Unit -2

What is a Computer Network:-

A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share
information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different
devices allows users to communicate more easily. A computer network is a collection
of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A network connection can
be established using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used to
connect computers and tools in any network.

What Do Computer Networks Do?

Computer Networks are one of the important aspects of Computer Science. In the early
days, it is used for data transmission on telephone lines and had a very limited use, but
nowadays, it is used in a variety of places.

Computer Networks help in providing better connectivity that helps nowadays. Modern
computer networks have the following functionality:

 Computer Networks help in operating virtually

 Computer Networks integrate on a large scale

 Computer Networks respond very quickly in case of conditions change

 Computer Networks help in providing data security

Key Components of a Computer Network

In simple terms, a computer network is made up of two main parts: devices (called
nodes) and connections (called links). The links connect the devices to each other. The
rules for how these connections send information are called communication protocols.
The starting and ending points of these communications are often called ports.
Key Components of Computer Network

1. Network Devices

Basic hardware interconnecting network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards

(NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers, are used in all networks. In addition, a
mechanism for connecting these building parts is necessary, which is usually galvanic
cable and optical cable are less popular (“optical fiber”)The following are the network
devices :

 NIC (Network Interface Card): A network card, often known as a network

adapter or NIC (network interface card), is computer hardware that enables
computers to communicate via a network. It offers physical access to networking
media and, in many cases, MAC addresses serve as a low-level addressing
scheme. Each network interface card has a distinct identifier. This is stored on a
chip that is attached to the card.
 Repeater: A repeater is an electrical device that receives a signal, cleans it of
unwanted noise, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level or to
the opposite side of an obstruction, allowing the signal to travel greater distances
without degradation. In the majority of twisted pair Ethernet networks, Repeaters
are necessary for cable lengths longer than 100 meters in some systems.
Repeaters are based on physics.

 Hub: A hub is a device that joins together many twisted pairs or fiber optic
Ethernet devices to give the illusion of a formation of a single network segment.
The device can be visualized as a multiport repeater. A network hub is a
relatively simple broadcast device. Any packet entering any port is regenerated
and broadcast out on all other ports, and hubs do not control any of the traffic
that passes through them. Packet collisions occur as a result of every packet being
sent out through all other ports, substantially impeding the smooth flow of
communication.

 Bridges: Bridges broadcast data to all the ports but not to the one that received
the transmission. Bridges, on the other hand, learn which MAC addresses are
reachable through specific ports rather than copying messages to all ports as hubs
do. Once a port and an address are associated, the bridge will only transport
traffic from that address to that port.

 Switches: A switch differs from a hub in that it only forwards frames to the ports
that are participating in the communication, rather than all of the ports that are
connected. The collision domain is broken by a switch, yet the switch depicts
itself as a broadcast domain. Frame-forwarding decisions are made by switches
based on MAC addresses.

 Routers: Routers are networking devices that use headers and forwarding tables
to find the optimal way to forward data packets between networks. A router is a
computer networking device that links two or more computer networks and
selectively exchanges data packets between them. A router can use address
information in each data packet to determine if the source and destination are on
the same network or if the data packet has to be transported between networks.
When numerous routers are deployed in a wide collection of interconnected
networks, the routers share target system addresses so that each router can
develop a table displaying the preferred pathways between any two systems on
the associated networks.

 Gateways: To provide system compatibility, a gateway may contain devices

such as protocol translators, impedance-matching devices, rate converters, fault
isolators, or signal translators. It also necessitates the development of
 administrative procedures that are acceptable to both networks. By completing
the necessary protocol conversions, a protocol translation/mapping gateway
joins networks that use distinct network protocol technologies.

2. Links

Links are the ways information travels between devices, and they can be of two types:

 Wired: Communication done in a wired medium. Copper wire, twisted pair, or

fiber optic cables are all options. A wired network employs wires to link devices
to the Internet or another network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.

 Wireless: Wireless means without wire, media that is made up of

electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors will
be present on all wireless devices. For data or voice communication, a wireless
network uses radio frequency waves rather than wires.

3. Communication Protocols

A communication protocol is a set of rules that all devices follow when they share
information. Some common protocols are TCP/IP, IEEE 802, Ethernet, wireless LAN,
and cellular standards. TCP/IP is a model that organizes how communication works in
modern networks. It has four functional layers for these communication links:

 Network Access Layer: This layer controls how data is physically transferred,
including how hardware sends data through wires or fibers.

 Internet Layer: This layer packages data into understandable packets and
ensures it can be sent and received.

 Transport Layer: This layer keeps the communication between devices steady
and reliable.

 Application Layer: This layer allows high-level applications to access the

network to start data transfer.

Most of the modern internet structure is based on the TCP/IP model, although the
similar seven-layer OSI model still has a strong influence.

IEEE 802 is a group of standards for local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan area
networks (MAN). The most well-known member of the IEEE 802 family is wireless
LAN, commonly known as WLAN or Wi-Fi.
4. Network Defense

While nodes, links, and protocols are the building blocks of a network, a modern
network also needs strong defenses. Security is crucial because huge amounts of data
are constantly being created, moved, and processed. Some examples of network defense
tools are firewalls, intrusion detection systems (IDS), intrusion prevention systems
(IPS), network access control (NAC), content filters, proxy servers, anti-DDoS devices,
and load balancers.

Types of Computer Network:

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet
cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
 o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a range
of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.
There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For example, a
mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network connection and then
creates a connection with another device to share the information.
 o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as a home
network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers, computer, television
but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a corporate
network using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting
a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL,
etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN(Wide Area Network)
o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in hundreds
of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is
made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the
branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The internet
provides a leased line through which we can connect with another branch.
 o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy
the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get
the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application like
Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other
resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high bandwidth.
The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of our
company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN network
as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be changed
or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus in our
system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the purchasing of
routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

 IP Address:
An Internet Protocol (IP) address is the unique identifying number assigned to every device
connected to the internet. An IP address definition is a numeric label assigned to devices that use the
internet to communicate. Computers that communicate over the internet or via local networks share
information to a specific location using IP addresses.

IP addresses have two distinct versions or standards. The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) address is
the older of the two, which has space for up to 4 billion IP addresses and is assigned to all computers.
The more recent Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) has space for trillions of IP addresses, which
accounts for the new breed of devices in addition to computers. There are also several types of IP
addresses, including public, private, static, and dynamic IP addresses.

Every device with an internet connection has an IP address, whether it's a computer, laptop, IoT device,
or even toys. The IP addresses allow for the efficient transfer of data between two connected devices,
allowing machines on different networks to talk to each other.
How does an IP address work?

An IP address works in helping your device, whatever you are accessing the internet on, to find
whatever data or content is located to allow for retrieval.

Common tasks for an IP address include both the identification of a host or a network, or identifying
the location of a device. An IP address is not random. The creation of an IP address has the basis of
math. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) allocates the IP address and its creation. The
full range of IP addresses can go from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

With the mathematical assignment of an IP address, the unique identification to make a connection to
a destination can be made.

Public IP address

A public IP address, or external-facing IP address, applies to the main device people use to connect
their business or home internet network to their internet service provider (ISP). In most cases, this will
be the router. All devices that connect to a router communicate with other IP addresses using the
router’s IP address.

Knowing an external-facing IP address is crucial for people to open ports used for online gaming, email
and web servers, media streaming, and creating remote connections.

Private IP address

A private IP address, or internal-facing IP address, is assigned by an office or home intranet (or local
area network) to devices, or by the internet service provider (ISP). The home/office router manages
the private IP addresses to the devices that connect to it from within that local network. Network
devices are thus mapped from their private IP addresses to public IP addresses by the router.

Private IP addresses are reused across multiple networks, thus preserving valuable IPv4 address space
and extending addressability beyond the simple limit of IPv4 addressing (4,294,967,296 or 2^32).

In the IPv6 addressing scheme, every possible device has its own unique identifier assigned by the ISP
or primary network organization, which has a unique prefix. Private addressing is possible in IPv6, and
when it's used it's called Unique Local Addressing (ULA).
Static IP address

All public and private addresses are defined as static or dynamic. An IP address that a person manually
configures and fixes to their device’s network is referred to as a static IP address. A static IP address
cannot be changed automatically. An internet service provider may assign a static IP address to a user
account. The same IP address will be assigned to that user for every session.

Dynamic IP address

A dynamic IP address is automatically assigned to a network when a router is set up. The Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) assigns the distribution of this dynamic set of IP addresses.
The DHCP can be the router that provides IP addresses to networks across a home or an organization.

Each time a user logs into the network, a fresh IP address is assigned from the pool of available
(currently unassigned) IP addresses. A user may randomly cycle through several IP addresses across
multiple sessions.

 What Is IPv4?
 IPv4 is the fourth version of the IP. It is one of the core protocols of the standards-based methods used
to interconnect the internet and other networks. The protocol was first deployed on the Atlantic Packet
Satellite Network (SATNET), which was a satellite network that formed a segment of the initial stages
of the internet, in 1982. It is still used to route most internet traffic despite the existence of IPv6.

IPv4 is currently assigned to all computers. An IPv4 address uses 32-bit binary numbers to form a
unique IP address. It takes the format of four sets of numbers, each of which ranges from 0 to 255 and
represents an eight-digit binary number, separated by a period point.

IP Address Classes
Some IP addresses are reserved by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). These are
typically reserved for networks that carry a specific purpose on the Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), which is used to interconnect devices. Four of these IP address
classes include:

1. 0.0.0.0: This IP address in IPv4 is also known as the default network. It is the non-routeable meta
address that designates an invalid, non-applicable, or unknown network target.
2. 127.0.0.1: This IP address is known as the loopback address, which a computer uses to identify itself
regardless of whether it has been assigned an IP address.
3. 169.254.0.1 to 169.254.254.254: A range of addresses that are automatically assigned if a computer is
unsuccessful in an attempt to receive an address from the DHCP.
4. 255.255.255.255: An address dedicated to messages that need to be sent to every computer on a
network or broadcasted across a network.

Further reserved IP addresses are for what is known as subnet classes. Subnetworks are small computer
networks that connect to a bigger network via a router. The subnet can be assigned its own IP address
system, so that all devices connecting to it can communicate with each other without having to send
data via the wider network.

The router on a TCP/IP network can be configured to ensure it recognizes subnets, then route the traffic
onto the appropriate network. IP addresses are reserved for the following subnets:

1. Class A: IP addresses between 10.0.0.0 and 10.255.255.255

2. Class B: IP addresses between 172.16.0.0 and 172.31.255.255
3. Class C: IP addresses between 192.186.0.0 and 192.168.255.255
4. Class D or multicast: IP addresses between 224.0.0.0 and 239.255.255.255
5. Class E, which are reserved for experimental usage: IP addresses between 240.0.0.0 and
254.255.255.254

IP addresses listed under Class A, Class B, and Class C are most commonly used in the creation of
subnets. Addresses within the multicast or Class D have specific usage rules outlined in the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) guidelines, while the release of Class E addresses for public use was
the cause of plenty of debate before the IPv6 standard was introduced.

Internet Addresses and Subnets

The IANA reserves specific IP address blocks for commercial organizations, government departments,
and ISPs. When a user connects to the internet, their ISP assigns them an address from within one of
the blocks assigned to it. If they only go online from one computer, then they can use the address
assigned to it by their ISP.

However, most homes now use routers that share a network connection with multiple devices. So if a
router is used to share the connection, then the ISP assigns the IP address to the router, and then a
subnet is created for all computers that connect to it.

IP addresses that fall within a subnet have a network and a node. The subnet is identified by the
network. The node, also known as the host, connects to the network and needs its own address.
Computers separate the network and node via a subnet mask, which filters the appropriate IP address
designation. When a large network is set up, the subnet mask that best fits the number of nodes or
subnets required is determined.

When it comes to IP addresses within a subnet, the first address is reserved for the subnet, and the final
one indicates the broadcast address for the subnet’s systems.

 IPv4 vs IPv6
IPv4 has not been able to cope with the massive explosion in the quantity and range of devices beyond
simply mobile phones, desktop computers, and laptops. The original IP address format was not able to
handle the number of IP addresses being created.

To address this problem, IPv6 was introduced. This new standard operates a hexadecimal format that
means billions of unique IP addresses can now be created. As a result, the IPv4 system that could
support up to around 4.3 billion unique numbers has been replaced by an alternative that, theoretically,
offers unlimited IP addresses.

That is because an IPv6 IP address consists of eight groups that contain four hexadecimal digits, which
use 16 distinct symbols of 0 to 9 followed by A to F to represent values of 10 to 15.
  What is WIFI - Wireless Fidelity

Wifi is also known as Wireless Fidelity.

We are all familiar with Wi-Fi, which is available on our mobile phones, laptops, or wherever Wi-Fi
is supported. Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that permits to connect wirelessly to a
network or to other computer or mobile device. A circular radio frequency range is used to transmit
data in Wi-Fi.

Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) is a generic term for the wireless network in the communication norm.
Wifi operates like a local area network without the use of a wire or cables.

WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. IEEE 802.11 is the rule for communication. WiFi
uses the Physical Data Link Layer (PDLL) to operate.
Modern computing devices like laptops and mobile phones, as well as digital cameras and smart TVs,
all have Wi-Fi capabilities. The access point or base station to client connection or any client-to-client
connection within a certain limit.

The range relies on the router that offers radio frequency via Wi-Fi.

Currently, these frequencies function on 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bandwidths.

Because the Wi-Fi adapter within the device is responsible for receiving the Wi-Fi signal, all modern
laptops and mobile devices are competent in using both bandwidths. All devices have a default
bandwidth of 2.4 GHz.

2.4 GHz bandwidth is capable of covering a large area, but the frequency is low, so the internet speed
is lower, and 5 GHz bandwidth can cover a smaller area, but the frequency is high, so the internet speed
is higher. Hence, Wifi is a wireless network protocol family based on IEEE 802.11
standards. Moreover, it allows nearby digital devices to exchange data via radio waves.

Worldwide, these are the one of the commonly used computer networks. They are used in house
networks to connect desktop or laptop or computers, tablets, smart TV, and printer to a wireless router,
as well as in public access points in coffee shop, hotel, library, and airport.In order to qualify as Wi-Fi
Certified, a product must pass interoperability certification evaluation. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-
Fi Alliance, a non-profit organisation. There were more than 800 companies represented in the Wi-Fi
Alliance as of 2017.
Over 3,05 billion Wi-Fi-equipped devices were shipped worldwide each year as per the reports of
2019. Ethernet (wired sibling)and Wi-Fi are developed to function seamlessly together.

Wi-Fi-enabled devices can be connected via wireless access points and wired devices, and the internet.

Several IEEE 802.11 protocol norms specify the different Wi-Fi versions. The protocol standards also
specify how much bandwidth and speed can be achieved using various radio technologies.

Wi-Fi utilisesthe 2.4 gigahertz (120 mm) UHF and 5 gigahertz (60 mm) SHF radio bands, which
are segmented into various channels.

Only one transmitter at a time can communicate locally on a channel that is shared by multiple
networks. It is best to utiliseWiFi in a direct line of sight due to its relatively high absorption.

As a rule of thumb, an access point (or hotspot) has a range of about 20 metres (66 feet) for the
indoor environment, while some modern access points assert a range of up to 150 metres in the
outside environment.

Hotspot coverage can be as tiny as a small room with walls blocking radio waves or huge comprising
of an area of square kilometres (miles) utilising several inter-wining access points with roaming
allowed between each.

In recent years, Wi-Fi's speed and spectral efficiency have both risen.

Wi-Fi versions operating on appropriate hardware can now get speeds of over 1 Gbit/s at close range
as of 2019. (gigabit per second).

History of Wifi
o Wi-Fi is an old concept, but its execution is a new concept. ALOHA System is a wireless network
mechanism that was used to link Hawaii island through a network in 1971.
o ALOHA protocol was used for this, and packet transfer was used on the network in order to
accomplish this task. IEEE 802.11 protocol is added later.
o 1985 saw the release of a new network for broad use by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC), which operates on frequencies between 900 Mhz and 5.8
GHz. Acknowledged as the ISM band. It can transmit data at 4 Mb/s. IBM also presented a Token
Ring LAN network for linking numerous computers.
o When waveLAN, a wireless cashier system, was invented in 1988, it operated at speeds of 1 to 2
megabits per second on the Token Ring Local Area Network. IEEE 802.11LAN/MAN
standards were introduced in
o This was followed by Vic Hayes (known as the "Father of WiFi") establishing IEEE 802.11
Working Group for Wireless LANs in 1990.
o In 1994, Alex Hills initiated a wireless network research project that covered seven buildings
wirelessly.
o This wireless network was later renamed IEEE 802.11a by the Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) in 1996.
o After all of this, in 1997, the first version of Wi-Fi, 802.11, was released, which supports a
maximum link speed of 2 Mb/s.
o When the link speed was increased to 11 Mb/s in 1999, it was called 11b.

o An additional month passed before IEEE 802.11a was officially approved, which provided up to
54 Mb/s link speed over the 5 GHz band, but with less range than 2.4 GHz.
o In 2003, 11g, a faster version, was released. Over 2.4 GHz, the speed ranges from 54 to 108 Mb/s.
o In the years that followed, 11i and 802.11e were added.
o Security was improved in 11i, while Voice over Wireless LAN and multimedia streaming were
added to 802.11e.
o This was followed by the development in 2009 of the 802.11n standard, which supports both
radiofrequency bands (2.4 and 5GHz).
o Dual-band routers use both of these are utilised concurrently and can reach speeds of up to 600
Mbps. As of 2014, a fresh version was launched in the 5GHz band with a prospective speed of 1733
Mb/s 802.11ac is the name given to this version. This has been the latest release of Wi-Fi up to this
point.
o CISRO wireless LAN (Local Area Network) was selected as Australia's contribution to the
exhibition in Australia -A History of the World in 100 Objects in the National Museum of Australia
in 2016.
Usage and Application of Wifi
Many applications exist for Wi-Fi, including in all segments where computers or digital media are
used. Wi-Fi can also be used for entertainment.

As an example, the following applications are described:

o We use Wi-Fi every day. With Wi-Fi, we can connect to the internet from any Wi-Fi-capable
device.Wi-Fi allows us to have wireless communication, including streaming or casting audio or
video to any device.
o Data transfer rates are also very fast when using Wi-Fi to share files, data, etc., among two or
more computer or mobile phone.
o Another important attribute is the capability to print any document using a Wi-Fi printer.
o Wi-Fi can also be used as a HOTSPOT, providing Wireless Internet access for a specific area.
While the main network connection is active, consumers of Wi-Fi-enabled devices can access the
primary network connection via Hotspot, which provides them with temporary internet
connectivity. To create a hotspot, Wi-Fi adapters spread radio signals:

o Also one can create a Point-to-Point network using Wi-Fi or WLAN technology. Two sites that
are hard to reach by wire, such as two corporate office buildings, can be connected using this
method.
 o VoWi-Fi is also recognised as voice-over Wi-Fi, which is another useful tool. Few years ago,
telecom firmsput forward theVoLTE (Voice over LTE) (Voice over Long-Term Evolution ). In
recent years, VoWi-Fi has become increasingly popular, allowing us to make calls and anyone
using our home Wi-Fi network. The only requirement is that our mobile phone must be connected
to Wi-Fi. Instead of using the mobile SIM network, voice is transferred over Wi-Fi, resulting in
very high voice quality. VoWi-Fi is already supported by a large number of mobile phones.
o Internet via Wi-Fi in offices: In offices, all computer systems are linked to the Internet via Wi-Fi.
In the case of Wi-Fi, there is no need for complicated wiring. Also, the network's speed is excellent.
It's possible to present an entire Wi-Fi project, such as a spreadsheet or ppt, to all participants at
once.
o A cable break in Wi-Fi does not result in a loss of network connectivity, as it would be in the case
of a cable.
o By deploying routers at specific locations, a city can also provide network connectivity using W-
Fi. Because of its flexibility, schools, colleges, and universities have already implemented Wi-Fi
networks.
o As a positioning system, Wi-Fi can be used to recognise a device's area by detecting the
placements of Wi-Fi hotspots.

Types or Kinds of Wifi

As mentioned earlier, Wi-Fi has numerous kinds or standards. Here, the names of the standards are
defined.

o Wi-Fi-1 (802.11b, launched in 1999) - This version has link speed from 2Mb/s to 11 Mb/s over
2.4 GHz frequency band
o Wi-Fi-2 (802.11a) launched in 1999. After a month of releasing the previous version, 802.11a,
was released, and it provides upto 54 Mb/s link speed over the 5 GHz band
o Wi-Fi-3 (802.11g) was launched in 2003. In this version, the speed was risen up to 54 to 108 Mb/s
over 2.4 GHz
o 802.11i launched in 2004. This is equivalentto802.11g, but only the security feature was enhanced
in this version
o 802.11e launched in 2004. This is also the same as 802.11g; only Voice over Wireless LAN and
multimedia streaming are included.
o Wi-Fi-4 (802.11n) launched in 2009. This version holds up both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz radio
frequencies, and it provides up to 72 to 600 Mb/s speed.
o Wi-Fi-5 (802.11ac) launched in 2014. It supports a speed of 1733 Mb/s in the 5 GHz band.
In 2020, Huawei launched 802.11ax, the latest version that can support 3.5 Gb/s; recognised as Wi-
Fi 6.

Working or Functioning of Wifi

What is the Wi-Fi protocol?
First and foremost, Wi-Fi is a wireless communication system that transmits networks using
electromagnetic waves. The radiofrequency is utilised in Wi-Fi because we understand that there are
several types of electromagnetic waves based on their frequency, including X-rays, Gamma-rays, radio
waves, microwaves, etc.
 o Base station network or Ethernet(802.3) connection: It is the primary host network from which
the router receives its network connection.
o Access Point or Router - Network bridge, also known as an access point or router, connects wired
and wireless networks. A wired Ethernet connection is accepted, and the wired connection is
converted to a wireless connection, which is then spread via radio waves.
o Accessing Device - There are several ways to gain access to information. From our mobile,
computer, etc., we access Wi-Fi and surf the web using Wi-Fi.
Also, routers and our devices read data in binary form. In this case, routers transmit radio waves to our
devices, obtaining and reading the waves in binary form. All of us are familiar with the binary
representation of a wave, in which the topmost pick is 1 and the lower pick 0 in binary.

Terminology of WIFI
Another term for Wi-Fi is "wireless LAN."

o SSID (Service Set Identifier)-WiFi networks are identified and distinguished from one another by
their service set identification (SSID) numbers, which are 32 characters long. All gadgets are trying
to communicate to the same SSID (Service Set Identifier). SSID stands for "Service Set Identifier"
and is the title of the wireless network.
o WPA-PSK (Wi-Fi Protected Access- Pre-Shared Key): It's a programme created by the Wi-Fi
Alliance Authority to safeguard wireless networks using Pre-Shared Key authentication. WPA
comes in three varieties: WPA, WPA2, and WPA3. An encryption method for Wi-Fi signals to
keep out unwanted users.
o Ad hoc networks are used by Wi-Fi in order to transmit data. A point-to-point network without an
interface, it's a wireless mesh network.

Advantages of WIFI
The advantages of Wi-Fi Tt include
 o A versatile network connection and the absence of complicated wiring requirements for
installation.
o Everywhere in the Wi-Fi range can access it.
o Independent users are not required to obtain regulatory approval.
o In addition, Wi-Fi Extenders make it possible to expand the network.
o It's easy and quick to set up.
o Only the SSID and password need to be configured.
o As part of its security measures, Wi-Fi networks encrypt radio signals using WPA encryption.
o It is also more affordable.
o Hotspots are another feature that it offers.
o Roaming is supported as well.

Wi-Fi Disadvantages
o Mobile phones, laptops, and other devices with batteries consume a lot of power when using Wi-
Fi.
o Even when encryption is in place, security issues can still arise.
o Wi-Fi can be attacked and accessed in the same way that recognised devices become unidentified
to the router.
o In comparison to a direct cable connection, the speed is slower.
o People can be harmed by it because it emits radiation like cell phones.
o Thunderstorms, for example, can interfere with Wi-Fi signals.
o Because it lacks a firewall, unauthorised access to Wi-Fi is possible.
o Since a router is required to access the internet via Wi-Fi, we can't access the internet if the power
goes out.