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 EIGHTH EDITION

CRIMINOLOGY
A Sociological Understanding

Steven E. Barkan
University of Maine
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Barkan, Steven E., author.
Title: Criminology : a sociological understanding / Steven E Barkan.
Description: Eighth Edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Pearson, [2023] | Revised
edition of the author’s Criminology, [2018] | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022011386 (print) | LCCN 2022011387 (ebook) | ISBN
9780137636181 (paperback) | ISBN 9780137636136 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Crime—Sociological aspects. | Criminology.
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This page intentionally left blank
Dedication

To Barb,
Dave,
and Joe,
and in memory of my parents

v
▼
 Brief Contents

Preface xxi

PART 1
Understanding Crime and Victimization
Chapter 1 Criminology and the Sociological Perspective 1
Chapter 2 Public Opinion, the News Media, and the Crime Problem 17
Chapter 3 The Measurement and Patterning of Criminal Behavior 38
Chapter 4 Victims and Victimization 67

PART 2
Explaining Crime
Chapter 5 Classical and Neoclassical Perspectives 92
Chapter 6 Biological and Psychological Explanations 108
Chapter 7 Sociological Theories: Emphasis on Social Structure 130
Chapter 8 Sociological Theories: Emphasis on Social Process 151
Chapter 9 Sociological Theories: Critical Perspectives 174

PART 3
Criminal Behaviors
Chapter 10 Violent Crime: Homicide, Aggravated Assault, and Robbery 193
Chapter 11 Violence Against Women 223
Chapter 12 Property Crime and Fraud 242
Chapter 13 White-Collar and Organized Crime 260
Chapter 14 Political Crime 286
Chapter 15 Consensual Crime 305

PART 4
Controlling and Preventing Crime
Chapter 16 Policing: Dilemmas of Crime Control in a Democratic Society 327
Chapter 17 Prosecution and Punishment 347
Chapter 18 Conclusion: How Can We Reduce Crime? 367

vi
▼
Contents

NEW TO THIS EDITION XIX

PREFACE XXI

PART 1
Understanding Crime and Victimization
Chapter 1 Criminology and the Sociological Perspective 1
The Sociological Perspective 3
The Mutual Relevance of Sociology and Criminology 4
The Rise of Sociological Criminology 5
Criminal Law: Theoretical Underpinnings and Goals 7
Consensus and Conflict in the Creation of Criminal Law 8
Goals of Criminal Law 9
Criminal Law: Origins, Types of Crime, and Criminal Liability 9
Origins of Criminal Law 9
Types of Crime 10
Criminal Liability 10
Research Methods in Criminology 11
Surveys 11
Experiments 12
Qualitative Research: Observing and Intensive Interviewing 13
Research Using Existing Data 14
Comparative and Historical Research 14
Conclusion 14
Summary 15
Key Terms 15
What Would You Do? 16

Chapter 2 Public Opinion, the News Media, and the Crime Problem 17
Public Opinion about Crime: Laying the Groundwork 19
A Brief Look Back 19
Public Opinion and Crime Policy 19
Overdramatization of Crime by the News Media 20
Crime Waves 21
Overreporting of Violent Crime 22
Violence in the Popular Media 22
Other Problems with Media Coverage 23
People of Color 23
Youths 24

vii
▼
 Virtuous Victims 24
Additional Problems in Media Coverage 24
Effects of Media Coverage 25
Public Ignorance 25
Crime and Controversy Should the News Media
Disclose the Names of People Who Report a Rape? 25
Public Fear and Concern 26
Obscuring Underlying Forces 26
Diversion from White-Collar Crime 26
International Focus Crime Is Down in Scotland, but
Many Scots Think Otherwise 26
Racial and Ethnic Stereotyping 27
Research on Public Beliefs about Crime and
Punitiveness 27
Fear of Crime 27
Anger about Crime 31
Seriousness of Crime 32
Punitiveness 33
Research on Views about Criminal Justice 34
Views about the Police 34
Perceptions of Criminal Injustice 35
Views about Crime and Criminal Justice Spending 35
A Final Word on Public Beliefs 35
Conclusion 36
Summary 36
Key Terms 37
What Would You Do? 37

Chapter 3 The Measurement and Patterning of Criminal Behavior 38

The Uniform Crime Report and the National Incident-Based
Reporting System 40
How a Crime Becomes Official 40
Critiques of the UCR’s SRS Data and of Two
Alternatives 42
SRS Data 42
NIBRS 44
Calls to Police 44
National Crime Victimization Survey 45
Evaluating NCVS Data 46
Self-Report Studies 47
Critiques of Self-Report Studies 48
Assessing UCR, NCVS, and Self-Report Data 48
Recent Trends in U.S. Crime Rates 49
Geographical, Seasonal, and Climatological Patterning
of Criminal Behavior 50
Geographical Patterns 51
Crime and Controversy Why Did the Crime Rate Drop
After the Early 1990s? 52
International Focus Measuring Crime in Other Nations 52
Seasonal and Climatological Variations 53

Contents viii
▼
 Social Patterns of Criminal Behavior 55
Gender and Crime 55
Race, Ethnicity, and Crime 58
Social Class and Crime 61
Age and Crime 62
Conclusion 64
Summary 65
Key Terms 66
What Would You Do? 66

Chapter 4 Victims and Victimization 67

Geographical Patterns and Crime Characteristics
of Victimization 69
Some Conceptual Issues 69
Geographical Patterns 70
Crime Characteristics 71
Social Patterns of Victimization 72
Gender, Race, and Ethnicity 73
International Focus The International Crime Victim
Survey 74
Age 75
Household Income 75
Race, Gender, and Age Combined 76
LGBTQ Status 76
Victim–Offender Characteristics 77
The Victim–Offender Relationship: Strangers versus
Nonstrangers 77
The Intraracial Nature of Victimization 78
Understanding Victimization: Situational Explanations 79
Lifestyle and Routine Activities Theories 80
Deviant Lifestyles and Victimization 80
Crime and Controversy Victim Precipitation 81
Physical Proximity and Victimization 82
Understanding Victimization: Individual Traits 82
Low Self-Control and Lack of Prosocial Relationships 82
Childhood Problems 82
Mental Disorder 83
Puberty 83
Repeat Victimization 83
Explaining Sociodemographic Variation in Victimization 83
Victimization of College Students and of People without
Housing 84
Costs and Consequences of Victimization 86
Economic and Medical Costs and Consequences 86
Psychological Consequences 86
Social and Behavioral Consequences 87
Victimization by White-Collar Crime 88
Victims in the Criminal Justice System 88
Victims and Criminal Case Outcomes 89

Contents ix
▼
 Conclusion 89
Summary 90
Key Terms 91
What Would You Do? 91

PART 2
Explaining Crime
Chapter 5 Classical and Neoclassical Perspectives 92
Understanding Theories of Crime 93
From Theology to Science 94
God and Demons as Causes of Crime and Deviance 95
The Age of Reason 95
The Classical School of Criminology 96
The Rise of Positivism 97
Neoclassical Perspectives 98
Rational Choice Theory 98
Evaluating Rational Choice Theory 99
Deterrence Theory 99
Types of Deterrence 100
Taking a Closer Look at Deterrence 100
International Focus Mandatory Penalties and General
Deterrence in International Perspective 101
Research on Deterrence 102
Crime and Controversy Three-Strikes Laws Strike Out 102
Routine Activities Theory 103
Evaluating Routine Activities Theory 104
Theory and Policy: Classical and Neoclassical
Perspectives 105
Conclusion 105
Summary 106
Key Terms 107
What Would You Do? 107

Chapter 6 Biological and Psychological Explanations 108

Biological Explanations 109
Early Biological Explanations 110
Franz Gall: Phrenology 110
Cesare Lombroso: Atavism 110
Earnest Hooton: Biological Inferiority 111
William Sheldon: Body Shapes 112
Contemporary Biological Explanations: Heredity
and Genes 113
Early Research 113
Twin Studies 113
Adoption Studies 114
Molecular Genetics 114

Contents x
▼
 Evolutionary Biology 115
Chromosomal Abnormalities 115
Contemporary Biological Explanations: Brain
Abnormalities, Body Chemistry, Nutrition, and Perinatal
and Childhood Problems 115
Brain Abnormalities 115
Neurochemical Factors 116
Neurotransmitters 117
Nutrition and Diet 118
Perinatal Problems 118
Adverse Childhood Experiences 118
Lead and Other Toxins 119
Early Puberty 119
Evaluation of Biological Explanations 119
Crime and Controversy Does Abortion Lower the Crime
Rate? 120
The Value of Research on Maternal and Childhood
Problems 121
Psychological Explanations 121
Psychoanalytic Explanations 122
Moral Development, Intelligence, and Personality 123
Moral Development and Crime 123
Intelligence and Crime 124
Personality and Crime 124
International Focus Psychological Research in New
Zealand 125
Evaluation of Psychological Explanations 126
Abnormality or Normality? 126
Theory and Policy: Biological and Psychological
Explanations 127
Conclusion 128
Summary 128
Key Terms 129
What Would You Do? 129

Chapter 7 Sociological Theories: Emphasis on Social Structure 130

The Legacy of Durkheim 131
Social Disorganization and Social Ecology 133
Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay 134
Critiques of Social Disorganization Theory 134
The Revival of Social Disorganization Theory 135
Other Ecological Work 135
Crime and Controversy Closing the Window on
Crime? 136
Anomie Theory and Strain Theory 138
Evaluation of Anomie Theory 139
Defense and Extension of Anomie Theory 139
General Strain Theory 140
International Focus Strain, Immigration, and Rioting in
Europe 141

Contents xi
▼
 Subcultural Theories 142
Albert K. Cohen: School Failure and Delinquent
Subcultures 142
Walter B. Miller: Focal Concerns 143
Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin: Differential
Opportunity Theory 144
Marvin Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti: The Subculture
of Violence 145
Elijah Anderson: The Code of the Street 146
Prospects for Subcultural Explanations 146
Structural Theories and Gender 146
Theory and Policy: Structural Theories 147
Conclusion 148
Summary 149
Key Terms 150
What Would You Do? 150

Chapter 8 Sociological Theories: Emphasis on Social Process 151

Learning Theories 152
Edwin H. Sutherland: Differential Association Theory 154
Other Learning Theories 156
Evaluation of Learning Theories 157
Control Theories 157
Walter Reckless: Containment Theory 157
Gresham M. Sykes and David Matza: Neutralization
and Drift Theory 158
Travis Hirschi: Social Bonding Theory 159
International Focus Social Bonding in Japan 161
Crime and Controversy Does Dropping Out of School
Promote or Reduce Delinquency? 163
Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi: Self-Control
Theory 164
Charles R. Tittle: Control Balance Theory 165
Mark Colvin and Francis T. Cullen: Differential Social
Support and Coercion Theory 165
Life-Course Theories 166
Specific Life-Course Theories 167
The Promise and Problem of Theoretical Integration 169
Theory and Policy: Social Process Theories 170
Conclusion 171
Summary 172
Key Terms 173
What Would You Do? 173

Chapter 9 Sociological Theories: Critical Perspectives 174

Labeling Theory 176
The Relativist Definition of Crime and Deviance 176
The Imposition of the Deviant Label 177
The Negative Consequences of Labeling 178

Contents xii
▼
 Evaluation of Labeling Theory 179
Crime and Controversy How Should We Deal with
Juveniles in Trouble with the Law? 180
Conflict Theory 181
Consensus and Conflict Perspectives in Sociology 181
Conflict Perspectives in Criminology 181
Evaluation of Conflict Theory 182
Radical Theory 182
Marx and Engels on Crime and Law 182
Willem Bonger: Capitalism, Egoism, and Crime 183
International Focus Crime and the Economy in China,
Vietnam, and Russia 183
Jerome Hall: The Law of Theft 184
William Chambliss: The Law of Vagrancy 184
Contemporary Radical Views on Crime and Law 184
Evaluation of Radical Criminology 185
Left Realism and Peacemaking Criminology 186
Feminist Theories 186
An Overview of Feminist Perspectives in Criminology 186
The Scope of Feminist Theory and Research 187
A Final Word on Feminism 190
Theory and Policy: Critical Perspectives 190
Conclusion 191
Summary 191
Key Terms 192
What Would You Do? 192

PART 3
Criminal Behaviors
Chapter 10 Violent Crime: Homicide, Aggravated Assault,
and Robbery 193
Homicide 195
Defining Homicide 195
Patterning and Social Dynamics of Homicide 196
Trends in U.S. Homicide Rates 200
Aggravated Assault 201
Major Aspects of Aggravated Assault 202
Explaining Homicide and Aggravated Assault 202
Why Does the United States Have a Higher Homicide Rate
than Other Wealthy Democracies? 202
Why Are U.S. Homicides and Aggravated Assaults More
Common in Urban Areas than Elsewhere? 203
Why Do Men Commit Almost All Homicides and
Aggravated Assaults? 203
International Focus Lethal Violence in Mexico 204
Why Do Black Americans and Certain Other People of
Color Have Higher Rates of Homicide and Aggravated
Assault? 204

Contents xiii
▼
 Robbery 205
Defining Robbery 205
Extent and Patterning of Robbery 205
Types of Robbers 207
Explaining Robbery 207
Special Topics in Violent Crime 208
Violence by Women 208
Workplace Violence 209
Mass Murder and Serial Killing 209
Hate Crime 212
Child Abuse and Elder Abuse 214
Mass Media and Violence 216
Firearms, Crime, and Violence 217
Crime and Controversy Do “Stand Your Ground” Laws
Make Sense? 218
Reducing Violent Crime 220
What History Tells Us 220
Conclusion 221
Summary 221
Key Terms 222
What Would You Do? 222

Chapter 11 Violence Against Women 223

Overview: The Gendered Nature of Violent Crime 224
An International Problem 225
Defining Rape and Sexual Assault and Intimate Partner
Violence 225
Extent of Violence Against Women 226
Rape and Sexual Assault 226
Intimate Partner Violence 227
Stalking 228
Crime and Controversy “All I See Is Blood”: Rape and
Sexual Assault in the Military 229
Social Patterning of Intimate Partner Violence Against
Women 229
Age 230
Social Class 230
Race and Ethnicity 230
Explaining Violence Against Women 232
International Focus The Nordic Paradox: Sexual
Violence in the Nordic Nations 232
Gender, Economic, and Racial Inequality 233
Cultural Myths Supporting Violence Against Women 234
Other Factors and Perspectives 236
Reducing Violence Against Women 237
Arresting Batterers: Deterrence or Escalation? 238
Conclusion 240
Summary 240
Key Terms 240
What Would You Do? 241

Contents xiv
▼
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Fig. 167.—Transverse section through the nasal cavities near their
centre (normal).

Symptoms. The dominant symptom is difficulty in breathing,

both when moving and eating, a difficulty which is sometimes so
considerable as to cause snoring respiration or roaring. Nevertheless,
examination of the trachea and of the lung, visual examination of the
lower portions of the nasal cavities, and manual examination of the
pharynx, larynx and glottis give only negative results. It may even
happen, as occurred in the case from which the illustration herewith
was taken, that percussion of the maxillary sinus reveals normal
resonance.
In the case of tumours of small size the forehead is not deformed.
When, on the other hand, the tumour partly obstructs the nasal
cavities it may thrust on one side the septum nasi and externally
cause well-marked asymmetry of the face. Sero-mucous or muco-
purulent discharge then occurs.
 The diagnosis is somewhat difficult, for continuous or temporary
roaring (or at any rate difficulty of respiration), being the dominant
symptom, must be distinguished from roaring due to a laryngeal
lesion like paralysis or tumour formation, from perilaryngeal
compression due to enlarged retro-pharyngeal glands, and from
tracheal or pulmonary lesions; and its origin must be located in the
nasal cavities.

Fig. 168.—Transverse section through the nasal cavities:

myxoma of the right side and of the maxillary sinus.
Deformity of the forehead and face.

The prognosis is grave, in consequence of the difficulty of

exploring the depth of these cavities and of the possible nature of the
tumour. Nevertheless, in the case of simple myxomata permanent
recovery usually follows extirpation.
 Treatment is confined to extirpation, which is quite possible in
the case of pedunculated tumours; in the case of sessile tumours free
trepanation of the roof of the nasal cavities becomes necessary. The
operation is quite safe.

PURULENT COLLECTIONS IN THE NASAL SINUSES. NASAL

GLEET.

From the clinical point of view two varieties of this condition may
be distinguished—inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
maxillary sinus and inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
frontal sinus and of the horn core. These forms of inflammation
frequently lead to suppuration. The pus collects in the depressions
and divisions of the frontal or maxillary sinus.

PURULENT COLLECTIONS IN THE FRONTAL SINUS.

Causation. In the majority of cases inflammation of the mucous

membrane of the frontal sinus is produced by external causes:
fractures of the horns and horn core accompanied by hæmorrhage
into the horn core; fractures of the horn with exposure of the sinus of
the horn core; wounds and violent blows on the occipital region or
the frontal bone; cracks or depressions of the external wall of the
sinus, etc.
In all these cases, whether blood is effused or the mucous
membrane of the sinus is merely infiltrated with serum, infection
may be produced by germs being deposited from the air passing
through the nasal cavities and causing suppuration.
Purulent collections in the frontal sinus may result from continued
irritation, like that due to a badly fitting yoke. They also occur as an
accidental complication of general diseases like gangrenous coryza.
Symptoms. The catarrh or purulent collection in the sinus may
be unilateral or bilateral, and the symptoms vary, according to the
form which it assumes.
Unilateral collections.—Nasal hæmorrhage is often the first
symptom, but this is often regarded as of little importance, because
the formation of pus does not occur until very much later. The
animal shows ill-defined pain, loses appetite, remains dull and
somnolent, and carries its head on one side. The horn on the injured
side is hot and sensitive, and at a later stage the eye becomes affected
by contiguity of tissue. It is then swollen, closed, and watery; the
conjunctiva is infiltrated, and somewhat inflamed. Sensibility and
partial or complete dulness of the affected side may be detected by
palpation and percussion. On the animal being made to cough, a
yellowish or greyish-white discharge of very fœtid and sometimes
putrid character escapes.
Bilateral collections.—Catarrh is rarely bilateral at first; but if the
unilateral lesion is not treated, it affects the median septum dividing
the two cavities, and the inflammation extends to the second sinus.
The animal then shows dull pain, and exhibits marked depression;
sometimes it appears quite prostrate. The head is carried low and
inclined towards the ground, while the above-mentioned ocular
symptoms and the indications furnished by palpation and percussion
extend to both sides. Coughing produces momentarily a double
discharge, which the animal disposes of after the fashion of horned
cattle.
Diagnosis. The diagnosis only presents difficulty in the early
stages. Later the warmth and sensitiveness of the horns, the partial
dulness, offensive character of the discharge, etc., render diagnosis
easy.
The disease is not likely to be mistaken for gangrenous coryza,
despite the condition of the eyes, because it develops slowly,
progressively, and without marked fever.
Prognosis. If treated early, unilateral or bilateral collections of
pus in the sinuses are capable of cure, but later when bodily health is
impaired and the local lesions of the mucous membrane very
pronounced, there is less chance of success.
Lesions. The initial lesions consist in cracks, fissures, or fractures
of the bones of the face or exostoses of traumatic origin. In other
cases the mucous membrane alone is affected. As a result of chronic
irritation it becomes thickened, inflamed, and ulcerated, and
granulates freely. The depressions in the sinuses contain grumous,
fœtid pus, which irritates the surrounding tissues and produces pain
and general symptoms of cerebral irritation, which are sometimes
very disquieting.
Treatment. Numerous methods of treatment were formerly
recommended, such as absolute rest, bleeding, cold affusions,
perforation of a horn, section of a horn, etc. None of these is of any
value.
At first, provided only a certain degree of sensitiveness and simple
catarrh without suppuration exist, antiseptic fumigations with tar,
carbolic acid, thymol, etc., are useful; but later, when pus has
formed, they are useless. At this period the only rational and
efficacious treatment consists in trepanation. In unilateral
collections three openings are necessary.
The first is an opening into the sinus of the horn core. It is made ⅜
to ¾ of an inch above the horn-secreting band of the horn. It must
not be forgotten, however, in planning such an opening that the
sinus of the horn core only exists in a rudimentary condition in
young animals, and that it is scarcely possible to trephine the horns
before the patient is three years of age.
The second opening is made towards the upper part of the frontal
sinus about ¾ inch below the horn-secreting ring at the base of the
horn and in a line with the axis of the horn core itself. Whatever the
animal’s age and however little the sinuses may be developed, this
opening is certain to expose the cavity of the frontal sinus.
In old animals where the frontal sinus is enormously developed,
and where very large depressions exist in the orbital region, a third
opening should be made just above a transverse line uniting the
upper margins of the two orbits and inside the suborbital suture.
These openings having been made, treatment consists—firstly, in
completely washing out the cavity with boiled water, cooled to 95° or
100° Fahr.; and, secondly, in injecting antiseptic and astringent
solutions so as to check the formation of pus. Among such may be
mentioned 3 per cent. carbolic solution, 5 per cent. carbolic
glycerine, 2 per cent. solution of iodine in iodide of potassium, etc.
Whatever the drugs employed, the cavities should be washed out
every day, first with plain sterilised water, and then with antiseptic
solutions at the body temperature, since cold solutions often cause
inflammation of the mucous membrane of the opposite sinus.
 PURULENT COLLECTIONS IN THE MAXILLARY SINUS.

This disease is much rarer than that of the frontal sinus, and only
within the last few years (Ries, 1899) has a really good description
been given of it.
The causation is imperfectly understood. Injuries to the
suborbital region and maxillary ridge, caries of the molar teeth, and
inflammation occurring during the development of general diseases
represent the principal causes.
The dominating and characteristic symptom of the presence of pus
in the maxillary sinus consists in incessant snorting, accompanied by
violent movements of the head and the discharge of purulent or
muco-purulent material.
At the beginning of these attacks of snorting, which are produced
by the reflux of pus from the sinus towards the nasal cavities, the
respiration becomes snoring and rapid, and the animal makes
sniffing movements as though the nasal cavities were partially
obstructed. After these crises, the respiration again becomes silent.
Contrary to what has been observed in purulent collections in the
frontal sinus, the discharge is unilateral, reddish yellow in colour,
viscous in consistence, and is accompanied by clots of a gelatinous
material or even of blood.
During the attacks of snorting, the discharge resembles that of
croupal or pseudo-membranous bronchitis, but the material
discharged is not moulded on the internal shape of the bronchi. The
masses of discharge are irregular in form, and appear as though
made up of fibrous tissue matted together. Attention having been
attracted by the discharge, exploration of the trachea and chest
reveals nothing; on an examination of the sinuses, however,
palpation and percussion betray a certain amount of sensitiveness,
together with partial or complete dulness, and the lesion is
discovered.
Diagnosis. Confusion between pus formation in the maxillary
and frontal sinuses can be avoided by careful examination.
Prognosis. The prognosis is not very grave; the animals maintain
their appetite, but become thinner, and the condition shows no
tendency to spontaneous cure.
 Treatment. The only rational treatment consists in trephining,
an operation practised immediately above the maxillary tuberosity
and over the lowest part of the sinus (Fig. 164). This opening allows
the cavity to be washed out and the sinus drained.
Antiseptic treatment exactly resembles that of purulent collections
in the frontal sinus. Injections of astringents, dilute carbolic acid and
iodine solutions, etc., are recommended.

ŒSTRUS LARVÆ IN THE FACIAL SINUSES OF SHEEP.

(FALSE STURDY.)
Causation. This disease of sheep, which sometimes produces
vertigo resembling that shown in gid or sturdy, is produced by the
growth of larvæ of Œstrus ovis in the frontal sinuses. The œstrus of
the sheep assumes perfect insect form during the fine days of
summer from July to September. The females swarm around the
flocks and attempt to alight on the animal’s head close to the nostrils,
where they deposit their eggs or larvæ. The larvæ crawl into the
nostrils, thence into the nasal cavities, the meatus, and finally the
sinuses, where they become fixed. In these sinuses they undergo
complete development, increasing from a length of about ⅒ inch to
from ¾ to 1 inch before their transformation into the nymph and
perfect insect. They remain in the sinus for eight to ten months.
When numerous and well developed they may fill the whole of the
cavity.
Symptoms. It is easy for a careful observer to note the time at
which the larvæ penetrate the sinus. During the hottest hours of the
day the adult insects are continually hovering over the flocks, and on
watching carefully one sees sheep suddenly become excited, tap with
their feet, rub their faces against any hard, resisting object in the
neighbourhood, plunge their nostrils into the dust, and snort
violently.
When the larvæ have penetrated the nasal cavities they produce
frequent attacks of sneezing by irritating the mucous membrane, and
cause an intense sero-mucous and afterwards a moderate muco-
purulent coryza. As long as the larvæ remain of small size, the
apparent results they produce are insignificant, as during the first
months of winter; but when they are numerous, and have become of
considerable size, they cause symptoms which might suggest an
attack of gid or sturdy.
Thus the bodily movements become spasmodic, the gait irregular,
and the animals show attacks of vertigo. They stagger and fall,
making convulsing movements, grinding their teeth and rolling their
eyes, while frothy saliva escapes from the mouth, etc.
Death may occur during such attacks, which, however, are happily
very rare. Most commonly the animals are simply dull and
somnolent. They feed badly, carry their heads low, and sometimes
hide themselves under the mangers or in corners.
In exceptional circumstances they bury their heads in the wool or
carry them high in the air in walking, while they lift their front legs
high, with a stepping movement.
 Fig. 169.—Parasitic invasion of the sinuses and
cœnurosis (showing the seat of operation in either
condition).

Diagnosis. The diagnosis of parasitic invasion of the sinus in the

sheep is rather difficult, because certain of the symptoms suggest gid.
One never finds the signs of true gid, however, and, on the other
hand, a certain amount of discharge and attacks of snorting always
exist. Finally, gid (cœnurosis) only attacks young animals, whilst the
larvæ of œstridæ are commonest in adults.
To confound the disease with verminous bronchitis is still less
likely, for although a discharge exists in both cases, this is
accompanied by cough in bronchitis, and only by sneezing attacks in
infection of the sinuses.
Finally, in bronchitis, histological examination leads to the
discovery of eggs or embryos of the strongyles. The diagnosis
becomes very easy on post-mortem examination, the identification of
the larvæ of œstridæ being extremely simple.
Prognosis. The prognosis is only grave when infestation is very
pronounced. Most commonly the parasites complete their
development without producing disquieting symptoms; as summer
approaches they are expelled and recovery occurs.
Lesions. The only lesions consist in very active inflammation of
the mucous membrane of the sinus, which appears excessively
hypertrophied, and in the existence of larvæ. These develop in the
midst of a magma of purulent, fœtid discharge. The number of
parasites usually ranges from two to twenty, although Zürn declares
that he has found as many as eighty in one subject.
Treatment. Many precautions have been suggested for
preventing infestation. Many are impossible or difficult to carry out
in current practice, even the soaking of the nostrils in empyreumatic
oil, and the majority are useless. The only suggestion to which we
attribute any importance consists in trying to prevent the perfect
insects from obtaining a lodgment in cavities in the walls or roofs of
sheep-sheds.
The really efficacious modes of treatment are also few in number,
for the larvæ are so firmly lodged in the mucous membrane of the
sinuses that they can only be detached after these have been
trephined. The use of nasal injections, embrocations and powders,
with the object of making the animal sneeze, are ineffectual.
Trepanation should not be performed until it is quite clear that the
flock is badly infested, and when serious symptoms appear to
threaten the lives of some of the animals.
The operation, although very simple, requires care on account of
the thinness of the bones.
The anatomical directions are the middle line of the head, and a
transverse line uniting the upper margin of the two orbits. The
orifices are made in the two lower angles produced by the
intersection of these lines (Fig. 169).
It is then easy to remove with the fingers or forceps the larvæ
situated immediately below the point of trepanation, and afterwards
to wash out thoroughly the cavities of the sinuses. If some lie at
points which cannot be directly reached, they can be killed by
injecting a little benzine and water. This proceeding is quite safe.
 CHAPTER III.
LARYNX, TRACHEA AND BRONCHI.

LARYNGITIS.

Laryngeal diseases are common, but are usually only the local
expression of some grave general infection, such as foot-and-mouth
disease, gangrenous coryza, or tuberculosis. Pathological conditions
such as these can be disregarded for the moment, as they will receive
attention under special heads.
The two current forms of laryngeal disease are acute laryngitis and
stridulous laryngitis.

ACUTE LARYNGITIS.

Acute laryngitis, like simple coryza, of which it is often only an

accompaniment, is caused by chill, by irritant vapours, by smoke,
etc., or by external traumatic causes.
The cough is dry and painful at first; afterwards it is accompanied
by a discharge or by the swallowing of mucus or muco-purulent
products. The respiration sometimes appears accelerated and
difficult, but roaring or whistling and marked fever are rare. The
slightest pressure over the laryngeal region causes pain and attacks
of coughing. The respiration is normal while the animal is at rest,
provided that the laryngitis remains localised; frequently, however, it
is complicated with bronchitis.
The appetite is somewhat diminished, but all these symptoms very
rapidly improve.
The diagnosis is based on the frequency of the cough and the
sensitiveness of the throat region.
The prognosis is favourable in cases of simple laryngitis.
Treatment consists in the administration of steam inhalations,
warm drinks, the application of mustard plasters or blisters around
the laryngeal region, and the administration of expectorants to
facilitate mucous discharge.
 PSEUDO-MEMBRANOUS LARYNGITIS.

Pseudo-membranous laryngitis, also termed by German authors

croupal or diphtheritic laryngitis, because it bears a certain
resemblance to human croup, is characterised by the formation of
false membranes on the vocal cords, arytenoid cartilages, and
subglottal region, etc.
In France it has been described under the name of stridulous
laryngitis, because its dominant symptom consists in attacks of
intense dyspnœa, during which the respiration is accompanied by
whistling. Without making any attempt to prejudge the nature of the
disease, which resembles the pseudo-diphtheritic forms of laryngitis
in man, we prefer the term pseudo-membranous laryngitis.
Moreover, this pseudo-membranous laryngitis very frequently
accompanies pseudo-membranous sore throat, tracheitis and
bronchitis, with formation of false membranes.
Causation. The causes suggested are similar to those of simple
sore throat: they include chills, the ingestion of ice-cold water, or the
inhalation of irritant gases, during outbreaks of fire, etc., etc.; but it
is quite certain that here, as in many similar cases, a primarily simple
laryngitis is complicated by a well-marked infection.
Symptoms. The general symptoms seen during the early stages
consist in loss of appetite, general depression, rigors, and a rise in
temperature of 1° to 2° Fahr.
Then, after twenty-four or forty-eight hours, the respiration
becomes more rapid, difficult, whistling and dyspnœic, with
intermittent attacks of suffocation.
Examination of the chest gives negative results, but, on the throat
being manipulated, the slightest pressure exercised over the larynx
produces attacks of coughing. During the first few days these attacks
are loud, spasmodic, and difficult, but on succeeding days they lead
to the discharge, from the nostrils or mouth, of masses of false
membrane accompanied by whitish and sometimes blood-stained
fluid. Secondarily the mucous membrane of the nasal fossæ appears
inflamed to a varying degree. The conjunctiva is also affected, the
eyes are watering. An important symptom consists in the fact that
this watering is accompanied by internal ophthalmia, as in
gangrenous coryza.
 In consequence of the respiratory difficulty, the animal takes up a
characteristic attitude, holding its neck stiffly in a horizontal position
and its head completely extended; the nostrils are widely dilated.
When the disease is fully-developed rumination is suppressed, the
bowels are constipated and the fæces are coated as in grave cases of
enteritis, the yield of milk diminishes, the heart beats feebly, the
pulse remains small; death may occur from asphyxia, and probably
also from intoxication.
The disease usually lasts from eight to ten days, but death may
occur earlier. In the majority of cases, however, the animal can be
saved. All the symptoms diminish, the temperature falls, rumination
again appears and with it appetite, and the whole condition becomes
normal. Many animals, however, remain thin and recover slowly;
these are principally cases which have suffered from pseudo-
membranous bronchitis.
Lesions. The lesions may be confined to the larynx, but may also
invade neighbouring cavities. They consist in the formation of
mucoalbuminous and fibrinous exudates, covering the mucous
membrane in superposed layers, penetrating the epithelial stratum,
and adhering so strongly to the corium that attempts to loosen them
cause the deeper seated structures to bleed.
Diagnosis. The symptoms are sufficiently well marked to prevent
any confusion arising except with gangrenous coryza, but in this case
there is no ophthalmia lesion of the nasal cavities, cutaneous
eruption, or eruption over the claws.
The prognosis is grave when the disease attacks debilitated or
exhausted animals.
The treatment is confined entirely to treating symptoms. As in
all acute inflammatory affections, moderate bleeding, sinapisms over
the region of the larynx, repeated as often as necessary, or
applications of antimonial ointment have been recommended.
Applications of moxas or setons in the neighbourhood of the dewlap
might possibly prove of value.
Internally tartar emetic, in doses proportioned to the size of the
animal (2½ to 3 drachms in adults), has been recommended; also
iodide of potassium.
 General stimulants, like alcohol, coffee, tea, acetate of ammonia,
and suitable hygienic conditions suggest themselves. Tepid drinks
can be given freely. Nourishing and easily digested food, and a ration
of milk complete the treatment.
Emollient and antiseptic fumigations are also of value, as in
ordinary sore throat or laryngitis, for they favour the separation and
discharge of the false membranes.

TUMOURS OF THE LARYNX.

Acute forms of pseudo-membranous laryngitis, or even

tuberculous laryngitis, are not the only diseases which affect the
larynx. It is by no means exceptional to discover intra-laryngeal
tumours, mucous polypi, tuberculomes, and growths due to
actinomyces, etc.
The presence of these tumours is indicated by difficulty in
respiration, fits of coughing, and threatened suffocation,
accompanied by discharges of varying character.
When the tumour is largely sessile, the respiration may simply be
snoring or whistling, without any suggestion of suffocation; but if, on
the other hand, it is pedunculated, displacement of the polypus
produced by the currents of air during inspiration and expiration
causes spasm of the glottis, fits of coughing and threatened
suffocation.
The diagnosis is not always easy, though examination of the
nasal cavities, the sinuses, trachea and chest gives negative results.
Auscultation of the larynx may suggest the existence of the lesion,
but an exact diagnosis can only be attained by digital examination of
the larynx through the pharynx.
The prognosis of these tumours is grave, because death from
asphyxia may occur during an attack of coughing or as a consequence
of the fits of suffocation.
Treatment. As it is usually extremely difficult, if not impossible,
to discover the exact nature of the tumour, medical treatment, except
for instance in the case of actinomycosis, is of very uncertain value.
 Surgical treatment alone
suggests itself. Before
attempting an operation
tracheotomy should be
performed and a metal canula
inserted. The animal having
been cast, and the upper
laryngeal region anæsthetised
by means of cocaine, a vertical
incision is made in the median
line below the larynx, passing
through the skin, the vertical
junction between the neck
muscles and the three first
circles of the trachea, and
access is thus obtained to the
larynx and subglottal region.
The operation should only be
performed in exceptional cases,
such as that of a valuable stud
animal.
Provided that the new growth
Fig. 170.—Sessile form of intra- has a well-developed pedicle it
laryngeal polypus. can be removed through the
mouth by the use of an écraseur
or simply by tearing out.

BRONCHITIS.

Diseases of the bronchi in bovine animals reveal very different

characters, according to the nature of the primary cause, for which
reason cases occur of simple acute bronchitis, verminous bronchitis,
simple chronic bronchitis, pseudo-membranous bronchitis,
tuberculous bronchitis, etc.

SIMPLE ACUTE BRONCHITIS.

 Simple acute bronchitis co-exists with, or is often only the logical
and inevitable complication of, coryza and acute laryngitis. It is
commonly associated with inflammation of the mucous membrane of
the trachea.
It accompanies cold and wet seasons, and usually appears with the
autumn frosts, in animals still at grass. In animals under shelter it
occurs after undue exertion followed by chills, and after sudden rain
storms. It also attacks working oxen, which are much exposed to the
weather.
The symptoms follow very rapidly on the determining cause.
They are ushered in by rigors, trembling attacks, diminution or loss
of appetite, arrest of rumination, acceleration of breathing, and the
appearance of a rough and spasmodic cough.
In ordinary cases these symptoms rapidly diminish, even without
treatment. The appetite again becomes moderate, rumination
returns, but the cough remains more or less rough and spasmodic,
ending in the discharge, or more often in the swallowing, of
abundant bronchial mucus.
This is the condition at the period of crisis. Percussion of the
thorax reveals normal resonance. On auscultation of the sides during
the period of onset, rough râles are heard, which at the period of
crisis are replaced by mucous râles. The cough diminishes in
frequency, and after a fortnight everything again becomes normal.
The diagnosis is very easy, the important point being not to
confuse common bronchitis with tuberculous bronchitis, which very
often assumes a chronic form.
Prognosis. The prognosis is not grave, even though the disease
may assume a chronic condition.
Treatment does not differ from that of acute bronchitis in the
horse. It consists in antiseptic and steam fumigations, tepid drinks,
the administration of doses of 2 to 3 drachms Kerme’s mineral in
adult animals, and of 1 to 1½ drachms of iodide of potassium, given
in a mash or in honey electuary. During convalescence tar water
should be administered.

CHRONIC BRONCHITIS.
 Chronic inflammation of the mucous membrane of the large
bronchi and trachea may follow acute bronchitis, but it is also a
frequent termination of verminous bronchitis. It is found in fully
developed animals, adult or old, and particularly in those inhabiting
wet, cold valleys.
It is characterised by frequent paroxysms of coughing, which
appear on the slightest provocation, such as the action of cold air on
leaving the stable or of the air of a confined space on animals
returning from the open; concussion of the chest by the pleximeter,
squeezing of the loins, rapid movement, etc.
This coughing is accompanied by the discharge of mucus, which
rarely arrives at the nostrils, but is swallowed in passing through the
pharynx. Such mucus is always thick, greenish yellow in colour, and
without smell.
The respiration, although regular whilst the animal is at rest,
becomes accelerated on moving, and after attacks of coughing. It is
sometimes rapid and whistling.
Percussion discloses neither partial nor complete dulness, but
everywhere irregularly distributed mucous rattling and sibilant râles
are revealed by auscultation.
There is no fever, the appetite is maintained, and, what is an even
more important point, animals in good condition preserve their
flesh. Interlobular pulmonary emphysema and emphysema resulting
from dilatation are inseparable accompaniments of chronic
bronchitis, for which reason the flank respiratory movement is
frequently very marked.
The diagnosis is of only moderate difficulty, because although in
certain conditions the disease may be mistaken for tuberculosis or
emphysema, it can be distinguished by bacteriological examination
of the discharge, by an injection of tuberculin, by careful
auscultation, and by consideration of the general condition.
Lesions. The walls of the bronchi are thickened, the submucous
connective tissue is sclerosed, the muscular fibres are modified in
structure, and have become fibrous, while the epithelial layer is
desquamated and suppurating. The peribronchial tissue also
undergoes sclerosis, and in certain cases the smaller bronchi present
marked dilatations resembling small caverns (bronchi-ecstasis).
 Treatment can never be more than palliative; the aim should be
to prevent the lesions becoming aggravated, and to check the
pathological secretion from the bronchi, but the lesions already
existent can never be removed. Tar water should be perseveringly
administered. Essence of turpentine in doses of 2 to 2½ drachms per
day in electuary (adults), creosote in doses of 1¼ to 1½ drachms,
and terpine in doses of ¾ to 1 drachm give the best results, and
produce a marked improvement.

PSEUDO-MEMBRANOUS BRONCHITIS.

The pseudo-membranous forms of bronchitis, formerly termed

“croupal or diphtheritic bronchitis,” are rare. They develop suddenly
or follow pseudo-membranous laryngitis. Like the latter, they are
due to a specific infection, possibly aided by accidental causes.
Their causation is imperfectly understood, and they cannot be
compared, still less homologated, with diphtheritic disorders in man.
They are characterised by the formation of false membranes, which
develop on the mucous surface, mould themselves over the internal
surface of the large bronchi, and ramify throughout the bronchial
channels like branches of trees. They are of greyish-yellow colour,
and appear to be formed of fibrin, coagulated albumen, and
epithelial débris cemented together with mucus.
Symptoms. At the outset these pseudo-membranous forms of
bronchitis have the same characters as acute bronchitis, which at the
crisis would be marked by the expulsion of fragments of false
membrane by coughing. Most frequently it seems that the bronchitis
follows its regular course, and in such case it is only during
convalescence or a considerable time afterwards that the membranes
begin to be discharged during paroxysms of coughing.
The patients are subject to intense dyspnœa, appear about to
suffocate, and during the efforts then made the false membranes are
discharged in the form of half-organised layers, or, on the other
hand, in branched masses, resembling twigs.
The dyspnœa at once ceases. Despite the development of these
false membranes in the bronchi, no alarming symptoms are
produced, which is explained by the fact of the false membranes
being adherent only to the inner surface of the principal conduits,
without closing or even markedly obstructing them or the smaller
passages leading to the pulmonary alveoli. When, however, they are
displaced, violent reflex spasms are produced as soon as the
fragments approach the larynx.
Diagnosis. The diagnosis rests entirely on examination of the
expectorated material.
So far as the prognosis is concerned, it is less grave than might
be supposed from the symptoms. The gravity arises from the fact
that this disease has a certain tendency to become chronic.
Treatment scarcely differs from that of ordinary bronchitis. Tar,
creosote in doses of 2½ to 5 drachms given in oil; terpine in doses of
½ to ¾ drachms per day can be recommended. Iodide of potassium
also has certain advantages.

VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS IN SHEEP AND CATTLE (HUSK, HOOSE, ETC.).

Lambs, young sheep, and calves sometimes suffer severely from

infestation with lung worms, which set up great irritation in the
bronchial passages, leading to chronic bronchitis. The animals show
frequent attacks of paroxysmal coughing, during which some of the
parasites may be expelled. The irritation produced causes serious
loss of condition, and if not alleviated may lead to death. The
parasite of the sheep is known as Strongylus filaria (sheep
lungworm), that of the calf Strongylus micrurus. The worms are
from 2 to 4 inches long, whitish in colour, and of the diameter of a
hat-pin.
Treatment. According to generally accepted views among
veterinarians and zoologists, it is a comparatively simple matter to
kill worms in the bronchial tubes, and a number of cases of the
disease are reported in literature which are alleged to have been
cured. These views, however, are open to very serious doubt.
Neumann (1892b, pp. 590, 591, 593, 594) summarises the subject
of treatment as follows:—
Two different procedures in treatment are pursued. In one,
substances are passed into the digestive canal, which, being diffused
in the blood, are believed to be capable of attacking the worms in the
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