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Nano-biotechnology, an applicable approach for sustainable future

Article in 3 Biotech · March 2022

DOI: 10.1007/s13205-021-03108-9

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-021-03108-9

REVIEW ARTICLE

Nano‑biotechnology, an applicable approach for sustainable future

Nikta Shahcheraghi1 · Hasti Golchin2 · Zahra Sadri2 · Yasaman Tabari3 · Forough Borhanifar2 · Shadi Makani2

Received: 28 July 2021 / Accepted: 30 December 2021 / Published online: 9 February 2022
© King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology 2022

Abstract
Nanotechnology is one of the most emerging fields of research within recent decades and is based upon the exploitation of
nano-sized materials (e.g., nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanomembranes, nanowires, nanofibers and so on) in various operational
fields. Nanomaterials have multiple advantages, including high stability, target selectivity, and plasticity. Diverse biotic (e.g.,
Capsid of viruses and algae) and abiotic (e.g., Carbon, silver, gold and etc.) materials can be utilized in the synthesis process
of nanomaterials. “Nanobiotechnology” is the combination of nanotechnology and biotechnology disciplines. Nano-based
approaches are developed to improve the traditional biotechnological methods and overcome their limitations, such as the
side effects caused by conventional therapies. Several studies have reported that nanobiotechnology has remarkably enhanced
the efficiency of various techniques, including drug delivery, water and soil remediation, and enzymatic processes. In this
review, techniques that benefit the most from nano-biotechnological approaches, are categorized into four major fields:
medical, industrial, agricultural, and environmental.

Keywords Nanotechnology · Nano-biotechnology · Nanomaterial · Nano-therapies

Introduction upcoming demands in the future, it is important to anticipate

future stressors (e.g., climate change) (Iwaniec et al. 2020).
The development process of a sustainable future generally Since nanotechnology is applicable in various majors, it is
consists of methods that ensure the satisfaction of future expected that nano-based techniques will take a key role in
needs, while fulfills the current generation’s requirements a sustainable future (Raghav et al. 2020), along with mak-
(Raghav et al. 2020). To obtain a proper overview of ing substantial impacts on the universal economic situation
due to their wide range of applications in variant industries
(Adam and Youssef 2019). The unification of diverse fields
* Nikta Shahcheraghi in science, Inspired by the oneness of nature, is one of the
[email protected]
most noticeable subject matters now in the early twenty-
Hasti Golchin first century. Merging four massively operational fields
[email protected]
of science has received great attention in recent decades:
Zahra Sadri nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology, and
[email protected]
cognitive sciences (NBIC), which are known as “convergent
Yasaman Tabari technologies” (Roco and Bainbridge 2013). Non-renewable
[email protected]
sources don’t seem efficient for providing large amounts of
Forough Borhanifar energy required in various industrial technologies. Conver-
[email protected]
gent technologies are considered as a remedy for this issue.
Shadi Makani For instance, several nano-based technologies, which con-
[email protected]
sume biological-renewable energy sources, have been intro-
1
Department of Engineering, University of Science duced (Zhironkin et al. 2019). The unification of material
and Culture, Tehran, Iran on nanoscale makes the mentioned combination of multiple
2
Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kharazmi University, technologies possible. Hence, nanotechnology plays a criti-
No.43.South Moffateh Ave., 15719‑14911 Tehran, Iran cal role in NBIC advancement (Roco and Bainbridge 2013).
3
Faculty of Sciences and Advanced Technologies, Science According to the definition set by National Nanotechnology
and Culture University, 1461968151 Tehran, Iran

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65 Page 2 of 24 3 Biotech (2022) 12:65

Initiatives in 1999, Nanotechnology is an advanced area of and irradiation) may cause severe side effects to patients,
research that allows for the production of a wide class of plus they are often inefficient for disease treatment (Hager
materials in the nanoscale range (less than 100 nm) to make et al. 2020). Loading anti-cancer drugs into nanomaterials
use of size-and structure-dependent properties and phenom- provides a nano-based drug delivery system that detracts the
ena (Luo et al. 2020). Although “nano” is defined as that side effects. Platinum (Pt) compounds are one of the most
which is less than 100 nm in size, the use of this defini- common anti-cancer drugs since 1978. Pt drugs directly
tion in the biomedical field is less strict and instead may aim at the DNA of the targeted cells, thus covering up the
encompass particles up to 1000 nm in size (Landowski et al. defects of the malformed DNA repair mechanisms in cancer-
2020). Nanotechnology has a wide range of applications, ous cells. Encapsulating Pt drugs into liposomes constructs
including Agricultural usages (Ndlovu et al. 2020), biofuel a nano-based drug delivery system for treating cancers
production (Zahed et al. 2021a), cancer Immunotherapy (Rottenberg et al. 2021). Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are
(Goracci et al. 2020), carbon capture (Zahed et al. 2021b) advantageous options for cancer treatment and diagnosis.
and biomarker detection like nanobiochips, nanoelectrodes, AuNPs are created in the size range between 1 and 150 nm
or nanobiosensors (Bayda et al. 2020). Nanomaterials (NMs) and in various shapes, including nanorods (AuNRs), nanoc-
are chemical substances or materials that are manufactured ages, nanostars, and nanoshells (AuNSs). AuNPs consist of
and used at a very small scale, i.e., 1–100 nm in at least high rates of biocapability and exhibit controlled patterns
one dimension. NMs are categorized according to their of medicine release in the drug delivery process. AuNPs
dimensionality, morphology, state, and chemical composi- consist of conduction electrons on their surfaces which get
tion (Saleh 2020). NMs can be used for rapid extraction of excited by certain wavelengths of light. This feature enables
RNA of the novel coronavirus (Kailasa et al. 2021). Expand- AuNPs to adsorb light and produce heat that is fatal to cells.
ing nanoscience through various branches can eventually Destroying the cancerous cells with the heat released under
enhance the intelligence and capability of individuals, solve irradiation is called photothermal therapy (PTT) or photo-
various social issues, cure numerous diseases, and gener- dynamic therapy (PDT) (D’Acunto et al. 2021).
ally improve the quality of mankind's life in the long term On the other hand, RNA-based therapies can regulate the
(Roco and Bainbridge 2013). Deploying nanotechnology expression of immune-relevant genes, therefore increasing
into biotechnology will help the commercialization process anti-tumor immune responses directly. Several nanomateri-
of nano-based techniques and make them more practical als have been introduced that can deliver nucleic acid thera-
in the industry (Maine et al. 2014). The idea of develop- peutics to tumors and immune cells (Lin et al. 2020). There
ing interdisciplinary research (IDR) (Jang et al. 2018) in are biomimetic strategies for providing a co-delivery system
science presents a promising landscape of the future, in that is capable of supporting both chemical and RNA-based
which human intelligence has reached such high levels that therapies (Liu et al. 2019). Considering RNAs as therapeutic
the term “superhuman” would be more proper for human- agents or drug targets requires precise knowledge about the
kind. According to the Israeli philosopher Harari, with the 3D structure of specific RNAs. There are reliable algorithms
appearance of a highly technologically advanced society, for pronging the second structure of RNAs, but the tertiary
only individuals with great intelligence and technological architecture which determines the RNA’s functions is quite
advancements can survive through natural selection in soci- challenging to anticipate. Bioinformatics provides several
ety. He states that superhumans will be produced by society methods for predicting the tertiary structures of RNAs such
eventually, considering the logic of social Darwinism, and as Vfold, iFoldRNA, 3DRNA, and RNAComposer. They all
this will be a remarkable phenomenon of the twenty-first face particular hurdles, but it should be noted that the field
century (Mantatov et al. 2019). One massive application of of computational RNA structure anticipation, has a bright
nanobiotechnology is enhancing the efficiency of various future (Biesiada et al. 2016). RNA-based vaccines are quite
therapies (Table 1). The application of nanobiotechnology impressive immunotherapeutic tools in cancer therapies.
in delivering chemical drugs or gene modifying agents to However, the in vivo delivery of synthesized mRNAs could
their target cells will increase the efficiency of the treat- face some obstacles. Encrusting mRNAs with a lipid-poly-
ments and reduce the side effects remarkably. Within the ethylene glycol (lipid-PEG) shell increases the mRNA deliv-
previous two decades, RNA-based therapeutic methods, ery rate up to 95% more than the conventional nanoparticle-
including messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA, and small free mRNA vaccines (Islam et al. 2021).
interfering RNA (siRNA), have been supremely developed. In RNA-based nano-techniques, utilizing large-sized
These therapeutic approaches are expected to be operative RNAs faces several difficulties. Wang et al. have reported
in the treatment and prevention of various diseases, such as an interesting method of using gold nanoparticles (enriched
cancers, genetic disorders, diabetes, inflammatory diseases, by expanded genetic alphabet transcriptions) to increase the
and neurodegenerative diseases (Lin et al. 2020). In the case effectiveness of detecting the large natural or artificially
of cancers, conventional therapies (surgery, chemotherapy, synthesized RNAs through an RNA nano-based labeling

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 Table 1  Medical applications of nanobiotechnology
Nanomaterials Biotechnological application Utilized therapeutic or diagnostic agents References

Smart nanoparticles synthesizes from organic, smart drug delivery-based cancer therapies/ Anti-cancer medicines/Targeting (Lombardo et al. 2019; Doroudian et al. 2021;
inorganic, and hybrid nanomaterials radiation therapies/ tissue engineering ligands(antibodies, peptides, aptamers, and Samrot et al. 2020)
small molecules)
3 Biotech (2022) 12:65

Viral capsid-based nanoparticles Producing Vaccines and biosensor/ medical Antibodies/ enzymes or aptamers/ drugs/ (Jeevanandam et al. 2019; Lyu et al. 2019;
imaging/ gene therapy/enzyme delivery/ Proteins Selivanovitch and Douglas 2019)
antigen delivery/Can get exploited as protein
supplements
Protein-based nanomaterials Cancer therapy Anti-cancer medicines/ Oxali-palladium (OX) (Tavakoli et al. 2021; Azarakhsh et al. 2021)
and iron nanoparticles (NP)
Liposome-based nanomaterials Cancer therapy/Producing viral, DNA-based, Platinum (Pt) compounds/ Antigens/ Specific (Rottenberg et al. 2021; Evelyn Roopngam
and bacterial vaccines gene sequences 2019)
Magnetic nanoparticles SARS-CoV 2 Diagnosis/Drug delivery/Tissue Specific anti-bodies/Nano-medicines (Abdelhamid and Badr 2021; Cardoso et al.
engineering 2018)
Graphene/Carbon-based nanomaterials SARS-CoV 2 Diagnosis/ Alzheimer’s Disease Specific anti-bodies/Acrine and physostig- (Abdelhamid and Badr 2021; Nawaz et al.
Therapy/ Nano-bio detection of biomarker mine/ Tetracycline (TC) 2021; Ruan et al. 2019; Karimzadeh et al.
of woodsmoke exposure/ Drug delivery/ bio- 2019; Patel et al. 2020)
imaging/ photothermal therapy nanocapaci-
tors/ Designing scaffolds
Metallic nanomaterials Alzheimer’s Disease Therapy/ bio-imaging, Acrine and physostigmine/ Virus/Protein/ (Nawaz et al. 2021; Patel et al. 2020; Du et al.
photothermal therapy nanocapacitors/ Drug DNA/ expanded genetic alphabet transcrip- 2020; Rabiee et al. 2020; Wang et al. 2020;
delivery/ Inhibition of procine epidemic tions/ Therapeutic agents/ providing the Fouad 2021; D’Acunto et al. 2021; Jeong
diarrhea virus (PECV) / probably efficient photothermal therapy (PTT) or photody- et al. 2021)
in inhibiting the coronavirus/ Magnetic namic therapy (PDT)
devices, nanowires battery, nanogenerator,
semiconductor/ Prosthodontics (Increase the
wear resistance,the hardness and toughness
of the ceramic)/ Nanodiagnosis and
Biosensors (FRET: fluorescence resonance
energy transfer)/ Large RNAs labeling/
Nanodiagnostic and Nanotherapeutic
approaches(viruses)/ Cancer therapy and
diagnosis/ Designing nano-bioreactors for
enhancing the maturation of cultured cells
(in-vitro maturation of heart tissue)
Resin-based nanomaterials Prosthodontics (Provide greater hardness) / Triggers anti-bacterial mechanism (Patel et al. 2020; Chen et al. 2020)
Improve tribological and mechanical fea-
tures)/ oral chronic disease therapy
Ceramic-based nanomaterials Prosthodontics /considerable anti-microbial Bio-imaging operators/drugs/genes/proteins (Patel et al. 2020; Thomas et al. 2015)
and anti-fungal activities against C.Albicans/
Drug delivery/Biomedical imaging/bacterial
infections, glaucoma, and cancer therapies

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 Table 1  (continued)
Nanomaterials Biotechnological application Utilized therapeutic or diagnostic agents References

Algae-based nanomaterials Cancer, bacterial, and fungal diseases Nano-medicines (AlNadhari et al. 2021; González-Ballesteros
therapies/Exhibits antioxidant, free radical et al. 2017)
65 Page 4 of 24

scavenging, and biocompatibility charac-

teristics/ could be synthesized with other
nanomaterials(e.g. Gold)

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Nanoemulsions conveying needed nutrients to gastrectomy Food components/ Vitamin C, E, and Propolis (Razavi et al. 2020; Fidoski et al. 2020;
patients/ Chronic periodontics therapy, Sánchez-Rubio et al. 2020)
wound healing(soft tissue wounds in the oral
cavity)/ Increasing the viability and resist-
ance against oxidative stress in the sperm
samples
MOF-based nanomaterials cancer therapy/ biomedical imaging/ Nano- Oxidoreductase family(POD, oxi- (Ding et al. 2020; Ruan et al. 2019; Karimza-
bio detection of biomarker of woodsmoke dase (OXD),superoxide dismutase deh et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2019)
exposure/ Drug delivery/ Efficient delivery (SOD),catalase (CAT))/ Tetracycline (TC)/
of protein into the cells Insulin
Poly hydroxyl alkanoates (PHAs)-based Electrospun nanofibers: efficient in drug-deliv- Nano-medicines (Chai et al. 2021; Korde and Kandasubrama-
nanomaterials ery and bone tissue engineering/ nian 2020)
PHA nanofibers: exploited in tissue engineer-
ing/anti-tumor therapies
Polyethylenimine (PEI)-based nanomaterials Producing DNA vaccines/Drug Delivery Specific gene sequences/CRISPR/Cas9 (Lim et al. 2020; Lin et al. 2020; Deng et al.
system/ chemical drugs or gene modifying 2019)
agent
3 Biotech (2022) 12:65
3 Biotech (2022) 12:65 Page 5 of 24 65

technique. These techniques are highly dependent on the been indicated to be highly effective in the treatment of
conjugation between nanoparticles and RNAs (Wang et al. monogenic disorders, non-monogenic disorders, and infec-
2020). Since gene sequencing is of great importance, mul- tious diseases. Emerging studies have suggested that nano-
tiple biotechnology-based diagnostic tools, including quan- carriers, which are created from Polymer polyethyleneimine
titative PCR, DNA barcoding, next-generation sequencing, (PEI), are more efficient in delivering CRISPR/Cas9 systems
and imaging techniques are commonly currently used. These to targeted cells compared to the viral carriers (Deng et al.
methods are considered economically advantageous, along 2019). Gene mutation-related diseases such as cancers and
with providing a reliable diagnosis. Incorporating nano- human immunodeficiency viruses are potentially treated by
based sensors with mentioned tools increases the sensitivity DNA-based vaccines. This type of vaccine enhances disease
and spatiotemporal resolution, which are two fundamental symptoms by delivering specific gene sequences-which are
features of the gene sequencing process (Kumar et al. 2020). embedded in plasmids- to targeted cells. Despite having clin-
Designing nano-based devices for diagnosis of severe acute ical utilization, DNA vaccines face limitations in delivering
respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV 2) has been their genetic cargos to the target cells. Designing efficient
promoted recently. Nanomaterials such as gold nanoparti- nano-delivery systems will eliminate such deficiencies PEI
cles, magnetic nanoparticles, and graphene (G) significantly (Lim et al. 2020). Virus-like nanoparticles (Jeevanandam
increase the accuracy and decrease the required time and et al. 2019) seem to form applicable nanocarriers for this
costs. Hence, render beneficial tools for viral detection more purpose (Fig. 2).
effective compared to the traditional techniques. Nanoparti- Nanomaterials used in cancer diagnosis can be mainly
cles are specified via anti-bodies to identify particular anti- divided into contrasting agents (magnetic, iron oxide and
gens on the surface of the virus. Suspected samples from gold nanoparticles) and fluorescent agents (quantum dots).
the patient, air, and surface can get examined by nano-based Some nanocarriers have inherent optical properties (such as
serological or molecular diagnosis methods (Abdelhamid carbon nanotubes, gold and magnetic nanoparticles) that can
and Badr 2021). be converted into high energy to cells for destruction and can
Nanomaterials can be utilized in the form of membranes. serve as nanotheranostics (Barani et al. 2021).
Chemically or physically synthesized nanomembranes Nanomaterials used in smart drug delivery-based cancer
remarkably advance the conventional water purification therapies are categorized as organic and inorganic materials.
techniques (Lohrasebi and Koslowski 2019; Kim et al. Micelles, vesicles, multilamellar liposomes, and solid lipid
2020). Incorporating nanomembranes with bioreactors is the nanoparticles are some examples of self-assembled organic
basis of the membrane bioreactor (MBR) technique, which is nanomaterials. Other organic materials are not capable of
exploited in wastewater reclamation (Ma et al. 2018). Elimi- self-assembling and need to be synthesized, such as nano-
nating pollutant components from the environment is one of tubes and dendrimers. Gold nanoparticles, quantum dots,
the main purposes of nanobiotechnology (Table 2). In the mesoporous silica nanoparticles, and superparamagnetic
agricultural fields, nano-bio technologically modified pesti- iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) are classified as inor-
cides and fertilizers notably prevent crop loss. Nano-based ganic nanomaterials (Lombardo et al. 2019). SPIONs are
bioremediation processes have been developed to reduce soil vastly utilized in therapeutic approaches, including cancer
pollutions and are expected to improve both environmental therapy, radiation therapy, and tissue engineering. SPIONs
and agricultural approaches (Usman et al. 2020). Several are synthesized through different physical, chemical, and
studies are expanding the idea of producing nano plants that biological methods. Bacteria and plants are the biomaterials
show better biological performances (e.g., photosynthe- upon which the biological method is based (Samrot et al.
sis) compared to natural plants (Marchiol 2018) (Table 3). 2020). Nanoparticles containing both organic and inorganic
Enzymes empowered by nanomaterials have rendered higher materials (hybrid nanoparticles) have been indicated to be
recovery and productivity rates and thus are potentially able highly efficient, as well (Lombardo et al. 2019). Embedding
to act spotless in different industrial techniques (Adeel et al. targeting ligands (e.g., antibodies, peptides, aptamers, and
2018; Zhang et al. 2021) (Table 4). small molecules) on the surface of nanoparticles assures the
The objective of this study is to review the applications of delivery of medicines to specific sites in the body, such as
nanoscience in enhancing the efficiency of biotechnological tumor tissues. The mentioned process is called: “targeted
methods (Fig. 1). drug delivery system” (Doroudian et al. 2021). There are
two types of targeting delivery: passive targeting and active
Application of nano‑based materials for drug targeting. In the passive form, the high aggregations of med-
delivery, therapeutic and diagnostic processes icines at the tumor sites are related to the nano-scaled size of
the nanocarriers. The tight junctions between epithelial cells
One recently promoted technique in the gene therapy field of the vessel tissues prevent the nanoparticles from exiting
is the application of the CRISPR/Cas9 systems, which has the vessel. The cancerous cells loosen the tight junctions

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Table 2  Environmental applications of nanobiotechnology
Nanomaterials Biotechnological application Biological agent (If existed) References

Nanoparticles synthesized from nanoscale Elimination of toxic components from envi- Effective microorganisms (EM), such as lactic (Vázquez-Núñez et al. 2020; Lincy et al. 2020;
zero-valent iron (nZVI), Magnetite (Fe3O4), ronment /Water remediation/Nano-bioreme- acid/phototropic bacteria, Streptomyces sp. Patra Shahi et al. 2021; Costa et al. 2020;
Maghemite (γ-Fe2O3), Iron oxide, Silver diation/ Waste water treatment(enhances the Z38, and yeast are used during Nano-bio- Bensaida et al. 2021; Al-Gheethi et al. 2020)
(AgNPs), nZVI/Cu, and biochar growth of the microbial populations in the based water remediation
waste water)/Nanocomposites utilized for
nano-bioremediation
Nanocatalysts synthesized from Cs/Al/Fe3O4/ Optimizing the bioenergy generation/Water (Ahmadi et al. 2019; Nasrollahzadeh et al.
Mg/Al/ ZrO2 loaded with C4H4O6HK/ purification/Optimizing the biodiesel pro- 2020; Mofijur et al. 2020)
Lithium impregnated calcium oxide (Li‐ duction
Cao)/ Magnetic solid base catalysts CaO- /
KF/CaO/TiO2/ZnO/ Al2O3
All the mentioned materials are recruited from
biomass
Membrane bioreactors (MBRs), supplemented Designing nano-bioreactors for waste water (Ma et al. 2018; Jiang et al. 2019; Abass and
from O3, O3/Fe2 + , O3/nZVI (nano zero reclamation Zhang 2020; Malik et al. 2019)
valent iron),
Nanomembranes synthesized from Graphene- water purification (Lohrasebi and Koslowski 2019; Li et al. 2019;
based nano-channels, 3D printed finger-sized Kim et al. 2020)
units(FSU) with prepared wheat straw (WS)/
Nano-scaled zinc oxide, or through a top-
down approach using biomass(wood tissue)
Nanoadsorbents synthesized from silica gel, Removing contaminations in the water purifi- (Ali et al. 2020; Banerjee et al. 2019; Ashraf
activated alumina, clays, limestone, chitosan, cation process/Elimination of toxic dyes (by et al. 2019)
activated carbon, zeolite, liquid ammonia alumina nanoparticles)/Eliminating arsenic
(AlCl3.6H2O), and metal/metal oxide based from water
nanocomposites
3 Biotech (2022) 12:65
 3 Biotech (2022) 12:65

Table 3  Agricultural applications of nanobiotechnology

Nanomaterials Biotechnological application Biological agent (If existed) References

Nanomaterials synthesized from Silver, zinc, iron, Designing nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, and (Usman et al. 2020; Chhipa 2019)
titanium, phosphorus, molybdenum, and polymer nanobiosensors to Increase the crop value and
decrease crop loss caused by agricultural pests
Nanoparticles covered with garlic essential oil/ Designing nanopesticides, nanofungicides, and (Thangadurai et al. 2020)
Nanotubes containing aluminosilicate nanoherbicides that are Utilized in horticulture;
to reduce diverse types of herbal pests
Nanomaterials synthesized from quantum dots, Designing nanobiosensors for Monitoring the Antibodies/aptamers/proteins/enzymes/ (Usman et al. 2020; Mishra et al. 2021)
magnetic, carbonaceous, noble metals, organic interactions in soil–plant-air and Detecting the Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)/ tyrosinase
(carbon, graphene, chitosan, and onion mem- dichlorvos enzymes
brane) and inorganic (silver, gold, silica, and
titania)
Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT)/carbon, plant nanobionics: designing engineered artificial (Marchiol 2018; Lew et al. 2020)
graphene-based nanomaterials photosynthetic systems, enhancing the growth
rate of this new type of plants
Pd/Fe0 bimetallic nanoparticles Triggers dechlorination/dehalogenation process Living organisms (bacteria, fungi, plants etc.) (Usman et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2012;
in organic pollutants and neutralize them, Le et al. 2019)
therefore enhances the remediation process of
contaminated soils (Bioremediation)/Spiked soil
remediation/Decomposing a soil polluting agent
named Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD)

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Table 4  Industrial applications of nanobiotechnology
Nanomaterials Biotechnological application Biological agent (If existed) References

Nanocarriers synthesized from silver, titanium Increasing the shelf life of food and prevent (Bhuyan et al. 2019; Nizami and Rehan 2018)
dioxide, zinc oxide, Metal oxide (calcium, its spoilage(delivery of nutritional or anti-
magnesium oxide, and strontium oxide), and microbial components such as, polyphenols)/
magnetic material optimizing the biodiesel production process
Graphene- immobilized nano-bio-catalysts Providing a proper environment for enzymatic (Adeel et al. 2018; Zhang et al. 2021)
immobilization process
(Nanomaterial-based nano catalysts)
MOF-based nanozymes biosensors, biocatalysis, and biomedical Antibodies/aptamers/proteins/enzymes/ (Ding et al. 2020; Zhang et al. 2019b)
imaging / biosensors for evaluating the food Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)/tyrosinase
safety in the food industry enzymes/mycotoxins/antibiotics/pathogens
lipid-based, polymeric-based, metal-based Improve the supplementation of skin, hair (Santos et al. 2019; Chiari-Andréo et al. 2019;
nanosystems, micelles, hydrogels, dendrim- or teeth with active cosmetic ingredients Manikanika and Jaswal 2021; Yadwade et al.
ers, TiO2, ZnO, silica, and carbon black (ACIs)(Cosmetic industry) 2021)
nanoparticles
Nanomaterials synthesized from Carbon, In the structure of nano-bio fuel cells: Glucose oxidase (GOx)/Glucose oxidase and (Sharma et al. 2021; Hajiabadi et al. 2020;
Nitrogen, Graphite, and Silver/Graphene nanotube forests (NTFs), nanotubes (NTs), Laccase/Fructose dehydrogenase and lac- Nizami and Rehan 2018)
oxide (Ag-GO) Nitrogen-doped hollow nanospheres with case/Glucose oxidase and laccase/NADH
large pores (pNHCSs), and Ag-GO or graph- dehydrogenase
ite nanoparticles
Nanofluids, Nanocatalysts, and Nanomem-
branes in oil exploration /production,
recovering the oilfield, oil purification, and
purification of gas and waste water produced
in oil industry
carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, gra-
phene oxide, and biochar in optimizing the
biodiesel production process
3 Biotech (2022) 12:65
3 Biotech (2022) 12:65 Page 9 of 24 65

Fig. 1  Diverse Applications of Nanobiotechnology: multiple techniques, including Drug delivery-based therapies, remediating processes, and
industrial nano-bio catalysts benefit from nano-scaled particles

of the adjacent vessels. Therefore, nanocarriers can pass therefore, making the conventional therapies inadequate.
through the vessel and get into the tumor site. The targeting The blood–brain barrier provides a stable environment for
ligands incorporated with nanoparticles are not responsible the CNS and regulates the cell-to-cell interactions, which
for the passive targeting action. The binding between the take place in the CNS. The dysfunction of the blood–brain
targeting ligands and the particular receptors on the cancer- barrier leads to severe neurodegenerative disorders (e.g.,
ous cells-which are exclusively found on the surface of the Parkinson’s disease (PD), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), amyo-
tumor cells- causes a more precise drug delivery, which is trophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and multiple sclerosis (MS)).
known as active targeting (Doroudian et al. 2019). Although The blood–brain barrier is responsible for the proper func-
drug-loaded nanoparticles efficiently carry the medicines to tioning of the CNS, so naturally, it has a super-sensitive per-
target cites, according to the in-vivo studies, these nanopar- meability. This feature of the blood–brain barrier is highly
ticles might not be quite biodegradable. Hence using such related to the tight junctions between the barrier’s cells. Only
nanoparticles could lead to toxicities and side effects. It is 1–4 percent of most CNS medicines succeed in passing the
worth mentioning that Zhou et al. have developed biode- blood–brain barrier. Nanoparticles are more likely to pass
gradable nanoparticles using poly (aspartic acid) (PASP) the barrier because of their nano-scaled size. Encapsulating
microtube, a thin Fe intermediate layer, and a core of Zn drugs in nanoparticles can significantly increase the drug
(Zhou et al. 2019). transmission rate through the blood–brain barrier (Furtado
Nano-based drug delivery systems provide highly prom- et al. 2018). For instance, graphene, metals, carbon-nano-
ising prospects for treating neurodegenerative disorders. tubes, and metal-oxides are the nanomaterials that can get
It is reasonable to assume that treating neurological dis- exploited in the treatment procedure of patients with Alzhei-
eases by conventional drug delivery systems is extremely mer’s disease (AD). AD is caused by different genetic and
challenging due to the presence of the blood–brain barrier environmental cues. Chemical and electrical malformations
(BBB). The blood–brain barrier prevents the entrance of are observed in the brain of an AD patient. Acrine and phys-
therapeutical agents to the central nervous system (CNS), ostigmine, which are conventional medicines for AD, have

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Fig. 2  Encapsulating therapeutic agents within nanoparticles: embedding medicine or gene-modifying agents into the nanoparticles remarkably
enhances the therapeutic efficiency along with diminishing potential side effects

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3 Biotech (2022) 12:65 Page 11 of 24 65

been proved to stimuli severe effects on the gastrointestinal environment of the body puts out several obstacles on the
tract and nervous system. Therefore, attention is drawn to path of the medicine nano-delivering. For instance, lipid
nano-based therapies (Nawaz et al. 2021). Marcos-Contre- nanoparticles (LNPs) may safely carry their therapeutic car-
ras et al. have proposed that the augmentation of VCAM-1 gos to the targeted cells, but if the drug needs to reach the
ligands to the drug-loaded nanocarriers can significantly cytoplasm, lipid nanoparticles are not capable of efficiently
improve the cerebral accumulation rate of nanoparticles in crossing the cell membrane. Small interfering RNAs (siR-
inflamed brains (Marcos-Contreras et al. 2020) (Fig. 3). NAs) are delivered to hepatocytes via lipid nanoparticles,
Although nano-based medications of neurodegen- but only 2% of them accomplish reaching to the cytoplasm.
erative disorders seem spotless theoretically, the internal It should be mentioned that big data and computational

Fig. 3  Nano-based drug delivery in the therapies of neurodegenera- particles efficiently penetrate through the BBB and reach the central
tive disorders: blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a noticeable obstacle for nervous system (CNS)
conventional medicines; however, drugs encapsulated within nano-

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methods can help scientists to predict the in-vivo challenges Silver nanoparticles coated with zinc oxide (Ag@ZnO),
of nano-drug delivery to design proper techniques to over- can stimulate proliferation and migration of human keratino-
come them (Paunovska et al. 2019). Besides, bioinformatics cytes, HaCaT, with increased expression of Ki67 and vincu-
provides tools for measuring the interaction rate between lin at the leading edge of wounds. Interestingly, Ag@ZnO
exploited nanomaterials and drug targets (Nawaz et al. stimulates keratinocytes to produce the antimicrobial pep-
2021). Designing efficient nanomaterials is fundamental for tides hBD2 and RNase7, promoting antibacterial activity
nanotechnological approaches. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) against both extracellular and intracellular Staphylococcus
and graphene-based nanomaterials have been vastly utilized aureus isolated from wounds (Majhi et al. 2021).
in nanotechnology during the last two decades (Kinloch et al. Wound dressing is an important action against an injury.
2018). As a case in point, Single-walled carbon nanotubes In recent years, nanotechnology has been combined with
(SWCNTs) are considered as excellent options for designing wound dressing techniques, and there are several new mate-
nano-based biomedical approaches, including but not limited rials and techniques available for this action. The nano-
to drug delivery systems. The most noticeable features of particles’ dimensions make them suitable for penetrating
SWCNTs are their great photophysical properties (Farrera into the wound. Thus, bioactive agents and drugs can be
et al. 2017). Even though Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and released locally (De Luca et al. 2021). Numerous synthetic
graphene-based nanomaterials have unique qualities such and natural materials have been applied for wound healing;
as high flexibility, they face some challenges in their load Hyaluronic Acid, as an illustration, is one of the most-used
transfer capability, dispersion, and viscosity. Hence, creating materials (Ahire and Dicks 2016).
more applicable and eco-friendly nanomaterials has drawn In 2017 Polyethylene Oxide (PEO)-hyaluronic acid (HA)
intense attention (Kinloch et al. 2018). AlNadhari et al. have nanofibers as an inhibitor of Listeria monocytogenes infec-
introduced algae as a green and eco-friendly source of mate- tion (Ahire et al. 2017a). Gauze is a traditional wound dress-
rials that can be used in nanoparticles. Algae-based nanopar- ing used to protect dermal wounds from bacterial infection.
ticles in the biomedical field consist of therapeutical charac- In a study in 2021, an antibacterial gauze was prepared by
teristics, such as antibacterial, anti-fungal, and anti-cancer the combined use of antimicrobial peptides and AgNPs. The
features (AlNadhari et al. 2021). Milk-derived proteins such prepared antibacterial gauze showed excellent antibacterial
as β-lactoglobulin (β-LG), lactoferrin (LF), and the caseins activity against E.coli, S. enteritidis, S. aureus, and B. cereus
(CN) are other biological alternatives for synthesizing nano- and also exhibited good biocompatibility (Chen et al. 2021a,
carriers. Anti-cancer medicines have been embedded into b). In 2014, Ahire and Dicks introduced 2,3-Dihydroxyben-
protein-based nanocarriers and successfully deteriorated zoic Acid-Containing Nanofiber as a suitable nanomaterial
cancerous tumors (Tavakoli et al. 2021). Azarakhsh et al. for wound dressing as it prevents Pseudomonas aeruginosa
have demonstrated specific binding sites for the anti-cancer infection (Ahire and Dicks 2014). To inhibit the growth
drug, Oxali-palladium (OX) and iron nanoparticles (NP) on of this microorganism, Copper-Containing Anti-Biofilm
the Beta-Casein (β-CN). Hence, the Beta-Casein can per- Nanofiber Scaffolds can be used too. Copper-containing nan-
form as an efficient carrier for both agents (Azarakhsh et al. oparticles have the potential of inhibiting Escherichia coli
2021). One common strategy in designing nanocarriers for growth either (Ahire et al. 2016). Surfactin-loaded nanofib-
cancer therapies is to create nanoparticles that can detect the ers are also a great candidate to be used in wound dressings
vitamin or growth factor receptors on target cells. Cancerous or in the coating of prosthetic devices to prevent biofilm
cells usually over-express the receptors for such nutrients so formation and secondary infections (Ahire et al. 2017b). In
that they can keep their high proliferation rate (Peer et al. addition to nano-therapies, nano-diagnostic agents- metal
2020). Reprogramming the nutrient signaling and micropi- nanoparticles- have been indicated to be highly applica-
nocytosis of the cancer cells seriously affects the efficacy of ble in the detection of viruses, including covid-19 (Fouad
Nano-particulate albumin-bound paclitaxel (nab-paclitaxel, 2021). Several biotic [e.g., algae (AlNadhari et al. 2021) and
nab-PTX); which is one of the most commonly prescribed viral capsid (Jeevanandam et al. 2019)] and abiotic [e.g.,
nanomedicines (Li et al. 2021). gold, silver, graphene oxide, and zin oxide (Fouad 2021)]
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are short-chain, often nanomaterials have been reported to be applicable in bio-
cationic, peptides possessing several attributes which make medical processes. The combination of biotic and abiotic
them attractive alternatives to conventional antibiotics with s sources provides efficient nanomaterials as well. For exam-
a low likelihood of resistance developing in target organisms ple, the highly effective graphene-starch nanocomposites,
(Meikle et al. 2021). Conjugation and functionalization of are resulted from embedding graphene-based nanomaterials
nanoparticles with potentially active antimicrobial peptides into the starch biopolymers (Mishra and Manral 2021). The
has added advantages that widen their applications in the delivery of therapeutics via nanoemulsions (NE) has shown
field of drug discovery as well as a delivery system, includ- striking results. Sánchez-Rubio et al. have successfully
ing imaging and diagnostics (Mohid and Bhunia 2021). defeated deficiencies of vitamin E (e.g., hydrophobicity and

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low stability) by creating nanoemulsions comprising vitamin to 3.2. Acidification of the environment decreased iron con-
E. the sperm samples derived from the red deer’s epididymal sumption as well (Beryani et al. 2017).
tissue was treated with the mentioned nanoemulsions and
the sperms’ viability and resistance against oxidative stress, Nano‑bioremediation
was increased (Sánchez-Rubio et al., 2020). Jeong et al. have
reported another growth-promoting method that elevates the One green and cost-effective approach for treating the
maturation process of cultured cells. The mentioned tech- pollutant soils to reduce their toxicity is applying living
nique aims to develop an extremely operational and cost- organisms (bacteria, fungi, plants, etc.) through a pro-
effective bioreactor that enables in-vitro maturation of heart cess named: “bioremediation.” Integrating bioremediation
tissue. Next-generation stage-top incubator (STI) containing with nanoparticles increases the efficiency of the process
nano grooves patterned PDMS diaphragm (NGPPD) was (Usman et al. 2020). The technology of nano-remediation
designed to boost cell maturation and myogenic differentia- is a sustainable method to reduce the contaminants of the
tion. The surface of NGPPD was covered with a slim layer soil by various means (Yue et al.2021; Sajjadi et al. 2021;
of gold (Au) (Jeong et al. 2021). Microfluidic systems are Lian et al. 2021). As an example, the reduction of Cr (VI)
proven to have applications in biological analysis, tissue levels using this technology is known to be worthwhile in
engineering, etc. Embedding nanolitre volumes into micro- many aspects (Azeez et al. 2020; He et al. 2020). Chemi-
sized fluidic channels is the basis of the aforementioned cally active nanoparticles can trigger the dechlorination/
technique (Valencia et al. 2020). dehalogenation process in organic pollutants and neutralize
them, consequently. Even the toughest pollutants are tar-
geted in this nano-bio-based remediation method. The time
Application of nanoparticles on bioreactors needed for the purgation of highly contaminated soils will
as contributory agents be minimized by virtue of the mentioned technique (Usman
et al. 2020). Iron oxide nanoparticles (NP) and F ­ e3O4/bio-
Since wastewater reclamation is a universal challenge and char nanocomposites are vastly exploited in the synthesis
plays a major role in providing clean water for many people of nanoparticles of nano-bioremediation (Patra Shahi et al.
across the world, various techniques have been developed 2021). It is worth noting that nano zerovalent iron (nZVI) is
for this purpose. Among them, the application of membrane an effective technology in the case of remediation that has
bioreactors (MBRs) in water purification has attracted great been applied broadly in recent years due to high levels of
attention recently. In the MBR technique, the conventional reactivity for contaminants (Luo et al. 2021; Visentin et al.
activated sludge (CAS) process is incorporated with a fil- 2020; Ken and Sinha 2020; Hou et al. 2019; Zhu et al. 2019).
tration process provided by a physicochemical membrane The bioremediation process can be used in water puri-
(Ma et al. 2018). It has been shown that treating the men- fication as well. Separating solid components from liquid
tioned membrane with nanoparticles in different types of waste is a necessary stage in the water remediation process.
MBR techniques can significantly improve the efficiency of The fresh market waste may contain infectious components,
the process (Abass and Zhang 2020; Jiang et al. 2019). The which can seriously harm humans and plants. Hence, it is
pharmaceutical industry produces one of the most pollut- important to develop methods to collect, separate, and treat
ant wastewaters; which contains various amounts of organic these adverse agents. Solid wastes in the wastewater contain
compounds, including benzene, polynuclear aromatic hydro- high amounts of carbohydrates and proteins, and they pro-
carbons (PAHs), and heterocyclic, etc. these compounds vide matrices for the colonization of infectious organisms.
have high Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and low deg- Altogether, the presence of solid wastes improves the growth
radability; which makes conventional biological treatments rate of pathogenic organisms. After solid matters got col-
inefficient for treating them. However, applying O­ 3, ­O3/Fe2+, lected, they should be stored and treated immediately. The
­O3/nZVI (nano zerovalent iron) processes in wastewater pur- treatment process must not be delayed because the enriched
gation has made noticeable signs of progress. Nano cata- environment of the solid wastes can easily get corrupted.
lytic ozonation process (­ O3/nZVI) in a semi-batch reactor One way to treat them is through triggering the fermentation
has the highest effect on advancing degradation amongst and composting processes. Adding effective microorganisms
all (Malik et al. 2019). An experiment conducted in south- (EM), such as lactic acid/phototropic bacteria and yeast,
ern Tehran succeeded in removing the Methyl Tertio Butyl accelerates the conventional fermentation and composting
Ether (MTBE) and benzene from groundwater, using Fen- processes used for the solid waste treatment (Al-Gheethi
ton’s chemical oxidation with stabilized nano zerovalent iron et al. 2020). Costa et al. have sequenced the whole genome
particles (S-NZVI) as a catalyst. The removal efficiency of of the strain Streptomyces sp. Z38, and detected growth-
MTBE and benzene were increased to 90% and 96%, respec- promoting, heavy metal-eliminating, and anti-microbial fea-
tively, by reducing the pH of the reaction environment down tures within specific biosynthetic genes. Streptomyces sp.

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Z38 seems to be a suitable agent for bioremediation due to in its nano form and exhibits outstanding synergist, anti-
its ability to decompose heavy metals such as Cr (VI) and Cd fungal, and anti-bacterial effects (Bashir et al. 2021).
(II). Costa et al. have supplemented the bioactive water (BW) Copper nanoparticles have the potential of combination
extracted from Streptomyces sp. Z38 with A ­ gNO3 additives with other materials like Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofi-
and produced silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) that are capa- bres and Polyethylene Terephthalate Filters to act more
ble of performing the bioremediation process (Costa et al. beneficial (Ahire and Neveling 2018; Nguyen et al. 2021).
2020). There are other effective nanomaterials exploited Metallic nanomaterials, carbon-based nanomaterials,
to reduce many pollutants from soil and wastewater. For nanocomposites, and dendrimers are four major types of
instance, utilization of nano-manganese oxide to eliminate nanomaterials that can be applied in wastewater purga-
ZnII/CoII from water (Mahmoud et al. 2020), application tion (Murshid et al. 2021). Graphene-based nano-chan-
of nano-semiconductors on water and their Photocatalytic nels, which are inspired by aquaporin channels, have been
effectiveness (Oliveira et al. 2021), nano-scaled Iron (II) utilized as water filters and are expected to enhance the
sulfide exploited to reduce hexavalent chromium from soil water permeability and the salt rejection rate. It is worth
(Tan et al. 2020), production of nanocomposite for eliminat- noting that the efficiency of these filters can be affected
ing viruses (Al-Attabi et al. 2019), and successful applica- by various factors. For example, it has been indicated that
tion of nano biosurfactants which cause no toxicity for the increasing the charges on the channel will decrease the
environment (Debnath et al. 2021). Nano-bioremediation as water flow through the channel but, on the other hand,
an emergent approach causes some concerns and benefits at increase the ion rejection rate (Lohrasebi and Koslowski
the same time. It is possible that nanomaterials exploited in 2019). Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have rendered notice-
this method would be a threat to the organism populations able results in eliminating the water contaminants, as well
that exist naturally in water bodies. On the other hand, new (Kutara et al. 2016).
living organisms would be introduced through bioremedia- The biosafety of water purification via finger-sized unit
tion. The mentioned two scenarios can potentially put the (FSU) has been certified by cellular and animal tests. In one
anthropogenic features of ecosystems in danger (Weijie et al. study, Li et al. loaded 3D printed finger-sized units with
2020). Concerning this problem, however, scientists are prepared wheat straw (WS). To prepare WS for mentioned
trying to apply new methods to remove nanoparticles from technique, the carbonized wheat straw (CWS) was adjusted
marine ecosystems via other technologies (Ebrahimbabaie with nano-scaled zinc oxide during an in-situ surface-mod-
et al. 2020). ification process (CWS/ZnO). The resulted FSU was able to
reduce bacteria, organic dyes, and heavy metal ions; there-
Designing nano‑based water purification fore, elevating the purification efficiency. Since WS is one of
techniques, to overcome the problem of lack the major agricultural wastes worldwide, applying it in water
of clean water, across the world purification will not only cost very low but will reduce the
air pollution which is caused by burning WS in many coun-
Waterborne diseases that cause almost 10–20 million tries. The WS has a hallow, flexible, and electrical conduc-
deaths annually are considered crucial health-related issues. tor structure. These features make WS a great candidate for
According to the World Health Organization and environ- enhancing water purification performance (Li et al. 2019).
mental protection agencies, the pollution level of several For designing a nano-based filtering membrane, nano-
water bodies has long crossed the defined limitations. Thus, particles don’t always have to be chemically synthesized or
developing methods for purging water from adverse com- externally applied on the membrane. An emerging study has
ponents is of great concern (Sahu et al. 2021). The water suggested a top-down approach that uses biomass to provide
purification process profits extremely from nanobiotech- a functional membrane for the purification of the emulsions.
nology. Nanoparticles are extremely efficient in eliminating This method can be used massively in cleaning oily waters
pollutants (e.g., dye components) due to their nano-scaled resulting from industrial or domestic activities. The bio-
size and increased surface areas. In the case of dye removal, mass used in the mentioned technique is wood tissue. The
magnetic nanoparticles have been proved to be proper candi- lignin and hemicellulose fractions are removed sectionally,
dates (Lohrasebi and Koslowski 2019). Nanoadsorbents such and therefore, a highly porous, flexible, and durable mem-
as silica gel, activated alumina, clays, limestone, chitosan, brane is provided. Since the lignin is removed and there is
activated carbon, and zeolite are cost-effective and profit- no hydrophobia left, the resulting wood membrane consists
able options for eliminating the contaminating agents during of outstanding water-absorbing and anti-oil properties. The
water purification process (Ali et al. 2020). wood-nanotechnology-based membrane shows significant
Copper and copper compounds are potent biocides and efficiency due to its numerous advantages, including being
have been utilized as a disinfectant for centuries due to green, economical, easy to produce, durable, and having
their anti-microbial properties. It becomes more functional selective wettability (Kim et al. 2020).

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Rezaei et al. have synthesized a flower-shaped ZnO/GO/ technology of advanced coatings based on nanotechnol-
Fe3O4 ternary nanocomposite through the co-precipitation ogy to prevent Oxygen from spoiling the product (Rovera
method, which is considered a rather fast and easy synthe- et al. 2020). Multiple nanoparticles have the potential to
sis approach. The mentioned nanocomposite improves the deliver nutritional or antimicrobial components into food
ZnO degradation through a performance with an efficiency materials (Bhuyan et al. 2019). It has been reported that
that is more than two times greater than the efficiency of nanotechnology is a good option to deliver pesticides
the methods using ZnO particles alone. Hence, the ZnO/ and nutrients successfully into the soil and improve the
GO/Fe3O4 ternary nanocomposite seems to be an economi- strength and tolerance of products in different stressful
cal and time-saving approach for wastewater remediation situations and reduce the probable contaminations (Ali
(Rezaei et al. 2021). et al. 2021). Among different nanoparticles such as silver,
It is worth noting that the vast uses of nanoparticles in dif- titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide, nanoliposomes are found
ferent industrial products increase the risk of the inevitable to be small and have a large surface area which makes
release of nanoparticles into the environment, and therefore them more adhesive to biological tissues- therefore more
cause some concerns about the potential damages of nano- bioavailable in comparison to others. Nanoliposomes are
biotechnology. The urban wastewater seems to be highly suitable candidates for creating a delivery system during
exposed to industrial nanoparticles. The high concentrations food preparation. Food provided with the help of nanotech-
of nanoparticles in the urban wastewater contaminate the nology is called “Nano food” (Bhuyan et al. 2019). Nano
sewage sludge, consequently. Wastewater treatment plants foods can perform as therapeutic options. It is interesting
(WWTPs) are currently exploited to remove nanoparticles to mention a recent study that has proposed exploiting
from wastewater and sewage sludge (Wang and Chen 2016). nanoemulsions to convey needed nutrients to gastrectomy
Nanoparticles synthesized and utilized in the industry can patients. These types of patients usually suffer from condi-
end up in marine ecosystems. Nanoparticles are developed tions like anorexia, energy deficit, and malnutrition, which
from various chemical components such as carbon, silver, can be treated by efficient nutrition delivery provided by
gold, and copper, which are potentially hazardous to live nano food (Razavi et al. 2020). As mentioned earlier, in
organisms. Since nanoparticles are extremely small in size, the food preparation process, antimicrobial components
likely, they will easily enter the bodies of aquatic animals. can be delivered along with nutritional components via a
It has been demonstrated that the accumulation of nanopar- nano-based delivery system. Polyphenols are great exam-
ticles in the animal’s body can cause severe morphological ples of substantial antioxidant and antimicrobial agents in
and behavioral deformities. Genetic materials of cells may the food industry. Nevertheless, polyphenols have some
undergo various changes as well (Gökçe 2021). limitations, including instability, low solubility, ineffi-
FeO ion, which is known as Nanoscale zerovalent iron cient bioavailability, and being drastically susceptible to
particles (nZVI), is massively used in the synthesis of nano- being degraded. There are several factors that reinforce
particles applied in wastewater nano-based treatments. Ben- degradation: Oxygen, light, pH, and interactions between
saida et al. have shown that combining nZVI with another polyphenols and other components in food. Polyphenol-
metal (Cu) enhances the growth of the microbial populations loaded nanoparticles relatively overcome the mentioned
in the wastewater treated with this nZVI\Cu bimetallic nano- obstacles due to their capacity to protect phenolic com-
particles (Bensaida et al. 2021). pounds against degrading processes (Milinčić et al. 2019).
As a renewable and biodegradable source, starch is a use-
Exploiting nanobiotechnology‑based methods ful polymer that has been applied in different fields such
in food industry as the pharmaceutical and food industries. Nano-size
starch is an advanced material with new abilities in the
Nanotechnology-based pharmaceuticals were developed matter of hydrophobicity and stability (Wang and Zhang
primarily, but wide applications of nanoscience in food 2020). In the field of the food industry, there are also
and agricultural industries have been introduced as well many other new methods based on nanotechnology, for
(Sahani and Sharma 2020). Utilizing nanoscience in any instance, designing natural proteins as nano-architectures
stage of the food production process-either cultivation, to deliver nutraceuticals (Tang 2021), new strategies for
production, post-harvest processing, or packaging—seems packaging food products by exploitation of the knowledge
to be lucrative. The application of nano-based methods of nano-biotechnology, and nanomaterials (Reshmy et al.
in the food industry has various advantages, but the most 2021; Jogee et al. 2021; Tiwari et al. 2021), utilization of
arguable of them would be its impact on shelf life aug- the nano-delivery techniques to overcome the problems
mentation and spoilage prevention (Bhuyan et al. 2019). of consuming bioactive ingredients (Hosseini et al. 2021;
Since Oxygen is known as an important cause of food Ozogul et al. 2021), producing nanoparticles in the shape
spoilage in the food industry, scientists have developed the of powder using the nanospray driers (Jafari et al. 2021),

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detection of food contaminants by nano-Ag combinations an electron circulation, transfer electrons from the substrate
(Yao et al. 2021), and even the application of nano-engi- to specific electrodes, and eventually produce sustainable
neering in the field of the beverage industry (Saari and energy. The metals used as catalysts in fuel cells (e.g., hydro-
Chua 2020). gen, methane, and methanol) are usually expensive and non-
durable. On the other hand, biofuel cells use cost-effective
Nano‑bio catalysts; an attempt to remove bio-catalysts (e.g., microbes and enzymes) instead of metal
the barriers of enzymatic bioprocesses catalysts. Despite the mentioned advantages, biofuel cells
in the biotechnology industry have one major limitation: the low rate of electron trans-
fer between substrate and electrodes, which is significantly
Organic enzymes, which are normally found in nature, enhanced by supplementing biofuel cells with nanomateri-
have large applications in the biotechnology industry. Since als. Nanomaterials are able to assemble the substrate (e.g.,
organic enzymes are green and eco-friendly, they are usually enzymes) with the electrodes. In other words, using them
preferred to commercially synthesized enzymes. Pectinase in the structure of electrodes, the electron absorption of
is considered to be extremely useful for manufacturing pur- electrodes improves- related to the high surface area rate
poses. Pectinase application in industrial bioprocesses cov- of nanomaterials- therefore, a direct transition of electrons
ers a large range from clarification of juice/ wine and tea/ between enzymes and electrodes develops. Silver nanopar-
coffee fermentation to wastewater and industrial waste reme- ticles-Graphene oxide (Ag-GO), Graphite, Carbon-nanotube
diation. All enzymes- regardless of being organic or chemi- forest (CNTF), Carbon nanotube (CNT), and Nitrogen-
cally synthesized- consist of limitations that make their doped hollow nanospheres with large pores (pNHCSs) are
usage challenging. Three major disadvantages of enzymes the nanomaterials applied in nano- biofuel cells. Respec-
are inefficient recoverability, operational stability, and recy- tively, Glucose oxidase (­ GOx), Glucose oxidase and Lac-
clability (Zhang et al. 2021). Functional nanomaterial-based case, Fructose dehydrogenase & laccase, Glucose oxidase
bio-carriers render a proper environment for the enzymatic and laccase, and NADH dehydrogenase form the enzymatic
immobilization process, therefore facilitating recovery and system of each nanomaterial (Sharma et al. 2021).
recycling of enzymes and enhancing the efficiency of bio-
processes in the long run. Accordingly, designing nano- Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs); highly
based carriers with these features has been attracted great advantageous materials
attention. To achieve this aim, Graphene- immobilized nano-
bio-catalysts have been proved to be greatly useful due to the Porous materials are known to be highly advantageous due
Graphene’s characteristics: electrical, optical, thermal, and to their high absorption and surface areas. Zeolites, acti-
mechanical high potency (Adeel et al. 2018; Zhang et al. vated carbons, and silicas are examples of this family, but
2021). the most eminent member among them are Metal–organic
Nanomaterial-based nanocatalysts are useful in optimiz- frameworks (MOFs). MOFs have features that make them
ing the biodiesel production process. This ability is related unique for several applications. For example, MOFs show a
to the features of nano-scaled materials, including crystal- high absorption rate, which is caused by their high surface
lisability, high adsorption and storage potential, having cata- areas. Another property of MOFs is their possession of sev-
lytic activities, and great stability and durability. Various eral adjustable microporous channels, which makes it easy
materials can be used to create nanoparticles for this mean; to produce different and changeable functional sites through
some examples are metal oxide (calcium, magnesium oxide, them. The latest feature brings MOFs the shape and size
and strontium oxide), Magnetic material, and Carbon. Car- selectivity. By controlling the starting materials and reac-
bon-based nanomaterials consist of multiple types, such as tion parameters, it is possible to determine the morphology
carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, graphene oxide, and of MOFs (Kinik et al. 2020; Jun et al. 2020) into various
biochar. shapes, including granule, pellet, thin-film, gel, foam, paper
All examples mentioned above have been proved to be sheet, monolith, and hollow structures (Kinik et al. 2020).
highly effective in increasing the efficiency of the biodiesel There are two types of MOFs: (1) neutral MOFs and (2)
synthesizing process and reducing the time and cost required ionic MOFs. Ionic MOFs are able to be used directly in
for operating the process without utilizing nanotechnology anion purgation processes. For example, one approach for
(Nizami and Rehan 2018). reducing the pollutant anions from the environment is syn-
Replacing non-renewable energy sources with renewable thesizing a cationic framework along with extra-framework
ones is a great step in guaranteeing a sustainable future. anions. The synthesis of mentioned frameworks occurs
Various devices, including solar and fuel cells, have been by utilizing neutral nitrogen donors. The extra-framework
developed for this purpose. Conventional fuel cells are made anions will exchange with pollutant anions through an Ion
from metal reactants instead of fossil fuels. They provide exchange process called: “Anion trapping”.

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3 Biotech (2022) 12:65 Page 17 of 24 65

Anions are extremely abundant in nature. One of the most nanofertilizers, nano pesticides, and nano-bio sensors have
pollutant and hazardous anions is phosphates. These toxic been created, which are able to increase crop value and
anions are highly used in pesticides. Other examples of toxic decrease crop loss caused by agricultural pests (Usman
anions, which are considerably frequent in industrial wastes, et al. 2020). Conventional chemical pesticides and fertiliz-
are the bulky anions. These are the dye molecules exploited ers can be deteriorative for soil composition and fertility.
in industry. Various diseases like cancers, lung/kidney dys- This happens because chemical residues can target many
function, and brain diseases, including Alzheimer’s, are molecules other than the ones that have been defined as
caused by dangerous anions like those mentioned above. their main targets (Chhipa 2019). Besides, pesticides can
Hence, creating methods that are able to recognize and have ruinous impacts on the microorganisms that naturally
delete the perilous anions from the environment is one of exist in the environment and are required for the crop’s
the most appreciated scientific approaches. MOFs have been growth (Nehra et al. 2021). Utilizing nanoparticles can
proved to be functional for this mean (Desai et al. 2019). considerably reduce such unwanted events due to the high
Since MOFs have considerable surface areas and modifia- exclusivity of these particles. Silver, zinc, iron, titanium,
ble structure—different open metal sites and other functional phosphorus, molybdenum, and polymer are suitable mate-
groups can be introduced into their frameworks—they are rials to be used in the structure of agricultural nanopar-
suitable options for numerous applications which are gener- ticles (Chhipa 2019). Nanoparticles containing nutrients,
ally related to detection and storage. In the case of storage, fertilizers, and pesticides, can be sprayed externally to the
they exhibit acceptable physical adsorption for ­CO2 (one plant. The folium will adsorb the nanoparticles and send
of the major causes of global warming), ­H2 (a clean energy them to the soil (Chugh et al. 2021).
source), and Methane (­ CH4). The ability to adsorb variant Another application of nanobiotechnology in diminish-
components makes MOFs proper for water purification ing the damages of some traditional pesticides is design-
applications. Several toxic and harmful components which ing nano-bio sensors that can efficiently detect toxic pes-
are responsible for water contamination, including organic ticides. Dichlorvos is one of these toxic pesticides that
pollutants (like dyes and oils) and heavy metal ions, can be accumulate in the air, soil, water, and crops; and therefore
detected, adsorbed, and removed by MOFs. Introducing dif- causes neural, genetical, respirational, and muscular dis-
ferent chemical groups into MOFs creates different internal orders. Dichlorvos-sensitive Nano-biosensors comprise
interactions, which enable MOFs to detect target molecules immobilized enzymes embedded in nanomaterials. Acetyl-
functionally. Therefore, they can be used in active centers of cholinesterase (AChE), tyrosinase enzymes, and some oth-
catalysts, photocatalysts, and biosensors (Kinik et al. 2020). ers are options for the enzymatic part of the nanodevice.
For the nano- matrix section, both organic (carbon, gra-
MOFs‑based nanozymes phene, chitosan, and onion membrane) and inorganic (sil-
ver, gold, silica, and Titania) options are available (Mishra
Nanozymes are classified into two types: (1) natural et al. 2021). Nanomaterials can enhance the remediation
enzymes that are incorporated with nanomaterials and (2) process of contaminated soils through distinct abiotic and
nanomaterials that exhibit inherent enzymatic features. biotic directions, including the nano-bioremediation pro-
Exploiting MOFs as nanomaterials in nanozyme struc- cess (Usman et al. 2020).
tures will produce an emergent form of nanozymes, called: Other than improving the functions of existed plants,
“MOF-based nanozymes”; which have multiple advantages the possibility of introducing engineered plants with better
over conventional forms. MOFs provide more catalytic sites, performances has been discussed recently. The term “plant
simplify the entrance of small substrate molecules -due to nano bionics” refers to a pioneering idea of involving
their porous structure-, enhance the substrate exclusivity, nanoparticles in living plants to make their intrinsic func-
and altogether improve the catalytic function of enzymes. tions adjustable. The landscape of this idea is designing
MOF-based nanozymes are effective in designing biosen- engineered artificial photosynthetic systems, enhancing
sors, biocatalysis, and biomedical imaging techniques. A the growth rate of this new type of plant, and many other
recent promising application of them is in cancer therapy novel applications which are expected to grow extremely
which reduces side effects significantly (Ding et al. 2020). in the years ahead (Marchiol 2018).
It is necessary to mention that inorganic nanoparticles
Agricultural usages of nanobiotechnology that may be found in consumer products, may alter the gut
composition and could lead to various gut-related diseases.
Applying nanobiotechnology in agriculture to improve Thus, there have to be some limitations in nanoparticle
the agricultural production rate has been of great impor- agricultural usages (Gangadoo et al. 2021; Ghebretatios
tance recently. Achieving this purpose will solve several et al. 2021).
problems related to the universal hunger dilemma. Several

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65 Page 18 of 24 3 Biotech (2022) 12:65

Using nanoparticles in cosmetic products Oil industry benefits from multiple types
of nanomaterials
Nowadays, due to special and distinctive physicochemical
characteristics, nanomaterials are being vastly used in dif- Nanomaterials can play a major role in the advancement
ferent industries. Recent studies are focused on applying of the oil industry. Almost every form of nanomaterial—
nano-based technologies to improve the quality of cos- discussed in previous sections—has been exhibited to have
metic products. Nanostructures are about to deliver active numerous applications in the oil industry. Nanomaterial can
ingredients to the skin. For this reason, it is more suitable be effectively exploited in various processes of this industry,
to use lipid particles that are better adaptable to dermal including oil exploration/production and recovering the oil-
absorption. The high stability of the combination of nano- field. Nanofluids (synthesized from nanomaterials) optimize
materials and lipid particles with cosmetic components the oil production process. Nanocatalysts have applications
indicates high efficiency. However, the probable risks of in petrochemical processes along with operating an efficient
this method should not be ignored (Benrabah et al. 2020; oil purgation function. Several applications of this technol-
Khezri et al. 2018). Producing nanoparticles using plants ogy are mentioned below.
(Phyto-metal nano-based particles) is another advanta- There are nanomembranes designed to provide a proper
geous method to decrease the toxicity of nanomaterials and matrix for separating water and oil from gas. They eventually
their hazardous effects on the body. For this reason, this purify the gas and delete redundant components from waste-
material is suitable for dermal uses and cosmetic applica- water (Saleh 2018). Metal workings such as machining and
tions (Paiva-Santos et al. 2021). Chitosan nanoparticles stamping industry require some types of lubricants and cool-
with better penetrability (Ta et al. 2021; Sakulwech et al. ants, which are mostly oil products. There has been produced
2018), Gold and silver nanoparticles with a higher ability an oil-based cutting fluid made up of ­Al2O3 nanoparticles
to reduce microbial contaminants (Séby 2021), Titanium to decrease the friction force between the object and snip-
dioxide ­(TiO2) nanoparticles deposited with yttrium oxide ping tool (Subhedar et al. 2021). Encapsulation of extracted
­(Y2O3) with better attenuation of ultraviolet radiation and essential oil from hyssop in a nano-complex improves the
less cytotoxicity (Borrás et al. 2020), nanoparticles with antioxidant and antifungal efficiency of the oil (Hadidi et al.
high uptake of oily components (de Azevedo Stavale et al. 2021). The application of nano-silica in the procedure of
2019) are other examples of the efficient application of oil cementing enhances the resistance of the cement (Goyal
nanotechnology in the field of cosmetic products. et al. 2021; Thakkar et al. 2020). In the process of oil recov-
Since nanoparticles are small in size, they exhibit per- ery, there is a high energy loss that imposes damages to the
fect penetrability through the skin. Hence, using nano- injection system and lowers the heat level. To keep the rate
particles in cosmetic productions improves the supple- of temperature in a higher range and decrease the energy
mentation of skin, hair, or teeth with active cosmetic loss, scientists have applied nano-thermal insulators that are
ingredients (APIs). It is important to note that utilizing more economical (Afra et al. 2021; Zhao et al. 2021; Zhou
nanoparticles for several applications, as an emerging field et al. 2020). Gas and oil products can be cleaned from H ­ 2S
of science, causes various concerns about being toxic or by applying nanomaterials (Agarwal and Sudharsan 2021).
harmful for the body or the environment. The cosmetic Utilizing starch nano coatings (Wang et al. 2021), Lignin
industry’s products are commonly designed for skin, hair, and nano-silica (Gong et al. 2021), Lotus leaf coated with
nail, teeth, and therefore, are directly related to the health nano-SiO2 (Yang et al. 2021), and nano zeolite membrane
of the human body. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that are new methods for the separation of oil and water due to
there are even more concerns about using nanoparticles their high hydrophobic property (Anis et al. 2021). Nano-
in this industry compared to others (Santos et al. 2019). technology can be used to improve the quality of engine oil,
In addition to these cases, nanotechnology can be useful which results in the better stability and lubricity power as
for the detection of harmful components in cosmetic ingre- well as a reduced rate of released carbon mono oxide (Tonk
dients. Therefore the application of methods like covered 2021; Saidi et al. 2021; Thirugnanam et al. 2021; Ardebili
iron oxide nanoparticles with silver for detection of mer- et al. 2020). Advanced nanoemulsions show high stability
cury contamination in cosmetics (Chen et al. 2021a, b), and benefits for the oil industry due to the larger surface
Quantitative assessment of the Triamcinolone acetonide and the ability to wet (Kumar et al. 2021). Encapsulation
(TCA) (which is a hazardous component in high doses) of essential oils in nanostructures indicates a better perfor-
using nanoparticles with luminescence property (Zhang mance as a pesticide due to better maintenance of the oil
et al. 2019a), And detection of harmful N-nitrosamines (Campolo et al. 2020). Producing an oil-in-water emulsion
with the utilization of magnetic nanoparticles (Miralles by applying protein nanoparticles can protect unstable and
et al. 2019) are worth mentioning. active ingredients and benefit the medicine and food industry
(Xu et al. 2020).

13
3 Biotech (2022) 12:65 Page 19 of 24 65

Conclusion Afra M, Peyghambarzadeh SM, Shahbazi K, Tahmassebi N (2021)

Thermo-economic optimization of steam injection operation in
enhanced oil recovery (EOR) using nano-thermal insulation.
Combining diverse fields of science in a manner that they Energy 226:120409
overcome each other’s deficiencies indicates promising Agarwal M, Sudharsan J (2021) A comprehensive review on scaveng-
results. Within the last decades, biotechnology has made ing ­H2S compounds in oil and gas industry by using nanoma-
terials. Mater Today Proc. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​matpr.​2020.​
a lot of progress. Merging nanotechnology with biotech-
11.​693
nological methods enables scientists to design less time Ahire JJ, Dicks LMT (2014) 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid-contain-
taking, more economical, and more efficient techniques. ing nanofiber wound dressings inhibit biofilm formation by
This Nano-biotechnological approach influences multiple Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother
58(4):2098–2104
therapeutic, agricultural, environmental, and industrial
Ahire JJ, Dicks LM (2016) Antimicrobial hyaluronic acid–cefoxitin
methods. For instance, the effectiveness of the emergent sodium thin films produced by electrospraying. Curr Microbiol
crisper/cas9 systems increases noticeably by applying the 73(2):236–241
nano-scaled additives at the process. Ahire JJ, Neveling DP (2018) Dicks LM (2018) Polyacrylonitrile
(PAN) nanofibres spun with copper nanoparticles: an anti-
In this review, we investigated the current advance- Escherichia coli membrane for water treatment. Appl Microbiol
ments and limitations of biotechnology, along with the Biotechnol 102(16):7171–7181
nano-based alternatives rendered by nanotechnology. It Ahire JJ, Hattingh M, Neveling DP, Dicks LM (2016) Copper-contain-
seems highly probable that biotechnology will accomplish ing anti-biofilm nanofiber scaffolds as a wound dressing material.
PLoS ONE 11(3):e0152755
even more improvements in the future, and its incorpora- Ahire JJ, Robertson DD, van Reenen AJ, Dicks LMT (2017a) Polyeth-
tion with nanotechnology gets humankind one step closer ylene oxide (PEO)-hyaluronic acid (HA) nanofibers with kana-
to a sustainable future. Besides, the nano-based techniques mycin inhibits the growth of Listeria monocytogenes. Biomed
are less costly compared to the conventional ones. Thus, Pharmacother 86:143–148
Ahire JJ, Robertson DD, Van Reenen AJ, Dicks LM (2017b) Surfac-
with nano-biotechnology promoting, a revolution in the tin-loaded polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) nanofibers alters adhesion
economic situation of the world is not implausible. of Listeria monocytogenes to polystyrene. Mater Sci Eng C
77:27–33
Author contributions All authors have participated in (a) conception Ahmadi MH, Ghazvini M, Alhuyi Nazari M, Ahmadi MA, Pourfayaz
and design, or analysis and interpretation of the data; (b) drafting the F, Lorenzini G, Ming T (2019) Renewable energy harvesting
article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; and with the application of nanotechnology: a review. Int J Energy
(c) approval of the final version. This manuscript has not been sub- Res 43(4):1387–1410
mitted to, nor is under review at, another journal or other publishing Al-Attabi R, Rodriguez-Andres J, Schütz JA, Bechelany M, Des Lign-
venue. The authors have no affiliation with any organization with a eris E, Chen X, Kong L, Morsi YS, Dumee LF (2019) Catalytic
direct or indirect financial interest in the subject matter discussed in electrospun nano-composite membranes for virus capture and
the manuscript. remediation. Sep Purif Technol 229:115806
Al-Gheethi AAS, Mohamed RMSR, Noman EA, Kassim AHM (eds)
(2020) Prospects of fresh market wastes management in devel-
Declarations oping countries. Water science and technology library, vol 92.
Springer, Cham
Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author Ali M, Hoque M, Safdar Hossain S, Biswas M (2020) Nanoadsorbents
states that there is no conflict of interest. for wastewater treatment: next generation biotechnological solu-
tion. Int J Environ Sci Technol 17:4095–4132
Ali SS, Al-Tohamy R, Koutra E, Moawad MS, Kornaros M, Mustafa
AM, Mahmoud YA-G, Badr A, Osman ME, Elsamahy T (2021)
Nanobiotechnological advancements in agriculture and food
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