PARASITOLOGY

COURSE PROFESSOR:

GEOVANNIE C. ANIERO JR., LPT

 Parasitology

is the study of the interaction between parasites and their

hosts. In general, parasitologists tend to concentrate on
eukaryotic parasites, such as lice, mites, protozoa and
worms, with prokaryotic parasites and other infectious
agents the focus of fields such as bacteriology,
microbiology and virology.
Parasitology:- is a science that deals with parasites.

Medical Parasitology:- Is the study of parasites that

causes disease in man.

Parasite:- is an organism living temporarily or

permanently in or on another organism (host) from which
is physically or physiologically dependant upon other.

Nature of Parasites- A parasite could be unicellular,

worm or an arthropode.
Features of Parasites

1. Smaller than their host,

2. Outnumber the host,
3. Short life span than their host, and
4. Have greater reproductive potential than their host.
Parasites can be Classified

Based on their Habitat

Based on the effect on the host
Based on ability to live independent to the host
Based on the mode of living
 Based on their Habitat

Ectoparasites - parasites that live outside the

host's body ( fleas and lice ).
Infestation is the invasion of the body
by ectoparasites.
 Based on their Habitat

Endoparasites - parasites that live inside the

host's body ( helminths and worms ).
Infection is the invasion of the body by
endoparasites. The result of entry and
multiplication of the parasite within the
host.
Based on the effect on the host

Pathogenic - cause disease conditions

Non- pathogenic - does not cause disease
conditions.
Based on ability to live independent to the host

Facultative parasites - parasites that can live

independently of the host ( free-living ).
These parasites do not have to live to the
host to complete the life cycle.
Based on ability to live independent to the host

Obligate parasites - parasites that must life

inside the host ( Plasmodium leishmania &
hookworms ).
Majority of the parasites that infect humans
are obligate parasites.
Plasmodium leishmania

Hookworms
Based on mode of living

Permanent parasites - parasites that remain in

a host from early life to maturity.
( Plasmodium leishmania ).
Based on mode of living

Intermittent parasites - parasites that simply

visit the host during feeding feeding time.
( Non-pathogenic parasites ).
Based on mode of living

Incidental parasites - parasites that occur in an

unusual host.
( dog tapeworm in human ).
Based on mode of living

Erratic parasites - parasites that are seen in an

usual organ, different from that which it
ordinarily parasites.
( Ascaris lubriciodes in the lungs and kidneys ).
Based on mode of living

Transitory parasites - parasites whose larva

develops in a host while the adult is free-living.
( Echinococcus granulosis or dog tapeworm ).
CLA SS I F I C A T I O N O F HO S T
 Host
Host are the ORGANISMS that harbor the
parasite and provide nourishment to the
parasite.
Host are very essential to the existence of
parasites.
Definitive Host
Host that harbor the adult stage of the parasite.
Human for the intestinal round worm
Ascaris

Host that harbor the sexual phase of parasite

development oocur.
Mosquito for the malaria parasite
Plasmodium
Ascaris
Ascaris
Intermediate Host
Host that harbor the larval stage of the parasite.
cow for the cysticercus larva of the beef
tapeworm Taenia saginata

Where the asexual stage of the life cycle.

Human for the malaria parasite Plasmodium
Reservior Host
Host harboring parasites that are parasitic for
humans and from which human may become
infected.
Migratory birds serves as reservior host of
the parasite.
Paratenic Host
Host that serves as a means of transport for the
parasite ( insect vectors and snails ) so that the
infective stage of a certain parasite may reach
its final host.
Host responsible for transferring a parasite from
one location to another.
S OU RC E S OF EX PO SU RE TO
INF EC TIO N OR INF ES TA TIO N
 Contaminated soil or water
The most common source of exposure to infection is
soil contaminated or polluted with human feces.

This is true for most of the parasitic worms or

helminths such as Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris
trichiura, Strongyloides stercoralis, and human
hookworms.
Water may be the source of the viable cysts of the
parasitic amoebae and intestinal flagellates, the
larvae of the blood flukes, and the eggs of the pork
tapeworm Taenia solium.

Freshwater fish serve as the source for the fish

tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum, as well as other
intestinal and liver flukes.
 Food containing the parasite's infective stage

Raw pork is the source of Trichinella spiralis and

Taenia solium, while improperly cooked or raw beef
is the source of Taenia saginata.
 A bloodsucking insect

Blood-sucking insects may serve as source for

certain parasites— the female Anopheles mosquito
for the malaria parasite Plasmodium; sand fly for
leishmaniasis; tsetse fly and reduvid bug for
trypanosomes; and the Culex and Mansonia
mosquitoes for filariasis.
A domestic or wild animal harboring the parasite

Dogs, on the other hand, are the direct source of

infection with the hydatid cyst of the dog tapeworm
Echinococous granulosus. Other animals that may
serve as sources for parasites include pigs, cows,
and birds.
Another person and his or her clothing, bedding,
or the immediate environment he or she has
contaminated
MODES OF TRANSMISSION
 Ingestion of contaminated food and water
(fecal-oral transmission) is the most common
mode of transmission of most intestinal parasites.
 Ingestion of contaminated water include the
intestinal protozoa (cyst stage), and the
embryonated egg stage of the intestinal
roundworms (e.g., Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris
trichiura).
Trichinella spiralis, Taenia solium, Taenia saginata,
Diphyllobothrium latum, intestinal flukes and the
lung flukes are transmitted by eating food
containing the larval stage of the parasites.
Some parasites actively enter the body through
penetration of the skin from the soil (e.g.,
hookworms and Strongyloides) or from
contaminated water (e.g., blood fluke).
Bite of blood-sucking insect vectors (e.g.,
malaria, leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis, and
filariasis)

Inhalation of eggs (pinworm or Enterobius

vermicularis)
 Transplacental or congenital infection
(Toxoplasma gondii and occasionally
Plasmodium)
Transmammary (mother's milk) infection
(Strongyloides, Ancylostoma)
Sexual intercourse (Trichomonas vaginalis).
PORTAL S OF EX IT OF
PAR AS ITE S
 The most common portal of exit of parasites is
through the anus. Eggs of medically important
roundworms are excreted together with human
feces and contaminate soil and water.
 Urine may serve as the portal of exit for
Trichomonas vaginalis, Strongyloides stercoralis,
and Schistosoma haematobium.
 The lung fluke Paragonimus westermani and the
intestinal roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides (larval
stage) may be excreted with sputum and vaginal
discharge.
Trichomonas vaginals, which is transmitted through
sexual intercourse.
 ME CH A NI SM S O F D IS EA SE
PR OD UCT IO N B Y P AR AS IT ES
The term pathogenesis refers to the dynamics of any disease
process. Some parasites may cause inapparent infection,
causing no symptoms, and producing no detectable harm.

The infection can remain inapparent continuously for long

periods or between short periods of relapse (e.g., malaria). For
most helminthic infections, signs and symptoms usually
manifest only if a large number of worms are present.
Traumatic damage

Entry of the infective larvae of hookworms or blood flukes

into the skin may produce relatively slight physical
damage.
Small lesions may result from the bite of mosquitoes.
Migration of the larval stage of certain roundworms may
lead to ruptured capillaries in the lungs.
Large number of worms may produce acute intestinal
obstruction.
Lytic necrosis

The parasitic protozoan Entamoeba histolytica which

releases enzymes that lyse tissues for their nutritional
needs. These enzymes also enable the parasite to
penetrate the tissues of the colon, producing ulcerations
in the colon, and extra-intestinal viscera.
Stimulation of host tissue reaction

These reactions may be in the form of cellular proliferation

and infiltration at the site of the parasite entry or may
involve systemic increase in certain types of cells,
especially those circulating in the blood. One may see an
increase in circulating eosinophils.
Stimulation of host tissue reaction
stimulation of red blood cell production may occur,
especially in infections that lead to mechanical loss or
destruction of the red blood cells, as in hookworm
infection or in malaria. Certain parasitic infections may
also lead to stimulation of neoplastic (cancer) growth in
the organ infected. Infection with the blood fluke may
eventually lead to development of cancer of the liver.
Cancer of the biliary ducts may be seen in infection with
the liver fluke Clonordbis sinensis.
 Toxic or allergic phenomena

Opening of pathways for entry of other pathogens into the

tissues.
LABORATOR Y D IA GN O SIS OF
PARASITIC IN FE CT IO NS
Microscopic examination
Staining
Duodenal material
Sigmoidoscopy material
Cellophane tape or Scotch tape preparation
Blood
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Tissue and Biopsy specimens
Sputum
Eye specimen
Mouth scrapings and nasal discharge
Skin snips
Xenodiagnosis
Duodenal material
GENERAL LIF E CY CLE
OF PAR AS IT ES
Life cycles of parasites can be further divided
into two categories: direct (monoxenous) and
indirect (heteroxenous). Parasites with direct
life cycles spend most of their adult lives in one
host, known as the parasitic stage, with their
progeny transmitted from one host to another,
known as the free-living stage.
HELMINTHS
The word, helminths from Greek means "Worm" and
originally referred to intestinal worms but it is more usually
interpreted to include both parasitic & free-living species of
round worms (phylum Nemathoda )"hair snakes" or
gordiid worms (Phylum – Nematomorpha), tubellarians,
flukes & tape worms ( phylum-plathyhelminthes) & thorny
- headed worms (phylumAcanthecephala).
The helminths are generally macroscopic, and the adult
worms vary tremendously in size from barely visible to
10 meters in length.
The life cycles of helminths may be quite complex and include
both direct and indirect cycles. The clinical sign and symptoms
of helminthic infections depend on the location of the
organisms and may be caused by adults, larva, or eggs.
The host response to the presence of parasite may be
prominent and often includes eosinophilia, especially in the
early stages of infections when the parasites are in tissue. The
final diagnosis is usually dependant on detection and
identification of a mature or developmental (larva, embryo,
egg) stage of the parasite. Occasionally the diagnosis may be
made clinically or serologically.
The host response to the presence of parasite may be
prominent and often includes eosinophilia, especially in the
early stages of infections when the parasites are in tissue. The
final diagnosis is usually dependant on detection and
identification of a mature or developmental (larva, embryo,
egg) stage of the parasite. Occasionally the diagnosis may be
made clinically or serologically.
The majority of helminths produce characteristics eggs that
are passed in feces and serve as the chief means of
diagnosing infections.
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