturally, the weighing machine in the
jewellery shop has a superior resolution than the one at the gymnasium.
Resolution of an instrument can also be defined as the minimum incremental value of the input signal
that is required to cause a detectable change in the output.

Sensitivity describes the smallest absolute amount of change that can be detected by a measurement,
often expressed in terms of millivolts, microhms, or tenths of a degree. ...
The actual sensitivity is as much a function of the measurement device as it is the environment in
which the measurement is being made.
 Measurements Errors

• No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy

• It is important to find out the accuracy rate and errors occurred
• A study of errors is a first step in finding ways to reduce them.

Errors are Classified into:

1. Gross errors
2. Systematic (or) instrumental errors
3. Random (or) Accidental errors
 Measurements Errors

Gross Errors:

Human mistakes in reading instruments and recording and calculating measurement result.
Ex: The temperature is 31.50C, but it will write as 21.50c.

This can be avoided by adopting two means:

1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.

2. Two, three (or) even more readings should be taken for quantity under measurement.
 Measurements Errors

Systematic Errors:

These type of errors are divided into three categories.

a. Instrumental errors– Due to inherent short comings of the instrument– Due to misuse
of instruments.

b. Due to loading effects of instruments. Environmental errors– These errors are caused
due to changes in the environmental conditions in the area surrounding the instrument.

c. Observational– These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers, which is
known as Parallax error
 Measurements Errors

Random Errors:

The causes of such errors is unknown (or) not determinable in the ordinary process making
measurements.

a. Certain human errors.

b. Errors caused due to the disturbances to the equipment’s.

c. Errors caused by fluctuating experimental conditions.

 Measuring Devices

Measuring Devices: Overview of devices

Temperature

Pressure

Velocity of flow

Discharge of flow

Force

Torque

Length
 Course Contents

Module I: Materials and Manufacturing Techniques:

Recent advances in mechanical engineering,
Role of Computer Aided Design,
Simulation and 3D printing.
Units and measurements.
Engineering Materials and Materials Response.
Basic manufacturing processes,
conventional and non-conventional fabrication processes.
 Materials
Historical Perspective

 Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate ages with
them.

 In the origin of human life on earth, the Stone Age, people used only natural materials, like
stone, clay, and wood.

 When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the Bronze Age started
about 3000 BC.

 The use of iron and steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in wars started at about
1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap process to make steel around 1850,
which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the industrial
world.
 Classification Of Materials
 Engineering materials can be classified into three main categories:

Metals
Ceramics
Polymers

In addition, some advanced materials are trending now wic are listed below:
Composites
Biomaterials
Semiconductors
Other advanced materials, etc.
 Metals
Metals:

 These materials are characterized by high thermal and electrical conductivity;

Strong yet deformable under applied mechanical loads;

 Opaque to light (shiny if polished).

 Pure metals are not good enough for many applications, especially structural
applications.

 Thus metals are used in alloy form i.e. a metal mixed with another metal to improve
the desired qualities. E.g.: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.
Classification of Metals
Non-ferrous metals
Difference between metals and non-metals
 Ceramics

 These are inorganic compounds, and usually made either of oxides, carbides,
nitrides, or silicates of metals.

 Ceramics are typically partly crystalline and partly amorphous.

Atoms (ions often) in ceramic materials behave mostly like either positive or
negative ions, and are bound by very strong Coulomb forces between them.

 These materials are characterized by very high strength under compression, low
ductility; usually insulators to heat and electricity.

 Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals.

 Polymers
Polymers in the form of thermo-plastics (nylon, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, rubber,
etc.) consist of molecules that have covalent bonding within each molecule and van der
Waals forces between them.

 Polymers in the form of thermo-sets (e.g., epoxy, phenolics, etc.) consist of a

network of covalent bonds. They are based on H, C and other non-metallic elements.

 Polymers are amorphous, except for a minority of thermoplastics.

 Due to the kind of bonding, polymers are typically electrical and thermal insulators.

 However, conducting polymers can be obtained by doping, and conducting polymer-

matrix composites can be obtained by the use of conducting fillers. They decompose at
moderate temperatures (100 – 400 C), and are lightweight. Other properties vary
greatly.
 Properties of Materials
Class Property Class Property
1. Economic & Price & availability 5. Electrical & Resistivity
environmental Recyclability Magnetic Magnetic
Sustainability, etc. permeability
Etc.
2. Mechanical Yield & tensile 6. Environmental Oxidation
strength interaction Corrosion
Hardness Wear
Fracture toughness Etc.
Etc.
3. Thermal Thermal 7. Aesthetic Colour
conductivity Texture
Specific heat Feel
Coefficient of Etc.
thermal expansion
Etc.
4. General Density
Physical
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

The key mechanical properties mainly involves:

 Strength
 Elasticity
 Plasticity
 Ductility
 Malleability
 Toughness
 Brittleness
 Hardness
 Fatigue
 Creep
 Machinability
 Weldability
 Concept of Stress-Strain Curve

Stress is defined as force per unit area within materials that arise from externally applied forces,
uneven heating, or permanent deformation and that permits an accurate description and
prediction of elastic, plastic, and fluid behaviour.

Stress is given by the following formula:

σ=F/A

where, σ is the stress applied, F is the force applied and A is the area of force application.
The unit of stress is N/m2.

Types of Stress
Tensile Stress
Compressive Stress
Shear stress
 Strain

Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of force applied,
divided by the initial dimensions of the body.
The following equation gives the relation for deformation in terms of the length of a solid:
ϵ=δl/L

where, ϵϵ is the strain due to stress applied, δlδl is the change in length and L is the original
length of the material.
The strain is a dimensionless quantity as it just defines the relative change in shape.

Types of Strain
Tensile Strain
Compressive Strain
Shear Strain
Stress strain curve for mild steel
 Stress-Strain Curve

The different regions in the stress-strain curve are:

(i) Proportional Limit

It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the stress-strain
ratio gives us a proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph
represents the proportional limit.

(ii) Elastic Limit

It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when the load
acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its original
position, and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it.

(iii) Yield Point

The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically. After the
yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs. There are two yield points (i) upper
yield point (ii) lower yield point.
(iv) Ultimate Stress Point
It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before failure.
Beyond this point, failure occurs.

(v) Fracture or Breaking Point

It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place.
 Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s Law
In the 19th-century, while studying springs and elasticity, English scientist Robert Hooke
noticed that many materials exhibited a similar property when the stress-strain relationship
was studied. There was a linear region where the force required to stretch the material was
proportional to the extension of the material, known as Hooke’s Law.

“Hooke’s Law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within
the elastic limit of that material.”

Mathematically, Hooke’s law is commonly expressed as:

F = –k.x
Where F is the force, x is the extension length, and k is the constant of proportionality known
as spring constant in N/m.
 Mechanical Properties of materials

Strength

The strength of metal is its ability to withstand various forces to which it is subjected during
a test or in service.

 It is usually defined as tensile strength, compressive strength, proof stress, shear strength,
etc.

 Strength of materials is a general expression for the measure of capacity of resistance

possessed by solid masses or pieces of various kinds to any cause tending to produce in
them a permanent and disabling change of form or positive fracture.

 The stronger the material, the greater the load it can withstand this property of material,
therefore, determines the ability to withstand stress without failure.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
ELASTICITY

 Elasticity is defined as the property of a material to regain its original shape after removal
of the externally applied load.

 We can take an example of a rubber band, whenever we pull a rubber band it gets
elongated i.e. it’s shape gets deformed but when we remove the load the rubber band
comes back to its original shape.

 Hence we can say that a rubber band is an elastic material or rubber band exhibits the
property of elasticity.

 When the external forces are removed it can also be referred to as the power of the
material to come back to its original position after deformation. It can be used as an
important application for building precision instruments like Springs or structures etc.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
PLASTICITY

 Plasticity is defined as the property of material under which the material is not able to
regain its original shape even after the removal of the load i.e. the material permanently
gets deformed.

 In other words, It is the ability or tendency of a material to undergo some degree of

permanent deformation without its failure.

 Plastic deformation takes place only after the elastic limit of material has been
exceeded.

 This property is important in forming, shaping, extruding and many other hot or cold
working processes materials such as clay lead, etc are plastic at room temperature and
steel is plastic at forging temperature this property generally increases with an increase in
temperature of materials.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
DUCTILITY
Ductility is termed as the property of a material that enables it to be drawn into the thin wire with the
application of tensile load.

The ductility is usually measured in terms of percentage elongation and percent reduction in the
area which are often used as empirical measures of ductility.

In general, materials that possess more than 5% elongation are called as ductile materials
The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice in order of diminishing ductility a mild
steel, copper, aluminum, nickel, zinc, tin, and lead.

BRITTLENESS
Brittleness is the opposite of ductility. It is the property of breaking of a material with little permanent
distortion. The materials having less than 5% elongation and the loading behavior are said to be
brittle materials.
Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads snap off without giving any sensible elongation.
Glass, cast iron, brass and ceramics are considered as brittle material thus brittleness is the
property of a material to snap off without giving any sensible elongation when subjected to tensile
loads.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…

MALLEABILITY

Malleability is the ability of the material which enables it to be flattened into thin sheets under
applications of heavy compressive forces without cracking (by hot or cold working), which
means it is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered into
thin sheets.

A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong.

The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice in order of diminishing value
wrought iron, copper and aluminum, lead steel, etc are recognized as highly malleable metals.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
STIFFNESS

Stiffness is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The
resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection is called stiffness or rigidity.

Material that suffers slight or very less deformation and the load has a high degree of
stiffness or rigidity for instance suspended beams of steel and aluminum may both be strong
enough to carry the required load but the aluminum beam will sag or deflect further which
means the steel beam is stiffer or more rigid than the aluminum beam.

If the material behaves elastically with linear stress-strain relationship under Hookes law its
stiffness is measured by Young’s modulus of elasticity.

The higher is the value of Young’s modulus, the stiffer is the material in tensile and
compressive stress. It is called the modulus of stiffness or modulus of elasticity in shear. The
modulus of rigidity is usually 40% of the value of young’s modulus for commonly used
materials in volumetric distortion the bulk modulus.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
HARDNESS:
Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to indentation/ scratch.

It is a very important property of metals and has a wide variety of meanings it embraces many
different properties such as resistance to wear, resistance to indentation, resistance to
scratches, resistance to deformation and machine mobility, etc.

Diamond is the hardest known material naturally.

CREEP:
When a metal part is subjected to high constant stress at a high temperature for a longer
period of time it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation which is known as creep.

If the material will be continuously subjected to high stresses at higher temperature crack can
be formed which may further propagate towards failure called creep failure.
 Mechanical Properties of materials…
FATIGUE:
Fatigue is the failure of a material due to cyclic or repeated loading.

The intensity of the load may be very less than the ultimate tensile stress, but due to the
repeated or cyclic action of the load, the crack initiates and propagates which leads to the
fatigue failure.

The fatigue process leads to Macroscopic and microscopic discontinuities (at the crystalline
grain scale) as well as component design features that cause stress concentrations (holes,
keyways, sharp changes of load direction, etc.) are common locations.

RESILIENCE: It is the amount of energy which a body can absorb without permanent
deformation.

TOUGHNESS:
The amount of energy that a material can absorb without breaking is called the toughness of
that material. In other words, it is the ability of a material to absorb energy and deform
plastically without fracturing.
 Course Contents

Module I: Materials and Manufacturing Techniques:

Recent advances in mechanical engineering,
Role of Computer Aided Design,
Simulation and 3D printing.
Units and measurements.
Engineering Materials and Materials Response.
Basic manufacturing processes,
conventional and non-conventional fabrication processes.
 Basic manufacturing processes

Introduction to Manufacturing Process:

Manufacturing: The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words manus (hand) and
factus (make); the combination literally means “made by hand”.

Manufacturing: Something made from raw materials by hand or by machinery

Process: A series of actions that you take in order to achieve a result

The progress of society mainly depend on progress of Manufacturing sector

 Basic manufacturing processes

General Classification of Manufacturing Processes

 Primary or shaping processes (0)

Secondary or machining processes (-)

Joining processes (+)

 Finishing processes

 Processes to enhance the desired properties of materials

 Basic manufacturing processes
Broad classification of Engineering Manufacturing Processes

• It is extremely difficult to tell the exact number of various manufacturing processes existing
and are being practiced presently because a spectacularly large number of processes have
been developed till now and the number is still increasing exponentially with the growing
demands and rapid progress in science and technology.

• However, all such manufacturing processes can be broadly classified in four major groups
as follows:

(a) Shaping or forming Manufacturing: a solid product of definite size and shape from a
given material taken in three possible states:

• in solid state – e.g., forging rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.

• in liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.
• in powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.
 Basic manufacturing processes

(b) Joining process such as welding, brazing, soldering etc.

(c) Removal process Machining (Traditional or Non-traditional), Grinding etc.

(d) Regenerative manufacturing Production of solid products in layer by layer from

raw materials in different form:
• liquid – e.g., stereo lithography
• powder – e.g., selective laser sintering
• sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)
• wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modelling)

Out of the aforesaid groups, Regenerative Manufacturing/Additive manufacturing is

the latest one which is generally accomplished very rapidly and quite accurately
using CAD and CAM for Rapid Prototyping and Tooling.
 Machining
Purpose of Machining
Most of the engineering components such as gears, bearings, clutches, tools, screws and
nuts etc. need dimensional and form accuracy and good surface finish for serving their
purposes. Pre-forming like casting, forging etc. generally cannot provide the desired
accuracy and finish.

For that such preformed parts, called blanks, need semi-finishing and finishing and it is
done by machining and grinding.

Grinding is also basically a machining process.

Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially enables a product

• fulfill its functional requirements
• improve its performance
• prolong its service
Definition of Machining
Machining is an essential process of finishing by which jobs are produced to the desired
dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material from the
preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work
surface(s).
Or
It is a metal removing operation from the work piece with the help of machine tools and
cutting tools. Metal is removed in the form of chips from the workpiece.

Fig. Principle of machining (turning)

Common machining processes
Traditional/ Conventional machining process
1. Lathe machines
2. Shaping machines
3. Planning Machines
4. Milling Machines
5. Drilling machines
6. Boring Machines
7. Grinders
8. Metal Cutting Saws
9. Slotting machines
Non-traditional/ Non-conventional machining process
 Ultrasonic machining (USM)
 Abrasive jet machining (AJM)
 Electric discharge machining (EDM)
Etc.
Brief Overview on any one of conventional machining process

Lathe machine
 Lathe machine
The first lathe machine in its useful form was made by H. Maudslay in 1800.

Lathe: Definition and principle of working

 Lathe is a machine, which removes the metal from a piece of work to the required
shape and size.

Lathe is one of the most important machine tools in the metal working industry. A lathe
operates on the principle of a rotating workpiece and a fixed cutting tool.

The cutting tool is fed into the workpiece, which rotates about its own axis, causing the
workpiece to be formed to the desired shape.

Lathe machine is also known as “the mother” of the entire machine tool family”.
Classification Of Lathes
Parts of lathe machine

A simple lathe comprises of a bed made of

grey cast iron on which headstock, tailstock,
carriage and other components of lathe are
mounted. Fig. shows the different parts of
engine lathe or central lathe. The major
parts of lathe machine are given as under:

1. Bed
2. Head stock
3. Tailstock
4. Carriage
5. Feed mechanism
6. Thread cutting mechanism
Bed
The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of lathe are mounted. It is
massive and rigid single piece casting made to support other active parts of lathe.

On left end of the bed, headstock of lathe machine is located while on right side tailstock is
located. The carriage of the machine rests over the bed and slides on it.

On the top of the bed there are two sets of guideways-innerways and outerways. The innerways
provide sliding surfaces for the tailstock and the outerways for the carriage. The guideways of
the lathe bed may be flat and inverted V shape.

Generally cast iron alloyed with nickel and chromium material is used for manufacturing of the
lathe bed
Head Stock
The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe. It
comprises of the headstock casting to accommodate all the parts within it including gear train
arrangement.

The main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses live centre to which the work can be
attached. It supports the work and revolves with the work, fitted into the main spindle of the
headstock.

The cone pulley is also attached with this arrangement, which is used to get various spindle
speed through electric motor.

The back gear arrangement is used for obtaining a wide range of slower speeds

Tail Stock
Tail stock commonly used for giving support to the circular job being turned on centers.
 Main Machining Operations on Lathe
1. Turning

2. Facing

3. Drilling

4. Boring

5. Reaming

6. Knurling

7. Grooving

8. Chamfering

9. Parting off

10. Thread cutting or threading

 Limitations of Conventional Machining Methods

 Increased workpiece hardness: decreased economic cutting speed. Hence, lower

productivity.

 Rapid improvements in the properties of materials (hardness, strength, etc)

Requires much superior quality of tool materials.

Tool material hardness should be greater than workpiece hardness.

 If work piece material hardness is greater than the tool material hardness. How are we
going to machine such a work piece material?
 Need of Non-Conventional Manufacturing Processes
 Modern or Non-traditional manufacturing processes is defined as a group of processes
that remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal,
electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a
sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional manufacturing processes.

 Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to machine by traditional machining
processes such as turning, drilling, shaping and milling.

 Non-traditional machining processes, also called advanced manufacturing processes,

are employed where traditional machining processes are not feasible, satisfactory or
economical.

Ex :Tungsten Carbide, Stainless Steel, Titanium and its alloys etc.

 Important characteristics of Non-Traditional Machining Processes

 Process performance is independent of workpiece: Strength & Hardness are not a barrier.

 Performance depends on thermal, electrical and chemical properties of workpiece materials.

 Uses different kinds of energy in direct form.

 In general, low MRR but better quality products.

 Comparatively high initial investment cost of machine tools and high operating cost
 CLASSIFICATION OF NCM PROCESSES:
1. Mechanical Processes
a) Abrasive Jet Machining(AJM)
b) Ultrasonic Machining(USM)
c) Water Jet Machining(WJM)
2. Abrasive Water Jet Machining(AWJM)
3. Electro chemical Processes
a) Electrochemical Machining(ECM)
b) Electrochemical Grinding(ECG)
c) Electro Jet Drilling(EJD)
4. Electro-Thermal Processes
a) Electro-discharge machining(EDM)
b) Laser Jet Machining(LJM)
c) Electron Beam Machining(EBM)
5. Chemical Processes
a) Chemical Milling(CHM)
b) Photochemical Milling(PCM)
Brief Overview on any one of Non-conventional machining
process

ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

 ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
 USM is mechanical material removal process or an abrasive process used to erode holes or
cavities on hard or brittle workpiece by using shaped tools, high frequency mechanical motion
and an abrasive slurry.

 USM offers a solution to the expanding need for machining brittle materials such as single
crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and increasing complex operations to provide
intricate shapes and workpiece profiles.

 It is therefore used extensively in machining hard and brittle materials that are difficult to
machine by traditional manufacturing processes.

 The hard particles in slurry are accelerated toward the surface of the workpiece by a tool
oscillating at a frequency up to 100 KHz - through repeated abrasions, the tool machines a cavity
of a cross section identical to its own. A schematic representation of USM is shown in Figure.
ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
 ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
Working:
 In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25
kHz) with an amplitude of around 15 – 50 μm over the workpiece.

Generally the tool is pressed downward with a feed force, F. Between the tool and workpiece

 the machining zone is flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in the form of a water
based slurry.

 As the tool vibrates over the workpiece, the abrasive particles act as the indenters and indent
both the work material and the tool.

 The abrasive particles, as they indent, the work material, would remove the same, particularly
if the work material is brittle, due to crack initiation, propagation and brittle fracture of the
material.

 USM is mainly used for machining brittle materials {which are poor conductors of electricity
and thus cannot be processed by Electrochemical and Electro-discharge machining.
 ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
Mechanism of material removal:

 Material removal primarily occurs due to the indentation of the hard abrasive grits on the
brittle work material.

 As the tool vibrates, it leads to indentation of the abrasive grits.

 During indentation, due to Hertzian contact stresses, cracks would develop just below the
contact site.

 As indentation progresses the cracks would propagate due to increase in stress and
ultimately lead to brittle fracture of the work material under each individual interaction site
between the abrasive grits and the workpiece.

The tool material should be such that indentation by the abrasive grits does not lead to brittle
failure. Thus the tools are made of tough, strong and ductile materials like steel, stainless steel
and other ductile metallic alloys.
 Process Parameters of USM
The main process parameters of USM are listed below:
 Amplitude of vibration (ao) – 15 – 50 μm

 Frequency of vibration (f) – 19 – 25 kHz

 Feed force (F) – related to tool dimensions

 Feed pressure (p)

 Abrasive size – 15 μm – 150 μm

 Abrasive material – Al2O3 - SiC - B4C - Boronsilicarbide - Diamond

 Flow strength of work material

 Flow strength of the tool material

 Contact area of the tool – A

 Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry – C
The metal removal rate and
surface finish depend on size of
abrasive particles. Coarse grains
give higher MRR, but lower
surface finish. Fine grains give
good surface finish, but MRR is
low. In USM process, the
abrasive of about 30 to 60% by
volume are suspended in liquid
medium
 Advantages of ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
 It can be used to machine hard, brittle, fragile and non-conductive materials.

 No heat is generated in work, therefore, no significant changes in physical structure of the

work material.

 Non-metal (because of the poor electrical conductivity) that cannot be machined by EDM and
ECM can very well be machined by USM.

 It is a burr less and distortion less processes.

 It can be adopted in conjunction with other new technologies like EDM, ECG, ECM.

 High accuracy with good surface finish can be achieved.

 Possesses the capability of drilling circular and non-circular holes in very hard materials like
ceramics and other brittle materials.
 Disadvantages of ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
 Low metal removal rate.

 It is difficult to drill deep holes, as slurry movement is restricted.

 Frontal and side tool wear rate is high due to abrasive particles, especially when cutting steel
and carbides. Side wear produces less accurate holes and cavities.

 Tools made from brass, tungsten carbide, MS or tool steel wear from the action of abrasive grit
with a ratio that ranges from 1:1 to 200:1.

 USM can be used only when the hardness of the work is more than 45 HRC. 6. It is not
economical for soft materials.

 Not suitable for heavy stock removal.

 Every job needs a specific tool. Therefore, tool cost is high.

 The abrasive slurry should be changed regularly to replace worn out particles. Therefore
additional cost is involved.
ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)