CHAPTER THREE

SIGNAL CONDITIONING
&
INTERFACING CIRCUITS
• Outlines;
Introduction
Deflection bridge
Amplifiers
Operational amplifiers
Instrumentation amplifiers
Interfacing circuits

4/27/2021 1
 3.1 Introduction
• The output of sensors is usually small or not
suitable directly to process or present it.
• Thus conditioning of the signal is necessary.
• Signal conditioners are circuit that takes the
output of a sensor and converts it in to a form
more suitable for further processing or
presenting.
• Posses three stages;
i. Filtering
ii. Amplifying, and
iii. Isolation
4/27/2021 2
 3.1 Introduction
i. Filtering:
Eliminating the undesired noise from the signal of
interest.
The most commonly used filter designs are;
1. The Low Pass Filter: allows only low frequency
signals to pass while blocking those any higher.

4/27/2021 3
 3.1 Introduction
2. The High Pass Filter: allows only high frequency
signals to pass through while blocking those any
lower.

4/27/2021 4
 3.1 Introduction
3. The Band Pass Filter: allows signals falling within
a certain frequency band setup between two points
to pass through while blocking both the lower and
higher frequencies either side of this frequency
band.
R
VO ( s) s
 L
Vi ( s) s 2  R s  1
L LC

4/27/2021 5
 3.2 Deflection Bridge
• Converts output of resistive, capacitive, and
inductive sensors into a voltage signal.
• Has four arms of impedance designated as ZA, ZB,
ZN and ZX.
• ZX is the unknown impedance that usually forms
the sensor.

4/27/2021 6
 3.2 Deflection Bridge
• Initially all impedances values of the deflection
bridge are adjusted in such a way that the
measured voltage at the detector is zero (Vab=0).
• At Vab=0, the bridge is called at balanced condition
or null condition which is used a reference point.
• When the impedance comprising the sensor
under goes variation, then the terminal voltage
varies accordingly (Vab≠0), and the bridge is called
at off balance or imbalance.
• The operation of the bridge lies in the two
states/conditions; balanced and unbalanced
condition.
4/27/2021 7
 3.2 Deflection Bridge

4/27/2021 8
 Types of Deflection Bridge
1. Based up on Energy source;
 DC bridges( Kelvin double, Wheatstone) and,
 AC bridges (Wein, Schering , Maxwell and Owen)
2. Depending up on the impedances;
 Resistive
 Inductive
 Capacitive bridges
3. Depending on number of sensors on the bridge
arm:
Quarter
 Half and
Full Deflection Bridge
4/27/2021 9
 DC Bridges
1. Wheatstone bridge:
With a dc galvanometer used for measuring resistance
(ranging from 1 Ω to 1M Ω with accuracy of 0.02 percent).
2. Kelvin double bridge:
 Special difficulties can be encountered in the
measurement of very low and very high resistance or
resistance variations.
For low resistance the Kelvin double bridge which is a
modification of the Wheatstone bridge can reduce the
uncertainty introduced by the resistance of leads and
contacts.
It can measure from 1µΩ to 1Ω with accuracy of 0.1
percent.
4/27/2021 10
 AC Bridges
• Used to measure inductance and capacitances and
all ac bridge circuits are based on the Wheatstone
bridge.
• Are commonly used for;
 Shifting phase,
Providing feedback paths for oscillators and amplifiers,
Filtering out undesired signals, and
Measuring the frequency of audio signals.

4/27/2021 11
 AC Bridges
• The Wien Bridge: finds use in the
measurement of frequency in the audio
ranges, and capacitance measurement of 1nF
to 1ooµF with fault limits up to 0.1% can be
measured.
• The Schering Bridge is extensively used for
measuring the capacitance and power factor of
condensers such as cables or insulators up to
500kv.
• The Maxwell and Owen bridges are particularly
useful for measurements of inductances of
o.1mH to 10H.
4/27/2021 12
 Cont…
• Here bellow are ac bridges

4/27/2021 13
3.2.1 Design of Resistive Deflection Bridge

• The resistive deflection bridge usually is exited by

DC sources and depending up on the number of
sensors present on the bridge arm it is called as
quarter, half and full
• Deflection Bridge are very commonly used in
electrical instrumentation to convert a variation of
resistance into voltage

4/27/2021 14
 Quarter-bridge
• In this arrangement a single element of the bridge
changes resistance in response to the measured
variable

Half-bridge
• This arrangement, with a two element of the
bridge changing resistance in response to the
measured variable

4/27/2021 15
 Full-bridge
• This arrangement, with a four elements of the
bridge changing resistance in response to the
measured variable

4/27/2021 16
 Cont..
• Example: In the figure shown bellow find Rx so
that the bridge will be balanced

• If in Figure above if the ratio of R1 and R2 is

100, R1 =50 ohm and R3 =200ohm. What is
the value of Rx , R2 at balanced condition.
4/27/2021 17
 Cont..
• Example :A certain type of pressure transducer, designed
to measure pressures in the range 0–10bar, consists of a
diaphragm with a strain gauge cemented to it to detect
diaphragm deflections. The strain gauge has a nominal
resistance of 120 Ohm and forms one arm of a
Wheatstone bridge circuit, with the other three arms each
having a resistance of 120 Ohm . If, in order to limit heating
effects, the maximum permissible gauge current is 30 mA,
calculate the maximum permissible bridge excitation
voltage.
• If the sensitivity of the strain gauge is 338 and the
maximum bridge excitation voltage is used, calculate the
bridge output voltage when measuring a pressure of 10
bar.
4/27/2021 18
 Cont..
• Here the ckt is like

• Solution: R 1 = R 2 = R3 = 120 Ohm

Defining I1 to be the current flowing in path ADC of the
bridge, we can write
Vin=I1(Ru+R3)
• At balance, Ru = 120 and the maximum value allowable for
I1 is 0.03A. Hence, V i = 0.03(120 +120) = 7.2 V. Thus, the
maximum bridge excitation voltage allowable is 7.2 volts.
4/27/2021 19
 Cont..
• For a pressure of 10 bar applied, the resistance
change is 3.38 Ohm, that is, Ru is then equal to
123.38 Ohm
• Therefore V0 will be

4/27/2021 20
 Effect of lead wire resistance
• The distance between the strain gauge and the two
lead wires connecting it to the bridge circuit may be
substantial, and the wire resistance has a significant
impact on the operation of the circuit. As shown in
figure below the effects of lead wire resistance is
illustrated by addition of resistor connected series with
the strain gauge:

4/27/2021 21
 3.3 Amplifiers
• Since most of the electrical signals produced by
most sensors or transducers are low voltage or
power level, often it is necessary to amplify them
before they are used for further processing,
indication or recording.
• An Amplifier is an electronic device or group of
devices used to increase the size of a voltage or
current signal without changing the signals basic
characteristics.

4/27/2021 22
 Cont…
• Operational amplifiers (OPAMPs) are special
types of amplifiers which essential component of
both practical and precision instruments.
• Their characteristics make op-amp to find wide
application in instruments as signal conditioning
and signal conversion circuits such as ;
Instrumentation Amplifier(INA), filters,
oscillator, integrator,
differentiator, V/I,I/V,V/F,F/V,ADC,DAC

4/27/2021 23
 3.3.1. Operational amplifier (OPAMP)
• Opamp have two inputs indicated by – and + sign
which stands for inverting and non-inverting
inputs as shown figure bellow

An ideal OPAMP have characteristics of

• High input amplification: thus weak or poor
signal can be largely amplified
• High input impedance: thus current is not drawn
from the input
• Low output impedance: there is no voltage drop
at the output
4/27/2021 24
 Cont…
• The output voltage is given as
Vo=A(V2-V1)
• This ideal opamp has the same amplification (A)
for both inputs thus the ouput voltage is the
difference of the inputs meaning if there is a
common voltage (Vc) to both input terminals
then it will be cancelled How ever in practice
there is amplification called as common gain for
common voltages, thus the output is

4/27/2021 25
 Cont..
• The degree of deviation form the ideal opamp is
specified by common mode rejection ratio
(CMRR)

• The common voltage is not limited to steady

state or intentionally effect rather could be any
signal equally applied to both inputs paths such
as noise voltage pick

4/27/2021 26
 Common opamp circuit configurations
 Some of the most common circuit configuration where
Opamp is used to for suiting signal are;
• Voltage comparator
• Inverting amplifier
• Non inverting amplifier
• Summing amplifier
• Voltage follower
• Differential amplifier
• Integrating amplifier
• Differentiating amplifier
• Current to voltage converter
• Voltage to current converter
• Voltage to frequency converter and Frequency to voltage
converter
4/27/2021 27
 [Link] comparator
• This is used for comparing input voltages

If v2>v1 the output voltage is positive

If v2<v1the output voltage is negative
If v2=v1, then the output voltage is zero
 Consider a sine wave is applied to v2 and v1 is zero, the
output will be high for the positive parts of the sine
wave, negative for the negative part and zero when
equal, thus the output becomes square wave

4/27/2021 28
 2. Inverting amplifier
• The out put is an inverted (opposite polarity)
form of the input voltage
• The negative voltage gain implies
that there is a 1800 phase shift
between both dc and sinusoidal
input and output signals.
• The gain magnitude can be
greater than 1 if R2 > R1
• The gain magnitude can be less
than 1 if R1 > R2
vs  isR  i R  vo  0 • The inverting input of the op amp
1 2 2
is at ground potential (although it
But is= i2 and v- = 0 (since vid= v+ - v-= 0) is not connected directly to
vs vo R ground) and is said to be at virtual
is  and Av    2
ground.
R v R
1 s 1

4/27/2021 29
 3. Non inverting amplifier
• Here the ckt is
R R
vo  vs 1 2
R
1
v o R1  R2 R
 Av    1 2
vs R R
1 1

• The input signal is applied to the non-inverting input

terminal.
• A portion of the output signal is fed back to the negative
input terminal.
• Analysis is done by relating the voltage at v1 to input
voltage vs and output voltage vo .
4/27/2021 30
 4. Summing amplifier
• The ckt is
Since i-=0, i3= i1 + i2,
R R
vo  3 v  3 v
R 1 R 2
1 2
• Scale factors for the 2 inputs can
 be independently adjusted by the
proper choice of R2 and R1.
• Any number of inputs can be
connected to a summing junction
through extra resistors.
• This circuit can be used as a
simple digital-to-analog converter.
This will be illustrated in more
detail, later.
4/27/2021 31
 5. Voltage follower
• The ckt is

• V0=Vs

• This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier, which is

also called a voltage follower, with infinite R1 and zero R2.
Hence Av = 1.
• The “ideal” buffer does not require any input current and can
drive any desired load resistance without loss of signal
voltage.
• Such a buffer is used in many sensor and data acquisition
system applications.

4/27/2021 32
 [Link] amplifier
• The ckt is Since v-= v+
R
vo   2 (v  v )
R 1 2
1
For R2= R1 vo  (v  v )
1 2
• This circuit is also called a
differential amplifier, since it
amplifies the difference
between the input signals.
v o  v-  i R  v-  i R • Rin2 is series combination of R1
2 2 1 2 and R2 because i+ is zero.
 
R R R  R
 v-  2 ( v  v- )   1
 2 v-  2 v • For v2=0, Rin1= R1, as the circuit


R 1 

R  R 1 reduces to an inverting
1  1  1
amplifier.
R
Also, v  2 v • For general case, i1 is a function

R R 2
of both v1 and v2.
1 2
4/27/2021 33
 8. Integrating amplifier
• THe ckt is

4/27/2021 34
 [Link] amplifier
• The ckt is

4/27/2021 35
 10. Current to voltage converter
• The ckt is

11. Voltage to current converter

4/27/2021 36
 3.3.2 Instrumentation Amplifier (INA)
• An instrumentation amplifier (INA) is specially
designed amplifier to have differential gain,
high input impedance, and high CMRR ratio.
Basically it is buffered a differential amplifier so
as to have high input impedance.

4/27/2021 37
 Cont..
• The output voltage can be easily found by
analyzing the circuit

4/27/2021 38
 Cont..
• The voltage difference is ggiven by

• The front end of the instrumentation amplifier

is a difference amplifier that can be analyzed by
superposition theorem i.e. the output is due to an
inverting amplifier and non-inverting amplifier.
4/27/2021 39
 Cont…
• The inverting amplifier produces

• The non-inverting amplifier produces

• The output is the sum of the outputs produced by

each input.

4/27/2021 40
 Cont..
• Cont..

• The INA is having additional buffer amplifiers to the

inputs so as to make Rin infinity at both V1 and V2
especially as compare to the front differential
amplifier.
• In practice these differential signals typically
emanate from sensors such as resistive bridges or
thermocouples.
4/27/2021 41
 Interfacing Circuits
 The signal processing takes the output of the signal
conditioning element and converts it in to a form more
suitable for presentation.
 The analog to digital converter (ADC) and digital to
analog converter (DAC) makes important part of
instruments as interfacing analog and digital electronic
equipment such as computer, data acquisition systems,
and data loggers.

4/27/2021 42
 Cont….
• The purpose of analog-to-digital converter or
ADC is to generate a train of pulses proportional
to the analog input.
• It electronically translates analog signals into
digital (binary) quantities.
• Digital-to-analog converter, or DAC, performs
the conversion of digital signal in to analog
electrical signal such as voltage output

4/27/2021 43
 Digital to Analog Conversion (DAC)
 There are two most commonly used type of DAC;
these are
a) R/2nR DAC/ binary-weighted-input DAC
b) R/2R ladder DAC
n
1. The R/ 2 R DAC/binary-weighted-input
DAC
 The R/ 2n R DAC circuit, otherwise known as the
binary-weighted-input DAC, is an inverting
summer op-amp circuit which have the input
resistor values set at multiple powers of two: R,
2R, and 4R…. 2n R and supplied by voltages V
4/27/2021 44
 Cont….
• The Ckt is

• The output voltage is given by

4/27/2021 45
 Cont..
• Here

4/27/2021 46
 Cont…
• Usually v0=v1=v2=…..vn , then for a n binary bit inputs
the analog output voltage is given

 Example: For a reference voltage of 5v and 3 bit binary

inputs the analog output voltages is summarized in table

4/27/2021 47
 2. The R/2R DAC (Ladder type DAC)
R/2R DAC uses fewer unique resistor values
which are R and 2R

4/27/2021 48
 Cont….
• Example: For a reference voltage of 5v and 3 bit
binary inputs the analog output voltages is
summarized in table

4/27/2021 49
 Analogue to digital conversion(ADC)
• The purpose of the ADC is clearly to generate a train of
pulses proportional to the analog input.
• Connecting digital circuitry to sensor devices is simple if
the sensor devices are inherently digital themselves.
• An ADC inputs an analog electrical signal such as
voltage or current and outputs a binary number.
• In block diagram form, it can be represented as:

4/27/2021 50
 Cont..
• There are so many types of ADC used for conversion
processes such as:
1. Flash or parallel ADC
2. Counter ADC
a. Digital ramp or stair step-ramp ADC
b. Successive approximation ADC
c. Tracking ADC
3. Slope integrating ADC
a. single slope integrating ADC
b. dual slope integrating ADC

4/27/2021 51
 Flash ADC
• The flash is also called the parallel ADC, basically
comprises of comparator and encoder

4/27/2021 52
 Cont..
• The operation is simple that analog input signal is
compared with a reference voltage by the comparator,
and the result is encoded by the encoder, which
produces digital outputs are attained.
• The flash ADC comprises of 2N-1 comparators for N bit
binary outputs.
• The reference voltage is divided in to stages of voltage
using voltage divider rule & the analog input voltage is
compared with voltages at each nodes and then compared
by the comparator,
 If the Vin exceeds the Vref at each comparator, the
comparator outputs will be high
 If the Vin is less than Vref at each comparator, the
comparator outputs will be low
4/27/2021 53
 Cont..
• This type of ADC is called a 'flash' converter because it
is the fastest available; the conversion delay can be less
than 20 ns. It is readily available in integrated circuit
• An 8-bit device, with 256 levels of output to define,
would require 255 comparators. It is this complexity
which makes the manufacturing costs and the size of
the device too large for higher bit output
Example :here is out put
For the Above 2-bit
ADC converter

4/27/2021 54
 Digital ramp ADC
• This is one type of counter ADC
• Also known as the stair step-ramp or simply counter ADC
comprises three basic elements theses are;
• Binary counter, a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), and
an analog comparator.
• The basic idea is to connect the output of a free-running
binary counter to the input of a DAC, then compare the
analog output of the DAC with the analog input signal to
be digitized and use the comparator's output to tell the
counter when to stop counting and reset
• As the counter counts up with each clock pulse, the DAC
outputs a slightly higher (more positive) voltage.
• This voltage is compared against the input voltage by the
comparator.
4/27/2021 55
 Cont..
• If the input voltage is greater than the DAC output, the
comparator's output will be high and the counter will continue
counting normally.
• If the input voltage is equal or lower than the DAC
output, the comparator's output will be low and the counter
will be reset and the latch will execute a binary output

4/27/2021 56
 Slope (integrating) ADC
• So far, a DAC is taken as part of ADC circuitry.
• However, this is not the only option.
• It is possible to avoid using a DAC and substitute it
with an analog ramping circuit (called as integrator)
and a digital counter with precise timing.
• This is the basic idea behind the so-called integrating
ADC.
• Instead of using a DAC with a ramped output, we can use
an op-amp circuit called as integrator to generate a saw
tooth waveform which is then compared against the
analog input by a comparator.
• The types slope integrating ADC are; single slope and
dual slope
4/27/2021 57
 Single-slope integrating ADC
• The single slope integrating ADC basically comprises
ramp integrator, comparator and a counter to convert
analog to digital signals.
• The ramp integrator generates saw tooth wave form
and the time it takes for the saw tooth waveform to
exceed the input signal voltage level is measured by
means of a digital counter clocked with a precise-
frequency square wave (usually from a crystal
oscillator).
• When the ramp signal is equal to the analog signal the
comparator output will be zero hence the latch output at
that event is the digital equivalent of analog signal.
4/27/2021 58
 Cont..
• The ckt is

• When the comparator output is low (input voltage greater

than integrator output), the integrator is allowed to charge the
capacitor in a linear fashion.
• Meanwhile, the counter is counting up at a rate fixed by the
precision clock frequency.
4/27/2021 59
 Cont…
• When the comparator output goes high i.e. the
capacitor reaches that voltage level, the counter's
output is feed into the shift register for a final
output. And the IGFET is triggered "on" by the
comparator's high output, discharging the
capacitor back to zero volts.
• Thus the integrator output voltage falls to zero,
the comparator output switches back to a low
state, clearing the counter and enabling the
integrator to ramp up voltage again.

4/27/2021 60