Ernest Rutherford

Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of

The Right Honourable
Nelson, (30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937), was a
New Zealand physicist who was a pioneering The Lord Rutherford of Nelson
OM FRS HonFRSE
researcher in both atomic and nuclear physics. He has
been described as "the father of nuclear physics",[7]
and "the greatest experimentalist since Michael
Faraday".[8] In 1908, he was awarded the Nobel Prize
in Chemistry "for his investigations into the
disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of
radioactive substances." He was the first Oceanian
Nobel laureate, and the first to perform the awarded
work in Canada.

Rutherford's discoveries include the concept of

radioactive half-life, the radioactive element radon,
and the differentiation and naming of alpha and beta
radiation. Together with Thomas Royds, Rutherford is
credited with proving that alpha radiation is composed
of helium nuclei.[9][10] In 1911, he theorized that atoms Rutherford, c. 1920s
have their charge concentrated in a very small 44th President of the Royal Society
nucleus.[11] He arrived at this theory through his
In office
discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering
1925–1930
during the gold foil experiment performed by Hans
Geiger and Ernest Marsden. In 1912 he invited Niels Preceded by Charles Scott Sherrington
Bohr to join his lab, leading to the Bohr-Rutherford Succeeded by Frederick Gowland Hopkins
model of the atom. In 1917, he performed the first Personal details
artificially induced nuclear reaction by conducting Born 30 August 1871
experiments in which nitrogen nuclei were bombarded Brightwater, Nelson, Colony
with alpha particles. These experiments led him to of New Zealand
discover the emission of a subatomic particle that he
Died 19 October 1937 (aged 66)
initially called the "hydrogen atom", but later (more
Cambridge, England
precisely) renamed the proton.[12][13] He is also
credited with developing the atomic numbering system Resting place Westminster Abbey, London
alongside Henry Moseley. His other achievements Alma mater University of New Zealand
include advancing the fields of radio communications University of Cambridge
and ultrasound technology. Known for See list

Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish Discovering the atomic

Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1919. nucleus
Under his leadership, the neutron was discovered by Discovering the proton
James Chadwick in 1932. In the same year, the first Discovery of radon
controlled experiment to split the nucleus was Rutherford backscattering
performed by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, spectroscopy
working under his direction. In honour of his scientific Rutherford model
advancements, Rutherford was recognised as a baron Rutherford scattering
of the United Kingdom. After his death in 1937, he experiments
was buried in Westminster Abbey near Charles Darwin
Alpha decay
and Isaac Newton. The chemical element
rutherfordium (104Rf) was named after him in 1997. Alpha particle
Nuclear reaction
Nuclear transmutation
Early life and education Radiometric dating
Rutherford (unit)
Ernest Rutherford was born on 30 August 1871 in
Coining the term artificial
Brightwater, a town near Nelson, New Zealand.[14] He
disintegration
was the fourth of twelve children of James Rutherford,
an immigrant farmer and mechanic from Perth, Spouse Mary Georgina Newton
​
Scotland, and his wife Martha Thompson, a ​(m. 1900)​
schoolteacher from Hornchurch, England.[14][15][16] Children 1
Rutherford's birth certificate was mistakenly written as Relatives Ralph H. Fowler (son-in-
'Earnest'. He was known by his family as Ern.[14][16] law)

When Rutherford was five he moved to Foxhill, New Awards See list
Zealand, and attended Foxhill School. At age 11 in FRS (1903)
1883, the Rutherford family moved to Havelock, a Bakerian Medal (1904,
town in the Marlborough Sounds. The move was made 1920)
to be closer to the flax mill Rutherford's father
Rumford Medal (1904)
developed.[16] Ernest studied at Havelock School.[17]
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
In 1887, on his second attempt, he won a scholarship (1908)
to study at Nelson College.[16] On his first examination Elliott Cresson Medal
attempt, he received 75 out of 130 marks for (1910)
geography, 76 out of 130 for history, 101 out of 140 for Barnard Medal for
English, and 200 out of 200 for arithmetic, totalling Meritorious Service to
452 out of 600 marks.[18] With these marks, he had the Science (1910)
highest of anyone from Nelson.[19] When he was International Membership of
awarded the scholarship, he had received 580 out of NAS (1911)
600 possible marks.[20] After being awarded the
Matteucci Medal (1913)
scholarship, Havelock School presented him with a
Hector Memorial Medal
five-volume set of books titled The Peoples of the
(1916)
World.[21] He studied at Nelson College between 1887
and 1889, and was head boy in 1889. He also played in Dalton Medal (1919)
the school's rugby team.[16] He was offered a cadetship Copley Medal (1922)
in government service, but he declined as he still had Franklin Medal (1924)
15 months of college remaining.[22] Order of Merit (1925)
Albert Medal (1928)
Faraday Medal (1930)
In 1889, after his second attempt, he won a scholarship Faraday Lectureship Prize
to study at Canterbury College, University of New (1936)
Zealand, between 1890 and 1894. He participated in its Wilhelm Exner Medal
debating society and the Science Society.[16] At (1936)
Canterbury, he was awarded a complex BA in Latin,
Scientific career
English, and Maths in 1892, a MA in Mathematics and
Physical Science in 1893, and a BSc in Chemistry and Fields Atomic physics
Geology in 1894.[23][24] Nuclear physics
Institutions McGill University
Thereafter, he invented a new form of radio receiver,
University of Manchester
and in 1895 Rutherford was awarded an 1851 Research
Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the University of Cambridge
Exhibition of 1851,[25][26] to travel to England for Academic Alexander Bickerton
postgraduate study at the Cavendish Laboratory, advisors J. J. Thomson[1]
University of Cambridge.[27] In 1897, he was awarded
Doctoral See list
a BA Research Degree and the Coutts-Trotter
students Nazir Ahmed[2]
Studentship from Trinity College, Cambridge.[23]
Norman Alexander
Edward Victor Appleton
Scientific career Robert William Boyle
James Chadwick
When Rutherford began his studies at Cambridge, he
was among the first 'aliens' (those without a Cambridge Rafi Muhammad
degree) allowed to do research at the university, and Chaudhry[3][4]
was additionally honoured to study under J. J. John Cockcroft
Thomson.[1] Norman Feather
Alexander McAulay
With Thomson's encouragement, Rutherford detected
radio waves at 0.5 miles (800 m), and briefly held the Cecil Powell
world record for the distance over which Henry DeWolf Smyth
electromagnetic waves could be detected, although Ernest Walton
when he presented his results at the British Association Evan James Williams
meeting in 1896, he discovered he had been outdone
C. E. Wynn-Williams
by Guglielmo Marconi, whose radio waves had sent a
Yulii Borisovich Khariton
message across nearly 10 miles (16 km).[28]
Zhang Wenyu[5][6]

Other notable See list

Work with radioactivity
students Edward Andrade
Again under Thomson's leadership, Rutherford worked
on the conductive effects of X-rays on gases, which led Patrick Blackett
to the discovery of the electron, the results first Niels Bohr
presented by Thomson in 1897.[29][30] Hearing of Bertram Boltwood
Henri Becquerel's experience with uranium, Harriet Brooks
Rutherford started to explore its radioactivity,
Edward Bullard
discovering two types that differed from X-rays in their
Charles Galton Darwin
Charles Drummond Ellis
penetrating power. Continuing his research in Canada, Kazimierz Fajans
in 1899 he coined the terms "alpha ray" and "beta ray" Thomas Gaskell
to describe these two distinct types of radiation.[31] Hans Geiger

In 1898, Rutherford was accepted to the chair of Otto Hahn

Macdonald Professor of physics position at McGill Douglas Hartree
University in Montreal, Canada, on Thomson's Pyotr Kapitsa
recommendation. [32] From 1900 to 1903, he was Daulat Singh Kothari
joined at McGill by the young chemist Frederick
George Laurence
Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921) for whom he
set the problem of identifying the noble gas emitted by Iven Mackay
the radioactive element thorium, a substance which Ernest Marsden
was itself radioactive and would coat other substances. Mark Oliphant
Once he had eliminated all the normal chemical Thomas Royds
reactions, Soddy suggested that it must be one of the Frederick Soddy
inert gases, which they named thoron. This substance
Suekichi Kinoshita
was later found to be 220Rn, an isotope of radon.[33][23]
They also found another substance they called 4th Cavendish Professor of Physics
224Rn,
Thorium X, later identified as and continued to In office
find traces of helium. They also worked with samples 1919–1937
of "Uranium X" (protactinium), from William Crookes,
Preceded by J. J. Thomson
and radium, from Marie Curie. Rutherford further
investigated thoron in conjunction with R.B. Owens Succeeded by Lawrence Bragg
and found that a sample of radioactive material of any Signature
size invariably took the same amount of time for half
the sample to decay (in this case, 111⁄2 minutes), a
phenomenon for which he coined the term "half-
life".[33] Rutherford and Soddy published their paper "Law of
Radioactive Change" to account for all their experiments. Until
then, atoms were assumed to be the indestructible basis of all
matter; and although Curie had suggested that radioactivity was an
atomic phenomenon, the idea of the atoms of radioactive
substances breaking up was a radically new idea. Rutherford and
Soddy demonstrated that radioactivity involved the spontaneous
disintegration of atoms into other, as yet, unidentified matter.[23]

In 1903, Rutherford considered a type of radiation, discovered

(but not named) by French chemist Paul Villard in 1900, as an
emission from radium, and realised that this observation must
represent something different from his own alpha and beta rays,
due to its very much greater penetrating power. Rutherford
therefore gave this third type of radiation the name of gamma
ray.[31] All three of Rutherford's terms are in standard use today – Rutherford in 1892, aged 21

other types of radioactive decay have since been discovered, but

Rutherford's three types are among the most common. In 1904, Rutherford suggested that radioactivity
provides a source of energy sufficient to explain the existence of the Sun for the many millions of years
required for the slow biological evolution on Earth proposed by biologists such as Charles Darwin. The
physicist Lord Kelvin had argued earlier for a much younger Earth, based on the insufficiency of known
energy sources, but Rutherford pointed out, at a lecture attended by Kelvin, that radioactivity could solve
this problem.[34] Later that year, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society,[35]
and in 1907 he returned to Britain to take the chair of physics at the Victoria University of
Manchester.[36]

In Manchester, Rutherford continued his work with alpha radiation. In conjunction with Hans Geiger, he
developed zinc sulfide scintillation screens and ionisation chambers to count alpha particles. By dividing
the total charge accumulated on the screen by the number counted, Rutherford determined that the charge
on the alpha particle was two.[37][38]: 61 In late 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds allowed
alphas to penetrate a very thin window into an evacuated tube. As they sparked the tube into discharge,
the spectrum obtained from it changed, as the alphas accumulated in the tube. Eventually, the clear
spectrum of helium gas appeared, proving that alphas were at least ionised helium atoms, and probably
helium nuclei.[39] In 1910 Rutherford, with Geiger and mathematician Harry Bateman published[40] their
classic paper[41]: 94 describing the first analysis of the distribution in time of radioactive emission, a
distribution now called the Poisson distribution.

Ernest Rutherford was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his investigations into the
disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances".[42][23]

Model of the atom

Rutherford continued to make ground-breaking discoveries long after receiving the Nobel prize in
1908.[38]: 63 Under his direction in 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden performed the Geiger–
Marsden experiment, which demonstrated the nuclear nature of atoms by measuring the deflection of
alpha particles passing through a thin gold foil.[43] Rutherford was inspired to ask Geiger and Marsden in
this experiment to look for alpha particles with very high deflection angles, which was not expected
according to any theory of matter at that time.[44][45] Such deflection angles, although rare, were found.
Reflecting on these results in one of his last lectures Rutherford was quoted as saying: "It was quite the
most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a
15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you."[46] It was Rutherford's
interpretation of this data that led him to propose the nucleus, a very small, charged region containing
much of the atom's mass.[47]

In 1912, Rutherford was joined by Niels Bohr (who postulated that electrons moved in specific orbits
about the compact nucleus). Bohr adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure to be consistent with Max
Planck's quantum hypothesis. The resulting Rutherford–Bohr model was the basis for quantum
mechanical atomic physics of Heisenberg which remains valid today.[23]

Piezoelectricity
During World War I, Rutherford worked on a top-secret project to solve the practical problems of
submarine detection. Both Rutherford and Paul Langevin suggested the use of piezoelectricity, and
Rutherford successfully developed a device which measured its output. The use of piezoelectricity then
became essential to the development of ultrasound as it is known
today. The claim that Rutherford developed sonar, however, is a
misconception, as subaquatic detection technologies utilise
Langevin's transducer.[48][49]

Discovery of the proton

Together with H.G. Moseley, Rutherford developed the atomic
numbering system in 1913. Rutherford and Moseley's experiments
used cathode rays to bombard various elements with streams of
electrons and observed that each element responded in a consistent
and distinct manner. Their research was the first to assert that each
element could be defined by the properties of its inner structures –
an observation that later led to the discovery of the atomic
nucleus.[23] This research led Rutherford to theorize that the
hydrogen atom (at the time the least massive entity known to bear
a positive charge) was a sort of "positive electron" – a component
of every atomic element.[50][51]

It was not until 1919 that Rutherford expanded upon his theory of Top: Expected results: alpha
the "positive electron" with a series of experiments beginning particles passing through the plum
shortly before the end of his time at Manchester. He found that pudding model of the atom
nitrogen, and other light elements, ejected a proton, which he undisturbed.
called a "hydrogen atom", when hit with α (alpha) particles.[23] In Bottom: Observed results: a small
portion of the particles were
particular, he showed that particles ejected by alpha particles
deflected, indicating a small,
colliding with hydrogen have unit charge and 1/4 the momentum concentrated charge. Diagram is not
of alpha particles.[52] to scale; in reality the nucleus is
vastly smaller than the electron
Rutherford returned to the Cavendish Laboratory in 1919, shell.
succeeding J. J. Thomson as the Cavendish professor and the
laboratory's director, posts that he held until his death in 1937.[53]
During his tenure, Nobel prizes were awarded to James Chadwick for discovering the neutron (in 1932),
John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton for an experiment that was to be known as splitting the atom using a
particle accelerator, and Edward Appleton for demonstrating the existence of the ionosphere.

Development of proton and neutron theory

In 1919–1920, Rutherford continued his research on the "hydrogen atom" to confirm that alpha particles
break down nitrogen nuclei and to affirm the nature of the products. This result showed Rutherford that
hydrogen nuclei were a part of nitrogen nuclei (and by inference, probably other nuclei as well). Such a
construction had been suspected for many years, on the basis of atomic weights that were integral
multiples of that of hydrogen; see Prout's hypothesis. Hydrogen was known to be the lightest element,
and its nuclei presumably the lightest nuclei. Now, because of all these considerations, Rutherford
decided that a hydrogen nucleus was possibly a fundamental building block of all nuclei, and also
possibly a new fundamental particle as well, since nothing was known to be lighter than that nucleus.
Thus, confirming and extending the work of Wilhelm Wien, who in 1898 discovered the proton in
streams of ionized gas,[54] in 1920 Rutherford postulated the hydrogen nucleus to be a new particle,
which he dubbed the proton.[55]

In 1921, while working with Niels Bohr, Rutherford theorized about the existence of neutrons, (which he
had christened in his 1920 Bakerian Lecture), which could somehow compensate for the repelling effect
of the positive charges of protons by causing an attractive nuclear force and thus keep the nuclei from
flying apart, due to the repulsion between protons. The only alternative to neutrons was the existence of
"nuclear electrons", which would counteract some of the proton charges in the nucleus, since by then it
was known that nuclei had about twice the mass that could be accounted for if they were simply
assembled from hydrogen nuclei (protons). But how these nuclear electrons could be trapped in the
nucleus, was a mystery.

In 1932, Rutherford's theory of neutrons was proved by his associate James Chadwick, who recognised
neutrons immediately when they were produced by other scientists and later himself, in bombarding
beryllium with alpha particles. In 1935, Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this
discovery.[56]

Induced nuclear reaction and probing the nucleus

Rutherford's four part article on the "Collision of α-particles with light atoms" he reported two additional
fundamental and far reaching discoveries.[38]: 237 First, he showed that at high angles the scattering of
alpha particles from hydrogen differed from the theoretical results he himself published in 1911. These
were the first results to probe the interactions that hold a nucleus together. Second, he showed that α-
particles colliding with nitrogen nuclei would react rather than simply bounce off. One product of the
reaction was the proton; the other product was shown by Patrick Blackett, Rutherford's colleague and
former student to be oxygen:
14N + α → 17O + p.

Blackett was awarded the Nobel prize in 1948 for his work in perfecting the high-speed cloud chamber
apparatus used to make that discovery and many others.[57] Rutherford therefore recognised "that the
nucleus may increase rather than diminish in mass as the result of collisions in which the proton is
expelled".[58]

Later years and honours

Rutherford received significant recognition in his home country of New Zealand. In 1901, he earned a
DSc from the University of New Zealand.[27] In 1916, he was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal.[59]
In 1925, Rutherford called for the New Zealand Government to support education and research, which
led to the formation of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) in the following
year.[60] In 1933, Rutherford was one of the two inaugural recipients of the T. K. Sidey Medal, which was
established by the Royal Society of New Zealand as an award for outstanding scientific research.[61][62]

Additionally, Rutherford received a number of awards from the British Crown. He was knighted in
1914.[63] He was appointed to the Order of Merit in the 1925 New Year Honours.[64] Between 1925 and
1930, he served as President of the Royal Society, and later as president of the Academic Assistance
Council which helped almost 1,000 university refugees from Germany.[8] In 1931 was raised to Baron of
the United Kingdom under the title Baron Rutherford of Nelson,[65] decorating his coat of arms with a
kiwi and a Māori warrior.[66] The title became extinct upon his unexpected death in 1937.

Since 1992 his portrait appears on the New Zealand one hundred-dollar note.

Personal life and death

Around 1888 Rutherford made his grandmother a wooden potato masher which is now in the collection
of the Royal Society.[67][68]

In 1900, Rutherford married Mary Georgina Newton (1876–1954),[69] at St Paul's Anglican Church,
Papanui in Christchurch. (He had become engaged to her before leaving New Zealand.)[70][71] They had
one daughter, Eileen Mary (1901–1930); she married the physicist Ralph Fowler, and died during the
birth of her fourth child. Rutherford's hobbies included golf and motoring.[23]

For some time before his death, Rutherford had a small hernia, which he neglected to have repaired, and
it eventually became strangulated, rendering him violently ill. He had an emergency operation in London,
but died in Cambridge four days later, on 19 October 1937, at age 66, of what physicians termed
"intestinal paralysis".[72] After cremation at Golders Green Crematorium,[72] he was given the high
honour of burial in Westminster Abbey, near Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, and other illustrious British
scientists.[23][73]

Legacy
Rutherford is considered to be among the greatest scientists in
history. At the opening session of the 1938 Indian Science
Congress, which Rutherford had been expected to preside over
before his death, astrophysicist James Jeans spoke in his place and
deemed him "one of the greatest scientists of all time", saying:

In his flair for the right line of approach to a problem, as

well as in the simple directness of his methods of attack,
[Rutherford] often reminds us of Faraday, but he had
two great advantages which Faraday did not possess,
first, exuberant bodily health and energy, and second,
the opportunity and capacity to direct a band of
enthusiastic co-workers. Great though Faraday's output
of work was, it seems to me that to match Rutherford's
work in quantity as well as in quality, we must go back A statue of a young Ernest
to Newton. In some respects he was more fortunate than Rutherford at his memorial in
Brightwater, New Zealand.
 Newton. Rutherford was ever the happy warrior – happy in hi
happy in its human contacts.[74]

Nuclear physics
Rutherford is known as "the father of nuclear physics" because his research, and work done under him as
laboratory director, established the nuclear structure of the atom and the essential nature of radioactive
decay as a nuclear process.[7][75][29] Patrick Blackett, a research fellow working under Rutherford, using
natural alpha particles, demonstrated induced nuclear transmutation. Later, Rutherford's team, using
protons from an accelerator, demonstrated artificially-induced nuclear reactions and transmutation.[76]

Rutherford died too early to see Leó Szilárd's idea of controlled nuclear chain reactions come into being.
However, a speech of Rutherford's about his artificially-induced transmutation in lithium, printed in the
12 September 1933 issue of The Times, was reported by Szilárd to have been his inspiration for thinking
of the possibility of a controlled energy-producing nuclear chain reaction.[77]

Rutherford's speech touched on the 1932 work of his students John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton in
"splitting" lithium into alpha particles by bombardment with protons from a particle accelerator they had
constructed. Rutherford realised that the energy released from the split lithium atoms was enormous, but
he also realised that the energy needed for the accelerator, and its essential inefficiency in splitting atoms
in this fashion, made the project an impossibility as a practical source of energy (accelerator-induced
fission of light elements remains too inefficient to be used in this way, even today). Rutherford's speech
in part, read:

We might in these processes obtain very much more energy than the proton supplied, but on the
average we could not expect to obtain energy in this way. It was a very poor and inefficient way
of producing energy, and anyone who looked for a source of power in the transformation of the
atoms was talking moonshine. But the subject was scientifically interesting because it gave
insight into the atoms.[78][79]

The element rutherfordium, Rf, Z=104, was named in honour of Rutherford in 1997.[80]

Publications
Radio-activity (https://archive.org/details/radioactivity00ruthgoog) (1904),[81] 2nd ed. (1905),
ISBN 978-1-60355-058-1
Radioactive Transformations (1906) (https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran02ruthgoog),
ISBN 978-1-60355-054-3
Radioaktive Substanzen und ihre Strahlungen (https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryM
anager?pid=11020002). Cambridge: University press. 1933.
Radioaktive Substanzen und ihre Strahlungen (https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryM
anager?pid=6739518) (in German). Leipzig: Akademische Verlaggesellschaft. 1913.
Radioactive Substances and their Radiations (1913) (https://archive.org/details/radioactives
ubst00ruthuoft)[82]
The Electrical Structure of Matter (1926)
 The Artificial Transmutation of the Elements (1933)
The Newer Alchemy (1937)

Articles
Ernest Rutherford (1899). "Uranium Radiation and the Electrical conduction Produced by it"
(https://archive.org/details/londonedinburgh5471899lon/page/108/mode/2up). Philosophical
Magazine. 47 (284): 109–163.
Ernest Rutherford (1903). "XV. The Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the easily absorbed
Rays from Radium" (https://archive.org/details/londonedinburgh651903lond/page/176/mode/
2up). Philosophical Magazine. 6. 5: 177-187.
Ernest Rutherford (1906). "The Mass and Velocity of the α particles expelled from Radium
and Actinium" (https://zenodo.org/record/1430814). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 12
(70): 348–371. doi:10.1080/14786440609463549 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440609
463549).
Ernest Rutherford; Thomas Royds (1909). "XXI. The nature of the α particle from radioactive
substances" (https://archive.org/details/londonedinburg6171909lond/page/280/mode/2up).
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 17
(98): 281–286. doi:10.1080/14786440208636599 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440208
636599). ISSN 1941-5982 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1941-5982).
Ernest Rutherford (1911). "The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure
of the Atom" (https://web.mit.edu/8.13/8.13c/references-fall/rutherford/rutherford-scattering-o
f-alpha-and-beta-particles.pdf) (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 21 (125): 669–688.
doi:10.1080/14786440508637080 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440508637080).
Ernest Rutherford (1912). "The origin of β and γ rays from radioactive substances" (https://z
enodo.org/record/1430890). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 24 (142): 453–462.
doi:10.1080/14786441008637351 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786441008637351).
Ernest Rutherford; John Mitchell Nuttal (1913). "Scattering of α-Particles by Gases" (https://
archive.org/details/ClassicalScientificPapersPhysics). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 26
(154): 702–712. doi:10.1080/14786441308635014 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1478644130
8635014).
Ernest Rutherford (1914). "The Structure of the Atom" (http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hist
ory/Rutherford-1914.html). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 27 (159): 488–498.
doi:10.1080/14786440308635117 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440308635117).
Ernest Rutherford (1938). "Forty Years of Physics" (https://archive.org/details/backgroundto
mode032734mbp/page/n85/mode/2up). In Needham, Joseph; Pagel, Walter (eds.).
Background to Modern Science: Ten Lectures at Cambridge arranged by the History of
Science Committee 1936. Cambridge University Press.
Ernest Rutherford (1913). Radioactive Substances and their Radiations (https://archive.org/
details/radioactivesubst00ruthuoft). Cambridge University Press.
Ernest Rutherford (1936). "Radioactivity and Atomic Structure". Journal of the Chemical
Society. 1936: 508–516. doi:10.1039/JR9360000508 (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FJR936000
0508).
"Disintegration of the Radioactive Elements" Harper's Monthly Magazine, January 1904,
pages 279 to 284.

See also
Bateman equation
Hydrophone
 Magnetic detector
Neutron generator
Royal Society of New Zealand
Rutherford (unit)
Rutherfordine
The Rutherford Journal
List of presidents of the Royal Society

Footnotes

References
1. "Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041955/htt
ps://www.aps.org/programs/outreach/history/historicsites/rutherfordsoddy.cfm). Archived
from the original (https://www.aps.org/programs/outreach/history/historicsites/rutherfordsodd
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Further reading
Badash, Lawrence (2008) [2004]. "Rutherford, Ernest". Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/35891 (https://doi.org/
10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F35891). (Subscription or UK public library membership (https://w
ww.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public) required.)
Cragg, R. H. (1971). "Lord Ernest Rutherford of Nelson (1871–1937)". Royal Institute of
Chemistry, Reviews. 4 (2): 129. doi:10.1039/RR9710400129 (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FRR
9710400129).
Campbell, John. (1999) Rutherford: Scientist Supreme (http://www.rutherford.org.nz/bkcamr
ss.htm), AAS Publications, Christchurch, ISBN 0-4730-5700-X
Marsden, E. (1954). "The Rutherford Memorial Lecture, 1954. Rutherford-His Life and Work,
1871–1937". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 226 (1166): 283–305.
Bibcode:1954RSPSA.226..283M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954RSPSA.226..283
M). doi:10.1098/rspa.1954.0254 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1954.0254).
S2CID 73381519 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73381519).
 Reeves, Richard (2008). A Force of Nature: The Frontier Genius of Ernest Rutherford. New
York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-33369-8
Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster.
ISBN 0-671-44133-7
Wilson, David (1983). Rutherford. Simple Genius, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 0-340-23805-
4

External links
Biography and web exhibit (https://history.aip. External videos
org/exhibits/rutherford/) American Institute of
Physics Presentation by Richard Reeves on his
book A Force of Nature: The Frontier Genius of
Ernest Rutherford (https://www.nobelprize.or
g/laureate/167) on Nobelprize.org including Ernest Rutherford,, January 16, 2008 (https://w
the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1908 The ww.c-span.org/video/?201807-1/a-force-natur
Chemical Nature of the Alpha Particles from e), C-SPAN
Radioactive Substances
The Rutherford Museum (http://www.physics.
mcgill.ca/museum/rutherford_museum.htm)
Rutherford Scientist Supreme (http://www.rutherford.org.nz/)
Newspaper clippings about Ernest Rutherford (http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/0248
60) in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
"Ernest Rutherford, 150th anniversary" (https://sebastienfritsch.wixsite.com/ernestrutherford
150?lang=en). Retrieved 29 June 2024. Well-source site with details on Rutherford's life.

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