CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 1 (iii) Change in state of substance: The combustion reaction of candle wax is characterised by a

change in state from solid to liquid and gas (because the wax is a solid, water formed by the
Chemical Reactions and Equations combustion of wax is a liquid at room temperature whereas, carbon dioxide produced by the
combustion of wax is a gas). There are some chemical reactions which can show more than one
characteristics.
Chemical Reactions and Equations: Balanced and unbalanced chemical equations and
balancing of chemical equations.
(iv) Change in temperature: The chemical reaction between quick lime water to form slaked
lime is characterized by a change in temperature (which is a rise in temperature).
What is a chemical reaction Class 10? The chemical reaction between zinc granules and dilute sulphuric acid is also characterised by a
change in temperature (which is a rise in temperature).
Chemical Reaction: The transformation of chemical substance into another chemical substance
is known as Chemical Reaction. For example: Rusting of iron, the setting of milk into curd, (v) Formation of precipitate: The chemical reaction between sulphuric acid and barium
digestion of food, respiration, etc. chloride solution is characterised by the formation of a white precipitate of barium sulphate.
BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) (ppt) + 2HCl(aq)
In a chemical reaction, a new substance is formed which is completely different in properties
from the original substance, so in a chemical reaction, a chemical change takes place.
Only a rearrangement of atoms takes place in a chemical reaction. What is a chemical Equation Class 10?
Chemical Equation: Representation of chemical reaction using symbols and formulae of the
 The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants. substances is called Chemical Equation.
 The new substances produced as a result of a chemical reaction are called products. Example: A + B → C + D
In this equation, A and B are called reactants and C and D are called the products. The arrow
Example: The burning of magnesium in the air to form magnesium oxide is an example of a shows the direction of the chemical reaction. Condition, if any, is written generally above the
chemical reaction. arrow.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) △→ 2MgO(s)
When hydrogen reacts with oxygen, it gives water. This reaction can be represented by the
Before burning in air, the magnesium ribbon is cleaned by rubbing with sandpaper.
following chemical equation:
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
This is done to remove the protective layer of basic magnesium carbonate from the surface of the
H2 + O2 → H2O
magnesium ribbon.
In the first equation, words are used and in second, symbols of substances are used to write the
Reactant: Substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants.
chemical equation. For convenience, the symbol of substance is used to represent chemical
Example: Mg and O2.
equations.
A chemical equation is a way to represent the chemical reaction in a concise and informative
Product: New substance formed after a chemical reaction is called a product. way.
Example: MgO. A chemical equation can be divided into two types: Balanced Chemical Equation and
Unbalanced Chemical Equation.
Characteristics of Chemical Reactions :
(i) Evolution of gas: The chemical reaction between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid is (a) Balanced Chemical Equation: A balanced chemical equation has the number of atoms of
characterised by the evolution of hydrogen gas. each element equal on both sides.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) ↑ Example: Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
In this equation, numbers of zinc, hydrogen and sulphate are equal on both sides, so it is a
(ii) Change in Colour: The chemical reaction between citric acid and purple coloured potassium Balanced Chemical Equation.
permanganate solution is characterised by a change in colour from purple to colourless. According to the Law of Conservation of Mass, mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a
The chemical reaction between sulphur dioxide gas and acidified potassium dichromate solution chemical reaction. To obey this law, the total mass of elements present in reactants must be equal
is characterized by a change in colour from orange to green. to the total mass of elements present in products.
(b) Unbalanced Chemical Equation: If the number of atoms of each element in reactants is not Name of atom No. of atoms in the reactant No. of atoms in the product
equal to the number of atoms of each element present in the product, then the chemical equation
is called Unbalanced Chemical Equation.
Example: Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
In this example, a number of atoms of elements are not equal on two sides of the reaction. For Iron 3 3
example; on the left-hand side only one iron atom is present, while three iron atoms are present
on the right-hand side. Therefore, it is an unbalanced chemical equation.

Balancing a Chemical Equation: To balance the given or any chemical equation, follow these Hydrogen 8 8
steps:
Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
Write the number of atoms of elements present in reactants and in products in a table as shown
here.
Oxygen 4 4

Name of atom No. of atoms in the reactant No. of atoms in the product

After balancing, the above equation can be written as follows:

3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2.
Iron 1 3
To Make Equations More Informative:
Writing the symbols of physical states of substances in a chemical equation:
By writing the physical states of substances, a chemical equation becomes more informative.
Hydrogen 2 2
 Gaseous state is represented by symbol (g).
 Liquid state is represented by symbol (l).
 Solid state is written by symbol (s).
Oxygen 1 4  Aqueous solution is written by symbol (aq).
 Writing the condition in which reaction takes place: The condition is generally written
above and/or below the arrow of a chemical equation.

Balance the atom which is maximum in number on either side of a chemical equation. Thus, by writing the symbols of the physical state of substances and condition under which
In this equation, the number of oxygen atom is the maximum on the RHS. reaction takes place, a chemical equation can be made more informative.
To balance the oxygen, one needs to multiply the oxygen on the LHS by 4, so that, the number of
oxygen atoms becomes equal on both sides.
Fe + 4 × H2O → Fe3O4 + H2 What are the types of a chemical reaction Class 10?
Now, the number of hydrogen atoms becomes 8 on the LHS, which is more than that on the
RHS. To balance it, one needs to multiply the hydrogen on the RHS by 4. Types of Chemical Reactions: Combination Reaction, Decomposition Reaction, Displacement
Fe + 4 × H2O → Fe3O4 + 4 × H2 Reaction, Double Displacement Reaction, Neutralization Reactions, Exothermic – Endothermic
After that, the number of oxygen and hydrogen atoms becomes equal on both sides. The number Reactions and Oxidation-Reduction Reactions.
of iron is one on the LHS, while it is three on the RHS. To balance it, multiply the iron on the
LHS by 3. Types of Chemical Reactions:
3 × Fe + 4 × H2O → Fe3O4 + 4 × H2 Chemical reactions can be classified in following types:
Now the number of atoms of each element becomes equal on both sides. Thus, this equation (i) Combination Reaction: Reactions in which two or more reactants combine to form one
becomes a balanced equation. product are called Combination Reactions.
A general combination reaction can be represented by the chemical equation given here: A general displacement reaction can be represented by using a chemical equation as follows :
A + B → AB A + BC → AC + B
Examples: Displacement reaction takes place only when ‘A’ is more reactive than B. If ‘B’ is more reactive
When magnesium is burnt in the air (oxygen), magnesium oxide is formed. In this reaction, than ‘A’, then ‘A’ will not displace ‘C’ from ‘BC’ and reaction will not be taking place.
magnesium is combined with oxygen. Examples:
Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) When zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, it gives hydrogen gas and zinc chloride.
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

When carbon is burnt in oxygen (air), carbon dioxide is formed. In this reaction, carbon is When zinc reacts with copper sulphate, it forms zinc sulphate and copper metal.
combined with oxygen. Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
C (s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide (iv) Double Displacement Reaction: Reactions in which ions are exchanged between two
reactants forming new compounds are called Double Displacement Reactions.
(ii) Decomposition Reaction: Reactions in which one compound decomposes in two or more AB + CD → AC + BD
compounds or elements are known as Decomposition Reaction. A decomposition reaction is just Examples:
the opposite of combination reaction. When the solution of barium chloride reacts with the solution of sodium sulphate, white
A general decomposition reaction can be represented as follows : precipitate of barium sulphate is formed along with sodium chloride.
AB → A + B BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) (Precipitate) + 2NaCl(aq)
Examples:
When calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. When sodium hydroxide (a base) reacts with hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride and water are
CaCO3(s) heat−→− CaO(s) + CO2(g) formed.
Calcium carbonate → Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
When ferric hydroxide is heated, it decomposes into ferric oxide and water
2Fe(OH)3(s) △→ Fe2O3(s) + 3H2O(l) Note: Double Displacement Reaction, in which precipitate is formed, is also known as
Thermal Decomposition: The decomposition of a substance on heating is known as Thermal precipitation reaction. Neutralisation reactions are also examples of double displacement
Decomposition. reaction.
Example: 2Pb(NO3)2(s) heat−→− 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Electrolytic Decomposition: Reactions in which compounds decompose into simpler
Precipitation Reaction: The reaction in which precipitate is formed by the mixing of the
compounds because of passing of electricity, are known as Electrolytic Decomposition. This is
aqueous solution of two salts is called Precipitation Reaction.
also known as Electrolysis.
Example:
Example: When electricity is passed in water, it decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen.
2H2O(l) Undefined control sequence \xrightarrow 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Photolysis or Photo Decomposition Reaction: Reactions in which a compound decomposes
because of sunlight are known as Photolysis or Photo Decomposition Reaction.
Example: When silver chloride is put in sunlight, it decomposes into silver metal and chlorine
gas.
2AgCl(s) (white) Sunlight−→−−−−− 2Ag(s) (grey) + Cl2(g)
Neutralization Reaction: The reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to form salt and water
Photographic paper has a coat of silver chloride, which turns into grey when exposed to sunlight.
by an exchange of ions is called Neutralization Reaction.
It happens because silver chloride is colourless while silver is a grey metal.
Example:

(iii) Displacement Reaction: The chemical reactions in which a more reactive element displaces
a less reactive element from a compound is known as Displacement Reactions. Displacement
reactions are also known as Substitution Reaction or Single Displacement/ replacement
reactions.
(v) Oxidation and Reduction Reactions: When quick lime (CaO) is added to water, it releases energy.
Oxidation: Addition of oxygen or non-metallic element or removal of hydrogen or metallic
element from a compound is known as Oxidation.
Elements or compounds in which oxygen or non-metallic element is added or hydrogen or
metallic element is removed are called to be Oxidized.
Reduction: Addition of hydrogen or metallic element or removal of oxygen or non-metallic
element from a compound is called Reduction.
The compound or element which goes under reduction in called to be Reduced. Endothermic Reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed is called
Oxidation and Reduction take place together. Endothermic Reaction.
Oxidizing agent: Example: Decomposition of calcium carbonate.

 The substance which gives oxygen for oxidation is called an Oxidizing agent.
 The substance which removes hydrogen is also called an Oxidizing agent.

Reducing agent:
Effects of Oxidation Reactions in Everyday life: Corrosion and Rancidity.
 The substance which gives hydrogen for reduction is called a Reducing agent. Corrosion: The process of slow conversion of metals into their undesirable compounds due to
 The substance which removes oxygen is also called a Reducing agent. their reaction with oxygen, water, acids, gases etc. present in the atmosphere is called Corrosion.
Example: Rusting of iron.
The reaction in which oxidation and reduction both take place simultaneously is called Redox
reaction. Rusting: Iron when reacts with oxygen and moisture forms red substance which is called Rust.
When copper oxide is heated with hydrogen, then copper metal and hydrogen are formed.
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
(i) In this reaction, CuO is changing into Cu. Oxygen is being removed from copper oxide.
Removal of oxygen from a substance is called Reduction, so copper oxide is being reduced to
copper.

The rusting of iron is a redox reaction.

(ii) In this reaction, H2 is changing to H2O. Oxygen is being added to hydrogen. Addition of
Corrosion (rusting) weakens the iron and steel objects and structures such as railings, car bodies,
oxygen to a substance is called Oxidation, so hydrogen is being oxidised to water.
bridges and ships etc. and cuts short their life.
Methods to Prevent Rusting
 The substance which gets oxidised is the reducing agent.
 The substance which gets reduced is the oxidizing agent.
 By painting.
 By greasing and oiling.
(vi) Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions:
 By galvanisation.
Exothermic Reaction: Reaction which produces energy is called Exothermic Reaction. Most of
the decomposition reactions are exothermic.
Corrosion of Copper: Copper objects lose their lustre and shine after some time because the
Example:
surface of these objects acquires a green coating of basic copper carbonate,
Respiration is a decomposition reaction in which energy is released.
CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 when exposed to air.
Corrosion of Silver Metal: The surface of silver metal gets tarnished (becomes dull) on Redox reaction: Both oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.
exposure to air, due to the formation of a coating of black silver sulphide(Ag2S) on its surface by CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
the action of H2S gas present in the air.
Exothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is evolved.
C + O2 → CO2 (g) + heat

Endothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed.

Rancidity: The taste and odour of food materials containing fat and oil changes when they are ZnCO3 + Heat → ZnO + CO2
left exposed to air for a long time. This is called Rancidity. It is caused due to the oxidation of fat
and oil present in food materials.
Redox reaction: Chemical reaction in which both oxidation and reduction take place
simultaneously.
Methods to prevent rancidity:
4. Oxidation: Reaction that involves the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen.
 By adding anti-oxidant.
 Vacuum packing.
5. Reduction: Reaction that shows the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.
 Replacing air by nitrogen.
ZnO + C → Zn + CO
 Refrigeration of foodstuff.
ZnO is reduced to Zn—reduction. C is oxidized to CO—Oxidation.
1. Chemical Reaction: During chemical reactions, the chemical composition of substances
changes or new substances are formed. 6. Effects of Oxidation Reactions in Our Daily Life:

2. Chemical Equation: Chemical reactions can be written in chemical equation form which  Corrosion: It is an undesirable change that occurs in metals when they are attacked by
should always be balanced. moisture, air, acids and bases.
Example, Corrosion (rusting) of Iron: Fe2O3. nH2O (Hydrated iron oxide)
 Rancidity: Undesirable change that takes place in oil containing food items due to the
3. Types of Chemical Reactions:
oxidation of fatty acids.
Preventive methods of rancidity: Adding antioxidants to the food materials, storing food in
Combination reaction: A single product is formed from two or more reactants. the airtight container, flushing out air with nitrogen gas and refrigeration.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Decomposition reaction: A single reactant breaks down to yield two or more products.

 Thermal decomposition: 2Pb(NO2)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

 Electrolysis: 2H20 → 2H2 + O2
 Photochemical reaction: 2AgBr → 2Ag + Br2

Displacement reaction: One element is displaced by another element.

Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu

Double displacement reaction: Exchange of ions between reactants.

AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
 Indicator Original Colour Acid Base

CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 2

Acids Bases and Salts Red litmus Red No Change Blue
Indicators: Indicators are substances which indicate the acidic or basic nature of the
solution by the colour change.
Types of Indicator: There are many types of indicators. Some common types of
indicators are: Blue litmus Blue Red No change

1. Natural Indicators: Indicators obtained from natural sources are called Natural
Indicators. Litmus, turmeric, red cabbage, China rose, etc., are some common natural
indicators used widely to show the acidic or basic character of substances. Turmeric Yellow No Change Reddish brown
Litmus: Litmus is obtained from lichens. The solution of litmus is purple in colour.
Litmus paper comes in two colours- blue and red.
An acid turns blue litmus paper red.
A base turns red litmus paper blue. Red cabbage juice Purple Reddish Greenish yellow

Turmeric: Turmeric is another natural indicator. Turmeric is yellow in colour. Turmeric

solution or paper turns reddish brown with base. Turmeric does not change colour with
acid. Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink

Red Cabbage: The juice of red cabbage is originally purple in colour. Juice of red
cabbage turns reddish with acid and turns greenish with base.
Methyl Orange Orange Red Yellow
2. Olfactory Indicator: Substances which change their smell when mixed with acid or
base are known as Olfactory Indicators. For example; Onion, vanilla etc.
Onion: Paste or juice of onion loses its smell when added with base. It does not change
its smell with acid. Onion n/a No change Smell vanishes
Vanilla: The smell of vanilla vanishes with base, but its smell does not vanish with an
acid.

Vanilla n/a No change Smell vanishes

Olfactory Indicators are used to ensure the participation of visually impaired students in the
laboratory.
3. Synthetic Indicator: Indicators that are synthesized in the laboratory are known as
Synthetic Indicators. For example; Phenolphthalein, methyl orange, etc. Acids: Acids are sour in taste, turn blue litmus red, and dissolve in water to release
Phenolphthalein is a colourless liquid. It remains colourless with acid but turns into pink H+ ions.
with a base. Example: Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Acetic Acid (CH3COOH), Nitric Acid (HNO3) etc.
Methyl orange is originally orange in colour. It turns into the red with acid and turns into Properties of Acids:
yellow with base.
 Acids have a sour taste.
 Turns blue litmus red.
 Acid solution conducts electricity.
 Release H+ ions in aqueous solution.
Types of Acids: Acids are divided into two types on the basis of their occurrence i.e.,
Natural acids and Mineral acids.
(i) Natural Acids: Acids which are obtained from natural sources are called Natural
Acids or Organic Acids.
Examples: (ii) Mineral Acids: Acids that are prepared from minerals are known as Mineral Acids
Methanoic acid (HCOOH) Example; Inorganic acids, man-made acids or synthetic acid are also known as Mineral
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) Acids.
Oxalic acid (C2H2O4) etc. Example:
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Organic Acids and their Sources Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Nitric acid (HNO3)
Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) etc.
Acids Sources
Chemical Properties of Acid:
(i) Reaction of acids with metal: Acids give hydrogen gas along with respective salt
when they react with a metal.
Acetic acid Vinegar Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen
Examples:
Hydrogen gas and zinc chloride are formed when hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc
metal.
Ascorbic acid Guava, amla

Citric acid Lemon, orange and other citrus fruits Hydrogen gas and sodium sulphate are formed when sulphuric acid reacts with sodium
metal.

Lactic acid Sour milk, curd

Test For Hydrogen Gas: The gas evolved after reaction of acid with metal can be
tested by bringing a lighted candle near it. If the gas bums with a pop sound, then it
Methanoic acid Ant sting, nettle sting confirms the evolution of hydrogen gas. Burning with pop sound is the characteristic test
for hydrogen gas.

(ii) Reaction of acids with metal carbonate: Acids give carbon dioxide gas and
Oxalic acid Tomato respective salts along with water when they react with metal carbonates.
Metal carbonate + Acid → Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
Examples:
Hydrochloric acid gives carbon dioxide gas, sodium chloride along with water when

Tartaric acid Tamarind

reacts with sodium carbonate. Common in Acids: Acids give hydrogen gas when they react with metal. This shows
that all acids contains hydrogen. For example; Hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulphuric acid
(H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), etc.
When an acid is dissolved in water, it dissociates hydrogen. The dissociation of
hydrogen ion in aqueous solution is the common property in all acids. Because of the
dissociation of hydrogen ion in aqueous solution, an acid shows acidic behaviour.
Sulphuric acid gives calcium sulphate, carbon dioxide gas, calcium sulphate and water Examples:
when it reacts with calcium carbonate Hydrochloric acid (HCl) gives hydrogen ion (H +) and chloride ion (Cl–) when it is
dissolved in water.

Nitric acid gives sodium nitrate, water and carbon dioxide gas when it reacts with
sodium carbonate. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) gives acetate ion (CH3COO–) and hydrogen ion (H+).

Acids
(iii) Reaction of acid with hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates): Acids give carbon
dioxide gas, respective salt and water when they react with metal hydrogen carbonate.
Acid + Metal hydrogen carbonate → Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water Strong Acids
Example: An acid which is completely ionised in water and produces (H +) is called Strong Acid.
Sulphuric acid gives sodium sulphate, Carbon dioxide gas and water when it reacts with Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H 2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3)
sodium bicarbonate.
Weak Acids
An acid which is partially ionised in water and thus produces a small amount of
hydrogen ions (H+) is called a Weak Acid.
Example: Acetic acid (CH3COOH), Carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Test For Evolution of Carbon Dioxide Gas: Carbon dioxide turns lime water milky When a concentrated solution of acid is diluted by mixing water, then the concentration
when passed through it. This is the characteristic test for carbon dioxide gas. of Hydrogen ions (H+) or hydronium ion (H3O–) per unit volume decreases.
The gas evolved because of reaction of the acid with metal carbonate or metal
hydrogen carbonate turns lime water milky. This shows that the gas is carbon dioxide
gas. This happens because of the formation of a white precipitate of calcium carbonate. Bases: Bases are bitter in taste, have soapy touch, turn red litmus blue and give
hydroxide ions (OH–) in aqueous solution.
Examples: Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) – NaOH
Calcium hydroxide – Ca(OH)2
Potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) – (KOH)

Properties of Bases:

But when excess of carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, it makes milky colour  Have a bitter taste.
of lime water disappear. This happens because of formation of calcium hydrogen
 Soapy to touch.
carbonate. As calcium hydrogen carbonate is soluble in water, thus, the milky colour of  Turns red litmus blue.
solution mixture disappears.  Conducts electricity in solution.
 Release OH– ions in Aqueous Solution
Types of bases: Bases can be divided in two types – Water soluble and Water- Acid + Base → Salt + Water
insoluble. Since, the reaction between acid and base both neutralize each other, hence, it is also
The hydroxide of alkali and alkaline earth metals are soluble in water. These are also known as Neutralization Reaction.
known as alkali. Examples: Sodium chloride and water are formed when hydrochloric acid reacts with
For example; sodium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, etc. Alkali is sodium hydroxide (a strong base).
considered a strong base.

Chemical properties of bases:

(i) Reaction of Base with Metals: When alkali (base) reacts with metal, it produces salt In a similar way, calcium chloride is formed along with water when hydrochloric acid
and hydrogen gas. reacts with calcium hydroxide (a base).
Alkali + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
Examples: Sodium hydroxide gives hydrogen gas and sodium zincate when reacts with
zinc metal.

(iv) Reaction of Acid with Metal Oxides: Metal oxides are basic in nature. Thus, when
an acid reacts with a metal oxide both neutralize each other. In this reaction, the
Sodium aluminate and hydrogen gas are formed when sodium hydroxide reacts with
respective salt and water are formed.
aluminium metal.
Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + Water
(Metal oxides are basic in nature)
Examples:
Calcium is a metal, thus, calcium oxide is a metallic oxide which is basic in nature.
When an acid, such as hydrochloric acid, reacts with calcium oxide, neutralization
(ii) Reaction of Base with Oxides of Non-metals: Non-metal oxides are acidic in reaction takes place and calcium chloride, along with water is formed.
nature. For example; carbon dioxide is a non-metal oxide. When carbon dioxide is
dissolved in water it produces carbonic acid.
Therefore, when a base reacts with non-metal oxide, both neutralize each other
resulting respective salt and water. Similarly, when sulphuric acid reacts with zinc oxide, zinc sulphate and water are
Base + Non-metal oxide → Salt + Water formed.
(Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature)
Examples:
Sodium hydroxide gives sodium carbonate and water when it reacts with carbon
dioxide.

Common in all bases: A base dissociates hydroxide ion in water, which is responsible
for the basic behaviour of a compound.
Example: When sodium hydroxide is dissolved in water, it dissociates hydroxide ion and
Calcium hydroxide gives calcium carbonate and water when it reacts with carbon
sodium ion.
dioxide.

Similarly, when potassium hydroxide is dissolved in water, it dissociates hydroxide ion

and potassium ion.
(iii) Neutralisation Reaction: An acid neutralizes a base when they react with each
other and respective salt and water are formed.
Thus, the base shows its basic character because of dissociation of hydroxide ion.

Neutralisation Reaction: When an acid reacts with a base, the hydrogen ion of acid For water or neutral solutions : pH = 7
combines with the hydroxide ion of base and forms water. As these ions combine For acidic solutions : pH < 7
together and form water instead of remaining free, thus, both neutralize each other. For basic solution : pH > 7

Universal Indicator: Using a litmus paper, phenolphthalein, methyl orange, etc. only
the acidic or basic character of a solution can be determined, but the use of these
indicators does not give the idea about the strength of acid or base. So, to get the
Example: When sodium hydroxide (a base) reacts with hydrochloric acid, sodium strength as well as acidic and basic nature of a given solution universal indicator is
hydroxide breaks into a sodium ion and hydroxide ion and hydrochloric acid breaks into used.
hydrogen ion and chloride ion.
Hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion combine together and form water, while sodium ion and
chloride ion combine together and form sodium chloride. Universal indicator shows different colour over the range of pH value from 1 to 14 for a
given solution. Universal indicator is available both in the form of strips and solution.
Universal indicator is the combination of many indicators, such as water, propanol,
phenolphthalein, sodium salt, sodium hydroxide, methyl red, bromothymol blue
monosodium salt, and thymol blue monosodium salt. The colour matching chart is
supplied with a universal indicator which shows the different colours for different values
of pH.
Dilution of Acid and Base: The concentration of hydrogen ion in an acid and
hydroxide ion in a base, per unit volume, shows the concentration of acid or base.

By mixing of acid to water, the concentration of hydrogen ion per unit volume
decreases. Similarly, by addition of base to water, the concentration of hydroxide ion
per unit volume decreases. This process of addition of acid or base to water is called
Dilution and the acid or base is called Diluted.

The dilution of acid or base is exothermic. Thus, acid or base is always added to water
and water is never added to acid or base. If water is added to a concentrated acid or pH value shown by different colours role of pH everyday life:
base, a lot of heat is generated, which may cause splashing out of acid or base and (i) pH in our digestive system: Dilute HCl (Hydrochloric acid) helps in digestion of
may cause severe damage as concentrated acid and base are highly corrosive. food (proteins) in our stomach. Excess acid in stomach causes acidity (indigestion).
Antacids like magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH) 2] also known as milk of magnesia and
sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda) are used to neutralize excess acid.
Strength of Acid and Base: Acids in which complete dissociation of hydrogen ion
takes place are called Strong Acids. Similarly, bases in which complete dissociation of
hydroxide ion takes place are called Strong Bases. (ii) Tooth decay caused by acids: The bacteria present in our mouth converts the
In mineral acid, such as hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, etc. hydrogen ion sugar into acids. When the pH of acid formed in the mouth falls below 5.5, tooth-
dissociates completely and hence, they are considered as strong acids. Since inorganic decaying starts. The excess acid has to be removed by cleaning the teeth with a good
acids hydrogen ions do not dissociate completely, so they are weak acids. quality toothpaste because these kinds of toothpaste are alkaline in nature.
(iii) Soil of pH and plant growth: Most of the plants have a healthy growth when the Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4): It is formed after the reaction between sodium hydroxide
soil has a specific pH (close to 7) range which should be neither alkaline nor highly (a strong base) and sulphuric acid ( a strong acid).
acidic. Therefore,

 Compound ‘X’ is Sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

 Compound ‘A’ is Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4).
 Compound ‘B’ is Sodium chloride (NaCl).
Potassium Chloride (KCl): It is formed after the reaction between potassium hydroxide
 Compound ‘C’ is Sodium acetate (CH 3COONa)
(a strong base) and hydrochloric acid (a strong acid).
Salts: Salts are the ionic compounds which are produced after the neutralization
reaction between acid and base. Salts are electrically neutral. There are number of salts
but sodium chloride is the most common among them. Sodium chloride is also known
as table salt or common salt. Sodium chloride is used to enhance the taste of food.
(ii) Acidic Salts: Salts which are formed after the reaction between a strong acid and
Characteristics of salt: weak base are called Acidic salts. The pH value of acidic salt is lower than 7. For
example Ammonium sulphate, Ammonium chloride, etc.
 Most of the salts are crystalline soild. Ammonium chloride is formed after reaction between hydrochloric acid (a strong acid)
 Salts may be transparent or opaque. and ammonium hydroxide (a weak base).
 Most of the salts are soluble in water.
 Solution of the salts conducts electricity in their molten state also.
 The salt may be salty, sour, sweet, bitter and umami (savoury).
 Neutral salts are odourless. Ammonium sulphate is formed after reaction between ammonium hydroxide (a weak
 Salts can be colourless or coloured. base) and sulphuric acid (a strong acid).
Family of Salt: Salts having common acidic or basic radicals are said to belong to the
same family.
Example:
(i) Sodium chloride (NaCl) and Calcium chloride (CaCl 2) belongs to chloride family.
(ii) Calcium chloride (CaCl2) and Calcium sulphate (CaSO4) belongs to calcium family. (iii) Basic Salts: Salts which are formed after the reaction between a weak acid and
(iii) Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) and Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) belongs to the zinc family. strong base are called Basic Salts. For example; Sodium carbonate, Sodium acetate,
etc.
Neutral, Acidic and Basic Salts: Sodium carbonate is formed after the reaction between sodium hydroxide (a strong
(i) Neutral Salt: Salts produced because of reaction between a strong acid and strong base) and carbonic acid (a weak acid).
base are neutral in nature. The pH value of such salts is equal to 7, i.e. neutral.
Example : Sodium chloride, Sodium sulphate. Postassium chloride, etc.

Sodium chloride (NaCl): It is formed after the reaction between hydrochloric acid (a Sodium acetate is formed after the reaction between a strong base, sodium hydroxide
strong acid) and sodium hydroxide (a strong base). (a strong base) and acetic acid, (a weak acid).

Cause of formation of acidic, basic and neutral salts:

  When a strong acid reacts with a weak base, the base is unable to fully neutralize (bleaching powder) and water is formed.
the acid. Due to this, an acidic salt is formed.
 When a strong base reacts with a weak acid, the acid is unable to fully neutralize
the base. Due to this, a basic salt is formed.
 When equally strong acid and a base react, they fully neutralize each other. Due
to this, a neutral salt is formed. Aqueous solution of bleaching powder is basic in nature. The term bleach means
removal of colour. Bleaching powder is often used as bleaching agent. It works because
pH value of salt: of oxidation. Chlorine in the bleaching powder is responsible for bleaching effect.

 Neutral salt: The pH value of a neutral salt is almost equal to 7. Use of Bleaching Powder:
 Acidic salt: The pH value of an acidic salt is less than 7.
 Basic salt: The pH value of a basic salt is more than 7.  Bleaching powder is used as disinfectant to clean water, moss remover, weed
killers, etc.
Some Important Chemical Compounds  Bleaching powder is used for bleaching of cotton in textile industry, bleaching of
1. Common Salt (Sodium Chloride): Sodium chloride (NaCl) is also known as wood pulp in paper industry.
Common or Table Salt. It is formed after the reaction between sodium hydroxide and  Bleaching powder is used as oxidizing agent in many industries, such as textiles
hydrochloric acid. It is a neutral salt. The pH value of sodium chloride is about 7. industry, paper industry, etc.
Sodium chloride is used to enhance the taste of food. Sodium chloride is used in the
manufacturing of many chemicals. 3. Baking Soda (NaHCO3): Baking soda is another important product which can be
obtained using byproducts of chlor – alkali process. The chemical name of baking soda
Important chemical from sodium chloride is sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO 3) or sodium bicarbonate. Bread soda, cooking
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH): Sodium hydroxide is a strong base. It is also known as soda, bicarbonate of soda, sodium bicarb, bicarb of soda or simply bicarb, etc. are
caustic soda. It is obtained by the electrolytic decomposition of solution of sodium some other names of baking soda.
chloride (brine). In the process of electrolytic decomposition of brine (aqueous solution
of sodium chloride), brine decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. In this process, Preparation Method: Baking soda is obtained by the reaction of brine with carbon
chlorine is obtained at anode and hydrogen gas is obtained at cathode as by products. dioxide and ammonia. This is known as Solvay process.
This whole process is known as Chlor – Alkali process.

In this process, calcium carbonate is used as the source of CO 2 and the resultant
calcium oxide is used to recover ammonia from ammonium chloride.
Use of products after the electrolysis of brine:

Properties of Sodium Bicarbonate:

 Hydrogen gas is used as fuel, margarine, in making of ammonia for fertilizer, etc.
 Chlorine gas is used in water treatment, manufacturing of PVC, disinfectants,
CFC, pesticides. It is also used in the manufacturing of bleaching powder and  Sodium bicarbonate is white crystalline solid, but it appears as fine powder.
hydrochloric acid.  Sodium hydrogen carbonate is amphoteric in nature.
 Sodium hydroxide is used for degreasing of metals, manufacturing of paper, soap,  Sodium hydrogen carbonate is sparingly soluble in water.
detergents, artificial fibres, bleach, etc.  Thermal decomposition of sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda).
 When baking soda is heated, it decomposes into sodium carbonate, carbon
2. Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2): Bleaching powder is also known as chloride of lime. It dioxide and water.
is a solid and yellowish white in colour. Bleaching powder can be easily identified by the 2NaHCO3 + heat → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
strong smell of chlorine.  Sodium carbonate formed after thermal decomposition of sodium hydrogen
When calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) reacts with chlorine, it gives calcium oxychloride carbonate decomposes into sodium oxide and carbon dioxide on further heating.
 Na2CO3 → Na2O + CO2
This reaction is known as Dehydration reaction.

Use of Baking Soda:

Since there are 10 water molecules in washing soda, hence, it is known as Sodium
Bicarbonate Decahydrate.
 Baking soda is used in making of baking powder, which is used in cooking as it Sodium carbonate is a crystalline solid and it is soluble in water when most of the
produces carbon dioxide which makes the batter soft and spongy. carbonates are insoluble in water.
 Baking soda is used as an antacid.
 Baking soda is used in toothpaste which makes the teeth white and plaque free.
 Baking soda is used in cleansing of ornaments made of silver. Use of sodium carbonate:
 Since sodium hydrogen carbonate gives carbon dioxide and sodium oxide on
strong heating, thus, it, is used as a fire extinguisher.  It is used in the cleaning of cloths, especially in rural areas.
 In the making of detergent cake and powder.
Baking Powder: Baking powder produces carbon dioxide on heating, so it is used in  In removing the permanent hardness of water.
cooking to make the batter spongy. Although, baking soda also produces carbon  It is used in glass and paper industries.
dioxide on heating, but it is not used in cooking because on heating, baking soda
produces sodium carbonate along with carbon dioxide. The sodium carbonate, thus, The water of Crystallization: Many salts contain water molecule and are known as
produced, makes the taste bitter. Hydrated Salts. The water molecule present in salt is known as Water of crystallization.
Examples:
Copper sulphate pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O): Blue colour of copper sulphate is due to
presence of 5 molecules of water. When copper sulphate is heated, it loses water
Baking powder is the mixture of baking soda and a mild edible acid. Generally, tartaric molecules and turns: into grey – white colour, which is known as anhydrous copper
acid is mixed with baking soda to make baking powder. sulphate. After adding water, anhydrous copper sulphate becomes blue again.

When baking powder is heated, sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO 3) decomposes to Acids: Substances which turn blue litmus solution red are called acids. Acids are sour
give CO2 and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). CO2 causes bread and cake fluffy. Tartaric in taste.
acid helps to remove bitter taste due to formation of Na 2CO3.
Bases: Substances which change red litmus solution blue are called bases. They are
4. Washing Soda (Sodium Carbonate) bitter in taste.
Preparation Method: Sodium carbonate is manufactured by the thermal decomposition
of sodium hydrogen carbonate obtained by Solvay process. Mineral Acids: Acids which are obtained from minerals like sulphates, nitrates,
chlorides etc. are called mineral acids, example, H 2SO4 (Sulphuric acid), HNO3 (Nitric
acid) and HCl (Hydrochloric acid).

Organic Acids: Acids which are obtained from plants and animals are called organic
acids. Example citric acid, ascorbic acid, tartaric acid, lactic acid, acetic acid.

Hydronium Ions: They are formed by the reaction of H+ (from acid) and H2O. It is
because H+ is unstable.
The sodium carbonate obtained in this process is dry. It is called Soda ash or
Anhydrous sodium carbonate. Washing soda is obtained by rehydration of anhydrous
sodium carbonate.
Universal Indicator: A universal indicator is a mixture of indicators which shows a Some Important Compounds and their Uses:
gradual but well-marked series of colour changes over a very wide range of change in
concentration of H+ ions.

Strong Acids: Acids which dissociate into ions completely are called strong acids.
Example, H2SO4, HCl.

Weak Acids: Acids which do not dissociate into ions completely are called weak acids.
Example, citric acid, acetic acid.

Chemical Properties of Acids:

 Acids react with active metals to give salt and hydrogen gas.
 Acids react with metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates to give salt, Equations of Acids, Bases and Salts:
water and carbon dioxide.
 Acids react with bases to give salt and water. This reaction is called a
neutralization reaction.  Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
 Acids react with metal oxides to give salt and water. H2SO4 + Zn → ZnSO4 + H2
 Base + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
Chemical Properties of Bases: 2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 (Sodium zincate) + H2
 Base + Acid → Salt + Water
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
 Reaction with metals: Certain metals such as zinc, aluminium and tin react with  Acids give hydronium ions in water
alkali solutions on heating and hydrogen gas is evolved. HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl–
 Reaction with acids: Bases react with acids to form salt and water.  Bases generate OH- ions in water
NaOH (aq) + H2O → Na+ (aq) + O– (aq)
Indicators: Indicators are substances which indicate the acidic or basic nature of the
solution by their colour change. Reactions Of Important Chemical Compounds:

pH Scale: A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.  Preparation of Bleaching powder: By the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime
The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O
in moles per litre.  On heating, baking soda liberates CO 2
pH = -log [H+]
pH = -log [H3O+]
where [H+] or [H3O+] represents concentrations of hydrogen ions in a solution.

 The pH of a neutral solution is 7. 

 The pH of an acidic solution is < 7.  Preparation of Plaster of Paris:
 The pH of a basic solution is > 7.
Metals and Non-metals Class 10 Science oxide when reacts with oxygen.

Notes
Metals: Physical properties of metals, chemical properties of metals and
non-metal oxide. Reaction of Sodium with Oxygen: Sodium metal forms sodium oxide
when reacts with oxygen.
Metals are the elements that conduct heat and electricity and are malleable
and ductile. Examples are Iron (Fe), Aluminium (Al), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu),
Gold (Au), Platinum (Pt), Lead (Pb), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca)
and Magnesium (Mg) etc. Lithium, potassium, sodium, etc. are known as Alkali-metals. Alkali metals
react vigorously with oxygen.
Metals are the elements which form positive ions by losing electrons. Thus,
metals are known as Electropositive Elements. Reaction of Copper metal with Oxygen: Copper does not react with
oxygen at room temperature but when burnt in air, it gives oxide.
Physical Properties of Metals

 Hardness: Most of the metals are hard, except alkali metals, such as sodium,
potassium, lithium, etc. are very soft metals. These can be cut by using a Silver, gold and platinum do not combine with the oxygen of air even at high
knife. temperature. They are the least reactive.
 Strength: Most of the metals are strong and have high tensile strength.
Because of this, big structures are made using metals, such as copper (Cu) 2. Reaction of metals with water: Metals form respective hydroxide and
and iron (Fe). (Except Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) which are soft metals).
hydrogen gas when reacting with water.
 State: Metals are solid at room temperature except for mercury (Hg).
 Sound: Metals produce ringing sound, so, metals are called Sonorous. Sound
Metal + Water → Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
of metals is also known as Metallic sound. This is the cause that metal wires Most of the metals do not react with water. However, alkali metals react
are used in making musical instruments. vigorously with water.
 Conduction: Metals are a good conductor of heat and electricity. This is the
cause that electric wires are made of metals like copper and aluminium. Reaction of Sodium metal with Water: Sodium metal forms sodium
 Malleability: Metals are malleable. This means metals can be beaten into a
hydroxide and liberates hydrogen gas along with lot of heat when reacting
thin sheet. Because of this property, iron is used in making big ships.
 Ductility: Metals are ductile. This means metals can be drawn into thin wire.
with water.
Because of this property, a wire is made of metals.
 Melting and Boiling Point: Metals have generally high melting and boiling
points. (Except sodium and potassium metals which have low melting and
boiling point.)
 Density: Most of the metals have a high density.
 Colour: Most of the metals are grey in colour. But gold and copper are
Reaction of Calcium metal with Water: Calcium forms calcium hydroxide
exceptions. along with hydrogen gas and heat when react with water.

Chemical Properties of Metals

1. Reaction with oxygen: Most of the metals form respective metal oxides
when reacting with oxygen.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide
Examples:
Reaction of Potassium with Oxygen: Potassium metal forms potassium
Reaction of Magnesium metal with Water: Magnesium metal reacts with of different metals towards water may be written as :
water slowly and forms magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. K > Na > Ca > Mg > Ae > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu > Ag > Au

3. Reaction of metals with dilute acid: Metals form respective salts when
reacting with dilute acid.
Metal + dil. acid → Metal salt + Hydrogen
When steam is passed over magnesium metal, magnesium oxide and
hydrogen gas are formed. Reaction of Sodium metal with dilute hydrochloric acid: Sodium metal
gives sodium chloride and hydrogen gas when react with dilute hydrochloric
acid.

Reaction of Aluminium metal with Water: Reaction of aluminium metal

with cold water is too slow to come into notice. But when steam is passed
over aluminium metal, aluminium oxide and hydrogen gas are produced. Reaction of Magnesium metal with dilute hydrochloric
2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 2H2 acid: Magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas are formed when magnesium
reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Reaction of Zinc metal with Water: Zinc metal produces zinc oxide and
hydrogen gas when steam is passed over it. Zinc does not react with cold
water.

Reaction of Zinc with dilute sulphuric acid: Zinc sulphate and hydrogen
gas are formed when zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric acid. This method is
used in the laboratory to produce hydrogen gas.
Reaction of Iron with Water: Reaction of iron with cold water is very slow
and comes into notice after a long time. Iron forms rust (iron oxide) when
reacts with moisture present in the atmosphere. Iron oxide and hydrogen gas
are formed by passing of steam over iron metal.
Hydrogen (H2) gas is not evolved when metal is treated with nitric
acid (HNO3):
Nitric acid is strong oxidising agent and it oxidises the hydrogen gas (H2)
liberated into water (H2O) and itself get reduced to some oxide of nitrogen
Both calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are heavier than water but like nitrous oxide (N2O)3 nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
still float over it: Both calcium and magnesium float over water surface Copper, gold, silver are known as noble metals. These do not react with
because hydrogen gas is evolved when these metals react with water. It is in water or dilute acids.
the form of bubbles which stick on the metal surface. Therefore, they float The order of reactivity of metal towards dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric
over it. acid is in the order;
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Cu > Hg > Ag

Metal Oxides
Other metals usually do not react with water or react very slowly. Lead, Chemical Properties: Metal oxides are basic in nature. The aqueous
copper, silver and gold do not react with steam. Thus, the order of reactivity solution of metal oxides turns red litmus blue.
Reaction of Metal oxides with Water: Most of the metal oxides are
insoluble in water. Alkali metal oxides are soluble in water. Alkali metal Reactivity Series of Metals: The order of intensity or reactivity of metal is
oxides give strong base when dissolved in water. known as Reactivity Series. Reactivity of elements decreases on moving
from top to bottom in the given reactivity series.
Reaction of Sodium oxide with Water: Sodium oxide gives sodium In the reactivity series, copper, gold, and silver are at the bottom and hence,
hydroxide when reacts with water. least reactive. These metals are known as Noble metals. Potassium is at the
top of the series and hence, most reactive.
Reactivity of some metals are given in descending order :
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu

Reaction of Potassium oxide with Water: Potassium oxide gives

potassium hydroxide when reacts with water.

Reaction of Zinc oxide and Aluminium oxide: Aluminium oxide and zinc
oxide are insoluble in water. Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide are amphoteric
in nature. An amphoteric substance shows both acidic and basic characters.
It reacts with base like acid and reacts with an acid like a base.
When zinc oxide reacts with sodium hydroxide, it behaves like an acid. In this
reaction, sodium zincate and water are formed.

4. Reaction of metals with solution of other metal salts: Reaction of

metals with the solution of other metal salt is displacement reaction. In this
Zinc oxide behaves like a base when reacts with acid. Zinc oxide gives zinc reaction, more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its salt.
chloride and water on reaction with hydrochloric acid. Metal A + Salt of metal B → Salt of metal A + Metal B
Examples :
Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution.

In a similar way, aluminium oxide behaves like a base when reacts with acid
and behaves like acid when reacts with a base.
Aluminium oxide gives sodium aluminate along with water when reacts with Similarly, aluminium and zinc displace copper from the solution of copper
sodium hydroxide. sulphate.

Aluminium oxide gives aluminium chloride along with water when it reacts
with hydrochloric acid. In all the above examples, iron, aluminium and zinc are more reactive than
copper. This is why they displace copper from its salt solution.
When copper is dipped in the solution of silver nitrate, it displaces silver and
forms copper nitrate.
In the reaction, copper is more reactive than silver and hence, displaces Carbon in the form of graphite is non-metal which conduct electricity.
silver from silver nitrate solution.
Silver metal does not react with copper sulphate solution because silver is Iodine is non-metal which is lustrous having a shining surface.
less reactive than copper and not able to displace copper from its salt
solution.
Carbon in the form of diamond is a non-metal which is extremely hard.

Diamond is a non-metal which has a very high melting point and boiling
Similarly, when gold is dipped in the solution of copper nitrate, no reaction point.
takes place because copper is more reactive than gold.

Chemical properties of Non-metals

1. Reaction of Non-metals with Oxygen: Non-metals form respective
In similar way, no reaction takes place when copper is dipped in the solution oxide when reacting with oxygen.
of aluminium nitrate because copper is less reactive than aluminium. Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic oxide
When carbon reacts with oxygen, carbon dioxide is formed along with the
production of heat.

Non-Metals: Physical Properties of non-metals, chemical properties of non- When carbon is burnt in an insufficient supply of air, it forms carbon
metals, non¬metal oxides, Reaction of metal and Non-metal, Ionic bonds and monoxide. Carbon monoxide is a toxic substance. Inhaling of carbon
formation of an ionic bond. Non-metals are the elements that do not conduct monoxide may prove fatal.
electricity and are neither malleable nor ductile.
Examples: Carbon (C), Sulphur (S), Phosphorous (P), Silicon (Si), Hydrogen
(H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Neon (Ne) and
Argon (Ar) etc. Sulphur gives sulphur dioxide when reacting with oxygen. Sulphur catches
Non-metals are the elements which form negative ions by gaining an fire when exposed to air.
electron. Thus, non¬metals are also known as Electronegative Elements.

Physical properties of non-metals When hydrogen reacts with oxygen it gives water.

 Hardness: Non-metals are not hard rather they are generally soft. But the
diamond is an exception; it is the hardest naturally occurring substance.
 State: Non-metals may be solid, liquid or gas.
 Lustre: Non-metals have a dull appearance. Diamond and iodine are Non-metallic Oxide: Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature. The solution
exceptions. of non-metal oxides turns blue litmus red.
 Sonority: Non-metals are not sonorous, i.e., they do not produce a typical Carbon dioxide gives carbonic acid when dissolved in water.
sound on being hit.
 Conduction: Non-metals are a bad conductor of heat and electricity. Graphite
which is allotrope of carbon is a good conductor of electricity and is an
exception. Sulphur dioxide gives sulphurous acid when dissolved in water.
 Malleability and ductility: Non-metals are brittle.
 Melting and boiling point: Non-metals have generally low melting and
boiling points.
 Density: Most of the non-metals have low density.
 Colour: Non-metals are in many colours.
Sulphur dioxide gives sulphuric acid when reacts with oxygen. Positive ion: A positive ion is formed because of the loss of electrons by an
atom.

Following are some examples of positive ions:

Sodium forms sodium ion because of the loss of one electron. Because of the
loss of one electron, one positive charge comes over sodium.

2. Reaction of Non-metal with Chlorine: Non-metal gives respective Magnesium forms positive ion because of the loss of two electrons. Two
chloride when they react with chlorine gas. positive charges come over magnesium because of loss of two electrons.
Non-metal + Chlorine → Non-metal chloride
Hydrogen gives hydrogen chloride and phosphorous gives phosphorous
trichloride when reacting with chlorine.

Negative ion: A negative ion is formed because of the gain of an electron.

Some examples are given below :
Chlorine gains one electron in order to achieve a stable configuration. After
the loss of one electron, chlorine gets one negative charge over it forming
chlorine ion.
3. Reaction of Non-metals with Hydrogen: Non-metals reactive with
hydrogen to form covalent hydrides.
Non-metal + Hydrogen → Covalent Hydride
Sulphur combines with hydrogen to form a covalent hydride is called
Hydrogen sulphide. Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonds are formed because of transfer of electrons from
metal to non¬metal. In this course, metals get positive charge because of
transfer of electrons and non-metal gets negative charge because of
acceptance of electrons. In other words, bond formed between positive and
Nitrogen combines with hydrogen in presence of an iron catalyst to form negative ion is called Ionic Bond.
covalent hydride ammonia. Since, a compound is electrically neutral, so to form an ionic compound,
negative and positive both ions must be combined.

Some examples are given below:

Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl): In sodium chloride, sodium is a
Non-metals do not react with water (or steam) to evolve Hydrogen gas. metal (alkali metal) and chlorine is a non-metal.
Atomic number of sodium = 11
Non-metals do not react with dilute acids. Electronic configuration of sodium : 2, 8, 1
Number of electrons in outermost orbit = 1
Valence electrons = Electrons in outermost orbit = 1
4. Reaction of Metal and Non-metal: Many metals form ionic bonds when
Atomic number of chlorine = 17
they react with non-metals. Compounds so formed are known as Ionic
Electronic configuration of chlorine : 2, 8, 7
Compounds.
Electrons in outermost orbit = 7
Ions: Positive or negative charged atoms are known as ions. Ions are formed
Therefore, valence electrons = ?
because of loss or gain of electrons. Atoms form ions obtain by the electronic
configuration of the nearest noble gas.
 Mineral: Minerals are naturally occurring substances which have a uniform
composition.

Ores: The minerals from which a metal can be profitably extracted are
called Ores.
Metals found at the bottom of reactivity series are least reactive and they
are often found in nature in free-state; such as gold, silver, copper, etc.
Copper and silver are also found in the form of sulphide and oxide ores.
Sodium has one valence electron and chlorine has seven valence electrons.
Sodium requires losing one electron to obtain stable configuration and
chlorine requires gaining one electron in order to obtain stable electronic Metals found in the middle of reactivity series, such as Zn, Fe, Pb, etc. are
configuration. Thus, in order to obtain stable configuration, sodium transfers usually found in the form of oxides, sulphides or carbonates.
one electron to chlorine. After loss of one electron, sodium gets one positive Metals found at the top of the reactivity series are never found in free-state
charge (+) and chlorine gets one negative charge after gain of one electron. as they are very reactive, example; K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al, etc.
Sodium chloride is formed because of transfer of electrons. Thus, ionic bond Many metals are found in the form of oxides because oxygen is abundant in
is formed between sodium and chlorine. Since, sodium chloride is formed nature and is very reactive.
because of ionic bond, thus, it is called Ionic compound. In similar way,
potassium chloride (KCl) is formed. Extraction of Metals: Metals can be categorised into three parts on the basis
of their reactivity: Most reactive, medium reactive and least reactive.
Properties of Ionic compound The three major steps involved in the extraction of a metal from its ore are

 Ionic compounds are solid. Ionic bond has a greater force of attraction because 1. Concentration or enrichment of ores.
of which ions attract each other strongly. This makes ionic compounds solid. 2. Conversion of concentrated ore into crude metal and,
 Ionic compounds are brittle. 3. Refining of impure or crude metal.
 Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because force of
attraction between ions of ionic compounds is very strong.
 Ionic compounds generally dissolve in water.
 Ionic compounds are generally insoluble in organic solvents; like kerosene,
petrol, etc.
 Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state.
 The solution of ionic compounds in water conduct electricity. This happens
because ions present in the solution of ionic compound facilitate the passage
of electricity by moving towards opposite electrodes.
 Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state.

Occurrence and Extraction of Metals: Minerals, ores, extraction of

metals of least reactivity, extraction of metals of middle reactivity, extraction
of metals of high reactivity, refining or purification of metals and corrosion.

Occurrence and Extraction of Metals:

Source of metal: Metals occur in Earth’s crust and in seawater; in the form
of ores. Earth’s crust is the major source of metal. Seawater contains many
salts such as sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, etc.
 Roasting: Heating of sulphide ores in the presence of excess air to convert
them into oxides is known as Roasting.

Calcination: Heating of carbonate ores in the limited supply of air to convert

them into oxides is known as Calcination.

Calcination Roasting

(i) It is done for carbonate ores. (i) It is done for sulphide ores.

(ii) Carbonates ores heated in the absence of oxygen. (ii) Sulphide ores are heated in the Presence of oxygen.

(iii) The CO2 gas is released and Metal oxide is obtained. (iii) SO2 gas is released and Metal oxide is obtained.

ZnCO3(s) heat−→− ZnO(s) + CO2(g) 2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) heat−→− 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)

1. Concentration of Ores: Removal of impurities, such as soil, sand, stone, 3. Reduction: Heating of oxides of metals to turn them into metal is known
silicates, etc. from mines ore is known as Concentration of Ores. as Reduction.
Ores which are mined often contain many impurities. These impurities are (i) Extraction of Metals of Least Reactivity: Mercury and copper, which
called gangue. First of all, concentration is done to remove impurities from belong to the least reactivity series, are often found in the form of their
ores. The concentration of ores is also known as enrichment of ores. Process sulphide ores. Cinnabar (HgS) is the ore of mercury. Copper glance (Cu 2S) is
of concentration depends upon physical and chemical properties of ores. the ore of copper.
Gravity separation, electromagnetic separation, froth flotation process, etc. Extraction of Mercury Metal: Cinnabar (HgS) is first heated in air. This turns
are some examples of the processes which are applied for concentration of HgS (mercury sulphide or cinnabar) into HgO (mercury oxide) by liberation of
ores. sulphur dioxide. Mercury oxide so obtained is again heated strongly. This

2. Conversion of Concentrated Ore into Crude Metal

Conversion of metals ores into oxides: It is easy to obtain metals from their
oxides. So, ores found in the form of sulphide and carbonates are first
converted to their oxides by the process of roasting and calcination. Oxides
of metals so obtained are converted into metals by the process of reduction.
reduces mercury oxide to mercury metal. Extraction of Iron from Haematite (Fe2O3): Haematite ore is heated with
carbon to be reduced to iron metal.

Extraction of Lead from Lead oxide: Lead oxide is heated with carbon to
be reduced to lead metal.
Extraction of Copper Metal: Copper glance (Cu2S) is roasted in the
presence of air. Roasting turns copper glance (ore of copper) into copper (l)
oxide. Copper oxide is then heated in the absence of air. This reduces copper
(l) oxide into copper metal.
Reduction of Metal oxide by Heating with Aluminium: Metal oxides are
heated with aluminium (a reducing agent) to be reduced to metal. Following
is an example: Manganese dioxide and copper oxide are reduced to
respective metals when heated with aluminium.

(ii) Extraction of Metals of Middle Reactivity: Iron, zinc, lead, etc. are
found in the form of carbonate or sulphide ores. Carbonate or sulphide ores
of metals are first converted into respective oxides and then oxides are
reduced to respective metals.
Thermite Reaction: Ferric oxide; when heated with aluminium; is reduced
Extraction of Zinc: Zinc blende (ZnS: zinc sulphide) and smithsonite or zinc to iron metal. In this reaction, a lot of heat is produced. The thermite reaction
spar or calamine (ZnCO3: zinc carbonate) are ores of zinc. Zinc blende is is used in the welding of electric conductors, iron joints, etc. such as joints in
roasted to be converted into zinc oxide. Zinc spar is put under calcination to railway tracks. This is also known as Thermite Welding (TW).
be converted into zinc oxide.

(iii) Extraction of Metals of High Reactivity: Metals of high reactivity;

such as sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, etc. are extracted from
their ores by electrolytic reduction. These metals cannot be reduced using
carbon because carbon is less reactive than them.
Zinc oxide so obtained is reduced to zinc metal by heating with carbon (a Electrolytic Reduction: Electric current is passed through the molten state
reducing agent). of metal ores. Metal being positively charged is deposited over the cathode.
Example: When an electric current is passed through molten state or solution
of sodium chloride, sodium metal gets deposited over the cathode.
 5. Corrosion: Most of the metals keep on reacting with the atmospheric air.
This leads to the formation of a layer over the metal. In the long run, the
underlying layer of metal keeps on getting lost due to conversion into oxides
or sulphides or carbonate, etc. As a result, the metal gets eaten up. The
process is called Corrosion.

Rusting of Iron: Rusting of iron is the most common form of corrosion.

When iron articles like the gate, grill, fencing, etc. come in contact with
moisture present in the air, the upper layer of iron turns into iron oxide. Iron
oxide is brown-red in colour and is known as Rust. The phenomenon is called
Metals obtained from the process of electrolytic reduction are pure in form. Rusting of Iron.
If rusting is not prevented in time, the whole iron article would turn into iron
4. Refining or purification of metals: Metals extracted from various oxide. This is also known as Corrosion of Iron. Rusting of iron gives a huge
methods contains some impurities, thus, they are required to be refined. loss every year.
Most of the metals are refined using electrolytic refining.
Prevention of Rusting: For rusting, iron must come in contact with oxygen
and water. Rusting is prevented by preventing the reaction between
atmospheric moisture and the iron article. This can be done by:

 Painting
 Greasing
 Galvanization
 Electroplating
 Alloying

6. Alloys: The homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and

Electrolytic Refining: In the process of electrolytic refining, a lump of a non-metal is called Alloy.
impure metal and a thin strip of pure metal are dipped in the salt solution of Types of alloys :
metal to be refined. When an electric current is passed through the solution,
pure metal is deposited over a thin strip of pure metal  Ferrous alloys: An alloy in which iron (Fe) is present. For example : manganese
from a lump of impure metal. In this, impure metal is used as anode and steel (Fe = 86% ; Mn = 13% ; C = 1%) and Nickle steel (Fe = 98% ; Ni = 2%).
pure metal is used as a cathode.  Non-ferrous alloys: An alloy does not contain iron. For example : Brass (Cu =
Electrolytic Refining of Copper: A lump of impure copper metal and a thin 80% ; Zn = 20%), and Bronze (Cu = 90% ; Sn = 10%).
strip of pure copper are dipped in the solution of copper sulphate. Impure  Amalgams: An alloy in which mercury (Hg) is present. For example Sodium
lump of metal is connected with the positive pole and thin strip of pure metal amalgams [Na(Hg)] and Zinc amalgams [Zn(Hg)].
is connected with negative pole. When electric current is passed through the
solution, pure metal from anode moves towards cathode and is deposited Properties of an Alloy
over it. Impurities present in metal are settled near the bottom of anode in
the solution. Settled impurities in the solution are called Anode Mud.  Alloys are stronger than the metal from which they are obtained.
 It is harder than the constituent metals.
 More resistance to corrosion.
 The melting point of alloys is lower than the constituent metals.
Example: Solder [Sn(80%) + Pb(50%)] has lower m. p. than Pb and Sn.
 The electrical conductivity of alloys is lower than the constituent metals.
 Some examples of Alloys: 4. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity

 Brass: [80% Cu + 20% Zn ] 4. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. with the exception of graphite which is a good conductor of
 Bronze: [90% Cu + 20% Sn]
 Solder: [50% Pb + 50% Sn] heat and electricity.
 Duralumin: [95% Al + 4% Cu + 0.5% Mg + 0.5 Mn]
 Steel: [99.95% Fe + 0.05% C]
 Stainless steel: [74% Fe + 18% Cr + 8% Ni]
 Magnesium: [95% Al + 5% Mg] Chemical Properties of Metals and Non-metals.
 German Silver: [60% Cu + 20% Zn + 20% Ni]
The reaction of metals with oxygen. Metals form their oxides when reacting
 Alloys of Gold: Pure gold is said to be of 24 carats. Gold is alloyed with a small
amount of silver or copper to make it hard. with oxygen.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
Metal oxides are basic in nature. Example, Reaction of Iron metal with
oxygen When iron reacts with moist air, it forms rust.

Rust is iron oxide. Articles made of iron, such as grills, fencing, etc. are
getting rusted because of reaction with moist air.
Iron (Fe) + Water (H2O) + Oxygen (O2) → Fe3O4n.H2O (Iron II, III) Oxide (Rust)
Rust is reddish brown in colour and is iron oxide. Iron oxide is basic in nature.
It turns red litmus blue.

Metals and Non-metals: Rusting of iron can be prevented:

Metals Non-metals  by galvanizing the iron articles with zinc coating.

 by painting and applying grease on the articles.

The reaction of Magnesium metal with oxygen: When magnesium is burnt in

air, it forms magnesium oxide. Burning in the air means reaction with
1. Non-metals generally occur in all the three forms of oxygen.
1. Metals generally occur as hard solid substances.
Magnesium + Oxygen (O2) → MgO (Magnesium oxide)
matter- solid, liquid and gases.

Magnesium oxide forms magnesium hydroxide with water. The solution of

Magnesium oxide turns red litmus paper blue. This means magnesium oxide
2. Metals are malleable and ductile. 2. Non-metals are non-malleable and non-ductile. is basic in nature.
MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2 (Magnesium Hydroxide)

The reaction of Non-metals with oxygen: Non-metals form their oxides when
3. Metals produce ringing sound on striking which is called their they react with oxygen.
3. Non-metals do not show this sonorous property. Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metal oxide
sonorous property. Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature.
Example., Reaction of sulphur with oxygen.
When sulphur is burnt in air, it forms sulphur dioxide. considered as noble metals as do not react with dilute acid.
Sulphur + Oxygen (O2) → SO2 (Sulphur dioxide) Generally, non-metals do not react with dilute acid.

The solution of sulphur dioxide turns blue litmus paper red. Sulphur dioxide The reaction of metals and non-metals with the base. Metals give hydrogen
forms sulphurous acid when dissolved in water. Thus, sulphur dioxide is gas when they react with a base.
acidic in nature. Metal + Base → Hydrogen gas + Salt
SO2 + H2O → Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) The reaction of aluminium metal with sodium hydroxide.
Al + NaOH (Sodium hydroxide) → NaAlO2 (Sodium aluminate) +
The reaction of carbon with oxygen—When carbon is burnt in air, it forms H2 (Hydrogen)
carbon dioxide. Aluminium metal forms hydrogen gas and sodium aluminate when it reacts
Carbon + Oxygen (O2) → CO2 (Carbon dioxide) with sodium hydroxide. Similarly, zinc gives sodium zincate and hydrogen
gas when it reacts with sodium hydroxide.

You can observe that when coal (carbon) is burnt it forms smoke, which
contains carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is acidic in nature. The solution of Displacement Reaction: When a more reactive metal reacts with the salt
carbon dioxide in water turns blue litmus paper red. solution of less reactive metal, more reactive metal displaces the less
CO2 + H2O → Carbonic acid (H2CO3) reactive metal from its solution.
Metal A + Salt Solution of metal B → Salt Solution of metal A + metal B
In the above equation, metal A is more reactive than metal B.
The reaction of Metals and Non-metals with water: Generally, metals form Example., When aluminium metal is dipped in the solution of copper
respective hydroxides when they react with water. sulphate, it forms aluminium sulphate and copper.
Metal + Water → Metal hydroxide Al + CuSO4 (Copper sulphate) → Al2(SO4)3 (Aluminium Sulphate) + Cu
The reaction of sodium metal with water: Sodium metal vigorously reacts (Copper)
with water and forms sodium hydroxide along with a lot of heat. In the above reaction, aluminium is more reactive than copper, that is why it
Na + H2O → NaOH (Sodium hydroxide) + H2 (Hydrogen) + Heat replaces copper from the solution of copper sulphate.

Non-metals generally do not react with water. Rather some non-metals which
react with air vigorously are stored in water. The reaction of metals and non-
metals with dilute acid. Metals give hydrogen gas when they react with dilute
acid.
Metal + Acid → Hydrogen gas + Salt
When copper metal is dipped in the solution of aluminium nitrate, no
The reaction of zinc with dilute acid. Zinc gives hydrogen gas along with zinc reaction takes place. Because copper is less reactive than aluminium.
chloride when it reacts with hydrochloric acid. Similarly, zinc gives hydrogen
gas along with zinc sulphate when it reacts with sulphuric acid. This method
is used to produce hydrogen gas in the laboratory.
Zn + H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid) → ZnSO4 (Zinc sulphate) + H2 (Hydrogen)

The reaction of Aluminium with dilute acid. Aluminium gives hydrogen gas
along with aluminium chloride when it reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
2Al + 6HCl (Hydrochloric acid) → 2AlCl3 (Aluminium Chloride) +
3H2 (Hydrogen)

Copper does not react with dilute sulphuric acid even on heating, but it
reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid. Copper, silver and gold are
 Roasting and Calcination:

Roasting Calcination

1. It is done in case of sulphide ores. 1. It is done in case of carbonate ores.

2. In this, the ore is heated in the presence of air to convert it into oxide 2. The carbonate ore is heated in the absence of air

compound. to convert into oxide.

3. The gas given out is SO2 (sulphur dioxide) gas. 3. The gas given out is CO2 (carbon dioxide) gas.

4. Example:

4. Example:
Carbon and its Compounds Notes CBSE Number of valence electrons = 1

Class 10 Science Chapter 4

Bonding in Carbon: The Covalent bond, Electron dot structure, Physical properties of organic
compounds, Allotropes of Carbon.

Covalent Bond: The atomic number of carbon is 6. Its electronic configuration is 2, 4. It

requires, 4 electrons to achieve the inert gas electronic configuration. But carbon cannot form an Formation of CH4 Molecule
ionic bond Atomic number of Carbon = 6 [2, 4]
Number of valence electrons = 4
Atomic number of Hydrogen = 1
It could gain four electrons forming C4- cation. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six Number of valence electrons = 1
protons to hold on to ten electrons.

It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cations. But it requires a large amount of energy to
remove four electrons.

Thus, carbon overcomes this problem by sharing of its valence electrons with other carbon atoms
or with atoms of other elements.

The bond formed by mutual sharing of electron pairs between two atoms in a molecule is known
as Covalent Bond.
Formation of CO2 Molecule
Atomic number of Carbon = 6 [2, 4]
Types of Covalent Bond: Number of valence electrons = 4
Atomic number of Oxygen = 8 [2, 6]
 Single Covalent Bond: When a single pair of electrons are shared between two atoms in a Number of valence electrons = 6
molecule. For example; F2, Cl2, H2 etc.
 Double Covalent Bond: When two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a
molecule. For example; O2, CO2 etc.
 Triple Covalent Bond: When three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a
molecule. For example; N2 etc.

Electron Dot Structure: The electron dot structures provides a picture of bonding in molecules
in terms of the shared pairs of electrons and octet rule. Formation of H2S Molecule
Atomic number of Sulphur = 16 [2, 8, 6]
Formation of Hydrogen Molecule Number of valence electrons = 6
Atomic number of Hydrogen = 1
Physical Properties of Organic Compounds Versatile Nature of Carbon: The existence of such a large number of organic compounds is
Most of the organic compounds have low boiling and melting point, due to the weak force of due to the following nature of carbon,
attraction (i.e., the inter-molecular force of attraction) between these molecules.
Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity, due to the absence of free electrons  Catenation
and free ions.  Tetravalent nature.

Compounds M.P. (K) B.P. (K) (i) Catenation: The self linking property of an element mainly carbon atom through covalent
bonds to form long straight, branched and rings of different sizes are called Catenation.
This property is due to

Acetic acid (CH3COOH) 290 391  The small size of the carbon atom.
 The great strength of the carbon-carbon bond.

Carbon can also form stable multiple bonds (double or triple) with itself and with the atoms of
Chloroform (CHCl3) 209 334 other elements.
Straight Chain

Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) 156 351

Branched Chain
Methane (CH4) 90 111

Allotropes of Carbon
Allotropy: The phenomenon in which the element exists in two or more different physical states
with similar chemical properties are called Allotropy.

Carbon has Three Main Allotropes

 Diamond: In this, carbon, an atom is bonded to four other atoms of carbon forming three-
dimensional structures. It is the hardest substance and an insulator. It is used for drilling rocks
and cutting. It is also used for making jewellery.
 Graphite: In this, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms. It is a good conductor
of electricity and used as a lubricant.
 Buckminster Fullerene: It is an allotrope of the carbon-containing cluster of 60 carbon atoms
joined together to form spherical molecules. It is dark solid at room temperature.

Versatile nature of Carbon, Hydrocarbons, Isomerism, Homologous series, Functional groups,

Nomenclature of functional groups.
Rings For example; Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6) etc.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Alkenes: General formula is CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the two carbon atoms are connected by double bond.
(ii) Tetravalent Nature: Carbon has valency of four. It is capable of bonding with four other
atoms of carbon or some other heteroatoms with single covalent bond as well as double or triple
bond.

Alkynes: General formula is CnH2n-2, where n = number of carbon atoms. In this, the two carbon
atoms are connected by triple bond.

Hydrocarbons: Compounds of carbon and hydrogen are known as hydrocarbons.

For example; Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6), Ethene (C2H4), Ethyne (C2H2) etc.

Electron Dot Structure of Hydrocarbons

Saturated Hydrocarbon (Alkanes): General formula is CnH2n+2.

n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the carbon atoms are connected by only a single bond.

Isomerism: Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural formula and
properties are known as Isomers and this phenomenon is known as Isomerism.
Structural Isomerism: Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures Word Root (-)
are called Structural isomers. Example: Isomers of butane (C4H10) S. No Number of Carbon Atoms Single bond
(Suffix)

1. One carbon atoms (1-C) Meth + ane

2. Two carbon atoms (2-C) Eth + ane

3. Three carbon atoms (3-C) Prop + ane

4. Four carbon atoms (4-C) But + ane

5. Five carbon atoms (5-C) Pent + ane

Homologous Series: Series of organic compounds having the same functional group and
chemical properties and successive members differ by a CH2 unit or 14 mass units are known as
Homologous series. 6. Six carbon atoms (6-C) Hex + ane

Homologous series of Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes

Functional Group: An atom or group of atoms present in a molecule which largely determines
its chemical properties are called Functional Group.

Characteristic of Homologous Series

 The successive members in homologous series differ by CH 2 unit or 14 mass unit.

 Members of given homologous series have the same functional group.
 All the members of homologous series shows similar chemical properties.
 S. No. Functional Group Prefix Suffix

1. Double bond (=) — ene

2. Triple bond (≡) — yne

3. Chlorine (—Cl) Chloro —

4. Bromine (—Br) Bromo —

5. Alcohol (-OH) — ol

6. Aldehyde (-CHO) — al
Nomenclature of Organic Compounds: It is difficult to remember millions of compounds by
their individual common name. Thus, to systematize the nomenclature of organic compounds
IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) has given certain rule which is as
follows: 7. Ketone (-CO-) — one
1. Identify the Number of Carbon Atoms in the Compound

8. Carboxylic acid (-COOH) — oic acid

2. Identify the functional group

3. Name the Compounds By Following Order

Prefix + Word Root + Suffix
 Saturated hydrocarbons burn with a blue flame in the presence of a sufficient supply of air or
oxygen.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + Heat and light

In presence of limited supply of air, saturated hydrocarbon forms a sooty flame.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with a yellow smoky flame.

The gas and kerosene stove used at home has inlet for air so that, burnt to given clean blue flame.
Due to presence of small amount of nitrogen and sulphur, coal and petroleum produces carbon
dioxide with oxides of nitrogen and sulphur which are major pollutant.

2. Oxidation: Oxidation of ethanol in presence of oxidizing agents gives ethanoic acid.

Oxidizing Agent: Some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others, are known as
Oxidising Agent.
Example: Alkaline KMnO4 (or KMnO4—KOH)
Acidified K2Cr2O7 (or K2Cr2O7—H2SO4)
KMnO4 – Potassium permanganate
K2Cr2O7 – Potassium dichromate

3. Addition Reaction: Addition of dihydrogen with unsaturated hydrocarbon in the presence of

catalysts such as nickel or platinum or palladium are known as Hydrogenation (addition)
reaction.

Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds: The important chemical properties are as

follows:
1. Combustion: The complete combustion of carbon compounds in the air gives carbon dioxide Catalyst: Substances that cause a reaction to occur or proceeds to different rate without
water, heat and light. consuming in it are called a catalyst. For example; Ni, Pt, Pd, etc.
CH3CH2OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) + Heat and light
Process of converting vegetable oil into solid fat (vegetable ghee) is called Hydrogenation of Oil.
Carbon burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide and heat and light. Vegetable oil + H2 Undefined control sequence \xrightarrow Vegetable ghee
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + Heat and light Vegetable fats are saturated fats which are harmful for health.
Vegetable oil containing unsaturated fatty acids are good for health. Esterification reaction.

4. Substitution Reaction: Replacement of one or more hydrogen atom of an organic molecule

by another atom or group of the atom is known as Substitution Reaction.
Esters are used in making perfumes and flavouring agents.

Saponification Reaction: Reaction of esters with sodium hydroxide, gives alcohol and sodium
salt of carboxylic acid (soap). This reaction is known as Saponification Reaction.
Some Important Carbon Compounds :
Ethanol (CH3CH2—OH): Commonly known as Ethyl Alcohol.
Physical Properties

 It is colourless, inflammable liquid.

 It is miscible with water in all proportions. (ii) Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium
 It has no effect on the litmus paper. carbonates and sodium hydrogen carbonates to give rise to a salt, carbon dioxide and water.

Chemical Properties

 Reaction with sodium

 Reaction with concentrated H2SO4 (Dehydration Reaction)

 Used as vinegar.
 Used as raw material for the preparation of acetyl chloride and esters.

Dehydrating agent: Substances which removes water from ethanol (alcohols) is known as Soap: Sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids is called Soap.
Dehydrating agent. For example; Cone. H2SO4. General formula: RCOO–Na+
Uses: As solvent, as antiseptic (tincture iodine), as anti-freeze in automobiles.
Detergent: Ammonium and sulphonate salts of long chain fatty acids are called Detergent.
Ethanoic Acid (CH3COOH): Commonly known as Acetic acid. 5-8% of ethanoic acid in water is Example: CH3—(CH2)11—C6H4—SO3Na.
called Vinegar. The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence, it often freezes in
cold climate so named as glacial acetic acid. Hard and Soft Water: Water that does not produce lather with soap readily is called Hard water
and which produces lather with soap is called Soft Water.
Physical Properties Hardness of water is due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphate salt of calcium
and magnesium.

 It is a colourless, pungent-smelling liquid.

 Miscible with water in all proportions. Difference between soaps and detergents
 Turns blue litmus to red.

Chemical Properties
(i) Esterification Reaction: Reaction of ethanoic acid with an alcohol in the presence of a few
drops of conc. H2SO4 as catalyst gives a sweet-smelling substance known as Esters, called
 Soaps Detergents

(i) These are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty (i) These are ammonium and sulphonate salts of long chain

acids. fatty acids.

(ii) Ionic part of the soap is —COO–Na+ (ii) Ionic part of detergent is —OSO3-Na+.

Covalent Bond: A chemical bond formed between two atoms by sharing of valence electrons
(iii) Their efficiency decreases in hard water (iii) Their efficiency is unaffected in hard water.
between two atoms so that each atom acquires the stable electronic configuration of the nearest
noble gas.

Covalency: The number of electrons contributed by each atom for sharing.

(iv) Soaps are biodegradable. (iv) Detergents are non-biodegradable.

Carbon always forms a covalent bond: Atomic no of carbon is 6. So, its configuration is K-2,
L-4. Therefore, it should either lose or gain 4 electrons to achieve the noble gas configuration
Advantage of Detergents: The main advantage of detergent over soaps is that soaps cannot be and become stable.
used in hard water for washing because hard water reacts with soap to form curdy white However, it is difficult for carbon to gain or lose four electrons because of the following reasons:
precipitate called Scum.
 It cannot gain 4 electrons to form C 4- ion having Neon gas (2, 8) configuration because this anion
would be highly unstable due to a large amount of energy required to overcome the forces of
repulsion between the four electrons being added and the six electrons already present in the
carbon atom.
Thus, in hard water, soap does not give lather while detergent does.  It cannot lose 4 electrons to form C 4+ ion having Helium gas (2) configuration because this cation
would be highly unstable due to a large amount of energy required to remove four electrons from
Cleansing Action of Soaps and Detergents: Both soaps and detergents cantains two parts. A the carbon atom.
long hydrocarbon part which is hydrophobic (water repelling) in nature and a short ionic part
which is hydrophillic (water attracting) in nature. Tetravalency of Carbon: A carbon atom has four electrons in the valence shell. Therefore,
The hydrocarbon part of the soap molecule links itself to the oily (dirt) drop and ionic end orients carbon forms four covalent bonds, i.e., carbon is tetravalent.
itself towards water and forms a spherical structure called micelles. The soap micelles helps in
dissolving the dirt in water and wash our clothes. Allotropic forms of Carbon: The phenomenon of existence of an element in two or more forms
which have different physical properties but identical chemical properties is called allotropy.
Three allotropic forms of carbon:

 Diamond
 Graphite
 Fullerenes

Hydrocarbon: Organic compounds of carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.

Saturated Compound: Compounds of carbon which have only single bonds between the carbon Nomenclature of carbon compound: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
atoms are called saturated compounds e.g., Ethane, Propane, Butane etc. (IUPAC) decided some rules to name the carbon compounds. This was done to maintain
uniformity throughout the world. Names which are given on this basis are popularly known as
Unsaturated Compound: Compounds of carbon which contain one or more double or triple IUPAC name. The rules for nomenclature are as follows:
bonds between carbon atoms are called unsaturated compounds (i) Identify the number of carbon atoms in the carbon compound. Name the carbon compounds
e.g., Ethene, Propene, Butyne, etc. according to the number of carbon atoms.
Example, Saturated hydrocarbon having one carbon atom is named as Methane. Saturated
hydrocarbon having two carbon atoms is named as Ethane.
Alkanes
 An unsaturated hydrocarbon with a double bond having two carbon atoms is named as Ethene.
 General formula – CnH2n+2  An unsaturated hydrocarbon with a triple bond between carbon atoms is named as Ethyne.
 Saturated hydrocarbons
 Methane – CH4 (ii) If the structure has a branched chain, identify the longest chain and then identify the number
 Ethane – C2H6 of carbon atoms.

Alkenes
(iii) In the case of a functional group present, write the prefix or suffix of the functional group as
given below. Then write the name of the parent compound:
 General formula – CnH2n
 Unsaturated hydrocarbon.
 Ethene – C2H4
 Propene – C3H6

Homologous series: A family of organic compounds having the same functional group, similar
chemical properties and the successive (adjacent) members differ by a CH2 unit or 14 mass unit.

Characteristics of a homologous series:

All the members of a homologous series can be represented by a general formula.

 Alkane – CnH2n+2
 Alkyne – CnH2n-2
 Alcohol – CnH2n+1OH
 Ketone – CnH2n+1COCnH2n+1 Chemical properties of Ethanol
 Alkene – CnH2n
 Haloalkane – CnH2n+1X  Ethanol (C2H5OH) compound is a colourless liquid at room temperature. It is the second member
 Aldehyde – CnH2n+1CHO of the homologous series of alcohols. Its common name is ethyl alcohol. Its functional group is –
 Carboxylic acid – CnH2n+1COOH OH.
 It has a very low melting point (156 K) and low boiling point (351 K or 78°C).
The molecular formula of two successive (adjacent) members of a homologous series differs by a  Ethanol is highly soluble in water.
CH2 unit.  Ethanol is one of the main components of alcoholic drinks.
The molecular masses of any two successive members of a homologous series differ by 14 u.  It is a good organic solvent.
All the members of a given homologous series have the same functional group.  It is a neutral substance, so it does not have any effect on either blue litmus solution or red litmus
All the members of a series show similar chemical properties. solution.
The members of a homologous series show a gradation in physical properties.
  It bums with a blue flame in the presence of O 2 of air. This combustion is an oxidation process. or detergent micelle is formed with the oily or greasy dirt lying at their Centre (Soap or detergent
is attracted both by the greasy dirt and water.

 In the presence of alkaline KMnO4, it is oxidised to ethanoic acid.

 Ethanol alcohol reacts with sodium(Na) metal vigorously to form sodium ethoxide and evolves
H2 gas.
2C2H5OH + 2Na → 2C2H5ONa (Sodium ethoxide) + H2 (g)
 Ethanol on dehydration in the presence of cone. H 2SO4 acid at 443 K forms ethene gas. H2SO4 acid
absorbs water molecules from the alcohol molecules and acts as a strong dehydrating agent.

When the surface of the cloth is mechanically scrubbed or beaten on a stone or with a wooden
paddle or agitated in a washing machine, the loosened oily particle is removed from the dirty
surface and the cloth is cleaned. Detergents lower the surface tension of water to a greater extent
than soap, therefore the cleansing action of detergent is much higher than those of soaps.
Chemical properties of Ethanoic acid

1. The earth’s crust has only 0.02% carbon in the form of minerals (like
 Ethanoic acid commonly called acetic acid (CH 3COOH) is a colourless liquid. The functional group carbonates^bicarbonates, coal, and petroleum).
present in it is carboxylic acid – COOH.
 It’s melting point is 290 K and the boiling point is 391 K.
 Being an acid, it turns blue litmus red. 2. The atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon dioxide.
 It is sour in taste.
 Ethanoic acid reacts with alcohols in the presence of cone. H 2SO4 acid to form sweet smelling 3. In spite of its small amount available in nature, carbon is a versatile element as it forms the
compounds called esters. basis for all living organisms and many things which we use.

4. Bonding in carbon :

 Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form its salt and water.  The atomic number of carbon = 6
 An electronic configuration has 2 electrons in K shell and 4 electrons in L shell.
 In order to attain the noble gas configuration, carbon should either gain 4 electrons or lose 4
electrons or can share it’s 4 electrons with some other element.
 The gain of 4 electrons (to form an octet, i.e., 8 electrons in C 4- anion) is difficult because then a
 It reacts with carbonate and hydrogen-carbonate compounds of metals to form its salt (sodium
nucleus with 6 protons will have to hold extra four electrons.
ethanoate commonly called sodium acetate) and release CO 2 gas.
 Loss of 4 electrons (to attain duplet, i.e., 2 electrons like He atom in C 4+ cation) is difficult as it
requires a large amount of energy to remove four electrons.
 Carbon, hence, overcomes this difficulty by sharing it’s four valence electrons with other atoms
of carbon or with atoms of other elements. These electrons contributed by the atoms for mutual
sharing in order to acquire the stable noble gas configuration is called covalency of that atom.
Hence, carbon shows TETRACOVALENCY.

Cleansing action of soap: The dirt is generally held to the surface of a dirty cloth by a thin film
of oil or grease.
When a dirty cloth is treated with soap or detergent solution, the non- polar tail of the soap or the
detergent dissolve in oil or grease while the polar heads are held by the surrounding water. Soap
  The simplest molecule formed by sharing of electrons (i.e., covalent bonds), can be represented
by electron dot structure.

5. Allotropes of carbon: The phenomenon by means of which an element can exist in two or
more forms, with similar chemical properties but different physical properties are called Note:
allotropy and the different forms are called allotropes. Carbon shows three allotropic forms :
 Diamond is the hardest substance whereas graphite is very soft.
 Diamond is used for grinding and polishing of ‘ hard materials and graphite is used as a lubricant.
 Diamond has a three-dimensional rigid structure but graphite has a hexagonal sheet layer
structure.
 Diamond is a bad conductor of electricity but graphite is a very good conductor of electricity.

6. Fullerenes: A new category of carbon allotrope, fullerenes are spherical in shape or a soccer
ball like. The first fullerene identified was C-60 with 60 carbon atoms arranged like the geodesic
dome designed by US architect, Buckminster Fuller, hence these are also known as Buckminster
Fullerenes or Bucky Ball structures.

7. Cause of versatile nature of carbon: Four main reasons for the versatile nature of carbon
are:
(a) Catenation: It is the unique property of self-linkage of carbon atoms by means of covalent
bonds to form straight chains, or branched chains, or the rings of different sizes (as shown
below):
 be written in two ways :

Hence, the number of carbon compounds increases to a huge number.

8. Hydrocarbons: a Large number of hydrocarbons can be classified as:

(b) Tetracovalency: Due to small size, and presence of four valence electrons, carbon can form
strong bonds with other carbon atoms, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, or sulphur, etc. For example,
compounds of carbon with hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.

(c) Multiple Bond Formation : Small size of carbon also enables it to form multiple bonds,
(i.e., double bonds or triple bonds) with other elements as well as with its own atoms. This
increases the number of carbon compounds. Note: In an open chain, the name of parent chain is derived from the root word and suffix ane,
Note: ene or yne is added depending on the type of bond present in a chain :

 Compounds of carbon with double bonds and triple bonds are called as unsaturated compounds
while those with carbon-carbon single bonds are called saturated compounds.
 Alkenes (with —C = C —) and Alkynes (with —C = C—) are hence unsaturated, whereas Alkanes
(with — C — C—) are saturated compounds.

(d) Isomerism: The phenomenon by means of which the carbon compounds with same
molecular formula show different structures, and properties, e.g., A chain of 4 carbon atoms can
Important: No alkene or alkyne is possible with single carbon atom because double or triple Note : Cl is named as prefix Chloro; Br as Bromo; NH2 as Amino and N02 as Nitro.
bond is not possible between carbon and hydrogen atom. It is only between two carbon atoms. Important Note: Symbol ‘R’ in a formula represents an Alkyl Group which is formed by the
removal of one hydrogen atom from an alkane.

9. Functional Group:

 An atom or a group of atoms which when present in a compound gives specific properties to it, is
called a functional group.
 A single line shown along with a functional group is called as its free valency by which it gets
attached to a compound by replacing one hydrogen atom or atoms, e.g., -Cl. 10. Homologous series: A series of organic compounds in which every succeeding member
 Functional group, replacing the hydrogen is also called as heteroatom because it is different from differs from the previous one by -CH2 group or 14 a.m.u.
carbon, and can be nitrogen, sulphur, or halogen, etc. Note : As the molecular mass increases in a series, : so physical properties of the compounds
show a variation, but chemical properties which are determined solely by a functional group,
Important: Replacement of hydrogen atom by a functional group is always in such a manner remains same within a series.
that valency of carbon remains satisfied.
11. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

 Trivial or common names: These names were given after the source from which the organic
compounds were first isolated, e.g., If a compound has one carbon atom, then its common name
 will have root word form and so on (see table).

 IUPAC name: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry gave following rules for naming
various compounds : Remember:

 Identify the number of carbon atoms and write the word root corresponding to it. e.g., If a
number of carbon atoms is three, then the word root is a prop.  Saturated hydrocarbons generally give clean flame whereas unsaturated hydrocarbons give sooty
 Presence of a functional group is indicated by prefix or suffix as given in table 2, and table flame (because carbon content is more than hydrogen content in these, and hence carbon shows
3. incomplete combustion and appears as soot).
 If the name of the functional group is to be given as a suffix, the last letter ‘e’ in the name  Saturated hydrocarbons can give sooty flame in a limited supply of oxygen.
of the compound is deleted and the suffix is added. e.g., a ketone with three carbon atoms
is named as : (b) Oxidation Reaction: The addition of oxygen in a compound upon combustion is called
Propane – e = Propan + ‘one’ = Propanone. Alcohol with three carbons is propanol. oxidation.
Carboxylic acid with three carbons is propanoic acid. In addition to combustion, oxidation can also be : brought about by some substances which are
 Halogens, in IUPAC, are written as Prefixes, e.g., Compound With two carbons and one capable of giving oxygen to others, i.e., Oxidising agents, e.g., Acidified K2Cr207 (Potassium
chloro group is named as chloroethane (CH 3CH2CI). dichromate) and alkaline KMn04 (Potassium permanganate).
Note:
12. Chemical properties of carbon compounds :
Main properties of carbon compounds are :
(a) Combustion Reaction
(b) Oxidation Reaction
(c) Addition Reaction.
(d) Substitution Reaction

(c) Addition Reaction: Addition of a molecule in unsaturated compounds in the presence of a

(a) Combustion Reaction: A chemical reaction in which a substance burns in the presence of air catalyst, to give saturated compound is called an addition reaction, e.g.,
or oxygen is called combustion reaction. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils as shown in the reaction below :
Note: Combustion is always an EXOTHERMIC reaction, e.g.,
(d) Substitution Reaction: The reactions which involve the replacement of an atom or group of
atoms from a molecule by another atom without any change in structure in the remaining part of
the molecule.

13. Ethanol: (or alcohol)

Colourless liquid, soluble in water, and has a distinct smell and burning taste. Its consumption in
small quantities causes drunkenness and can be lethal.

Saponification : Esters in the presence of acid or base react to give back alcohol and carboxylic
acid is called saponification.

15. Soaps and Detergents :

Soaps and Synthetic Detergents: Soaps and detergents are substances used for cleaning.
Soap: Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids, such as Oleic acid
(C17H33COOH), Stearic acid (C17H35COOH), Palmitic acid (C15H31COOH), etc. These acids are
present in the form of their esters along with glycerol (alcohol containing three hydroxyl groups).
These esters, called ‘glycerides’ are present in fats and oils of animal and vegetable origin.
Preparation of Soap: When an oil or fat (glyceride) is treated with sodium hydroxide solution, it
gets converted to sodium salt of the acid (soap) and glycerol. The reaction is known as
saponification.

14. Ethanoic Acid: CH3COOH

Common Name: Acetic Acid. Detergents: Chemically, detergents are sodium salts of sulphonic acids, i.e., detergents contain a
5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called Vinegar. And 100% pure acetic acid is called sulphonic acid group (—S03H), instead^of a carboxylic acid group (—COOH), on one end of the
Glacial acetic acid because it has m.pt. 290 K and freezes forming glacier like crystals. hydrocarbon.
Reactions of ethanoic acid :
The cleansing action of detergent is considered to be more effective than a soap.
Cleansing Action of Soaps and Detergents: The cleansing action of soaps and detergents
follows the same principle.

When soap or detergent is dissolved in water, the molecules gather together as clusters, called
micelles. The tails stick inwards and the heads outwards.
In cleansing, the hydrocarbon tail attaches.itself to oily dirt. When water is agitated, the oily dirt
tends to lift off from the dirty surface and dissociates into fragments. This gives an opportunity
to other tails to stick to oil. The solution now contains small globules of oil surrounded by
detergent molecules. The negatively charged heads present in water prevent the small globules
from coming together and form aggregates. Thus, the oily dirt is removed from the object.

16. Scum: The insoluble precipitates formed by soap molecule when they react with calcium and
magnesium ions present in hard water. Due to this, a lot of soap gets wasted and cleansing action
gets reduced to a larger extent.

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