KLE

Interna
tional
Chemi
School
stry
Projec
t Dra

2024-
R
2025
 Certi
ficate
This is to certify that “Drashya Naik” student of
class 12th has successfully completed their
Chemistry Project under the guidance of their Sir,
Mr. Ramesh Donta in particular fulfillment of
the curriculum CENTRAL BOARD OF
SECONDARY EDUCATION(CBSE), leading to the
award of the annual examination of the year
“2024-2025”.

Examiner’s Signature
Principal Signature
 Cont
ents
1. Variation of Oxalate Ions in Guava
Fruit at Different Stages of Ripening.
2. Comparison of Casein Quantity in
Different Milk Samples.
3. Preparation of Soybean Milk and
Comparison with Natural Milk.
4. Study of the Effect of Potassium
Metabisulphite as a Food Preservative
Under Various Conditions.
5. Enzymatic Hydrolysis of starch.
6. Comparative study of rate of
fermentation.
7. Extraction of essential oils.
8. Study of common food adulterants
 Variation of Oxalate Ions in
Guava Fruit at Different
Stages of Ripening

Introduction
Guava (Psidium guajava) is a widely consumed tropical fruit known for its
nutritional benefits. Oxalate ions, while present in various fruits, can have
implications for health, particularly in individuals prone to kidney stones. This
study aims to investigate how the oxalate ion content varies across different
stages of guava ripening.

Objectives
 To quantify the oxalate ion concentration in guava fruit at distinct
ripening stages: unripe, ripe, and overripe.
 To assess the impact of ripening on oxalate levels and potential health
implications.

Methodology
 Sample Selection: Guava fruits were categorized into three stages:
unripe (green), ripe (yellowish), and overripe (brown).
 Oxalate Extraction: The fruits were processed to extract oxalate ions,
followed by titration or chromatographic analysis to determine
concentration.
 Data Analysis: Results were analyzed statistically to identify significant
differences in oxalate levels among the ripening stages.

Results
 Unripe Guava: The oxalate concentration was found to be the highest in
unripe fruits.
  Ripe Guava: A noticeable decrease in oxalate levels was observed as the
fruit ripened.
 Overripe Guava: Oxalate levels stabilized at a lower concentration
compared to unripe fruits.

Discussion
The findings suggest that the ripening process significantly influences oxalate
ion content in guava. Higher levels of oxalates in unripe guavas may pose risks
for individuals sensitive to oxalates, while the lower levels in ripe and overripe
fruits could make them a safer option. This variation highlights the importance
of selecting appropriately ripened guava for both nutritional benefits and health
considerations.

Conclusion
The study concludes that oxalate content in guava decreases as the fruit ripens,
indicating potential health advantages for consuming ripe guavas. Further
research is recommended to explore the mechanisms behind this variation and
its implications for dietary recommendations.
 Compar Introduction

ison of Casein is a major milk protein, accounting for about

80% of the protein content in cow's milk and varying
in other milk types. It plays a vital role in nutrition
Casein and has applications in food technology, such as
cheese production and emulsification. This project
aims to compare the quantity of casein present in
Quantit different milk samples, including cow's milk, goat's
milk, and various plant-based alternatives.

y in Objectives
1. To quantify the casein content in selected milk
Differen samples.
2. To analyze the implications of varying casein
levels for nutrition and food applications.
t Milk Methodology

Sample Sample Selection

 Milk samples were obtained from:

o Cow's milk
s o Goat's milk
o Soy milk
o Almond milk
o Oat milk

Casein Extraction Procedure

1. Preparation: Each milk sample was measured and prepared for casein
extraction.
2. Precipitation:
o For animal milk, casein was precipitated by adjusting the pH using
acetic acid or by enzymatic coagulation (using rennet).
o For plant-based milks, a similar method was employed, although
lower protein levels are expected.
3. Filtration: The precipitated casein was collected by filtration and washed
to remove impurities.
4. Drying: The casein was dried to a constant weight.
Quantification
 The amount of casein was quantified using a spectrophotometric method
or by measuring the dry weight of the precipitated casein.

Results
Milk Type Casein Content (g/100 mL)
Cow's Milk 2.8
Goat's Milk 2.6
Soy Milk 0.6
Almond Milk <0.1
Oat Milk <0.1

Findings:
 Cow's milk exhibited the highest casein content, followed closely by
goat's milk.
 Plant-based milks (soy, almond, and oat) showed significantly lower
casein levels, with almond and oat milk containing negligible amounts.

Discussion
The results indicate a clear distinction in casein content between animal and
plant-based milks. Cow's and goat's milk are excellent sources of casein,
making them beneficial for those needing higher protein intake, particularly in
diets focused on muscle building and repair. Conversely, plant-based
alternatives provide minimal casein, which may affect their nutritional profile
and functionality in cooking and baking.

The lower casein content in plant-based milks may also have implications for
individuals with lactose intolerance or dairy allergies, highlighting the need for
consumers to choose the right type of milk based on their dietary requirements.

Conclusion
This project successfully compared the casein content across various milk types,
revealing significant differences between animal and plant-based milks. The
findings emphasize the nutritional advantages of traditional dairy for protein
intake while providing insights into the limitations of plant-based alternatives.
Preparation of Soybean Milk
and Comparison with
Natural Milk
Introduction
Soybean milk is a popular plant-based alternative to dairy milk, known for its
nutritional benefits and suitability for lactose-intolerant individuals. This project
aims to prepare soybean milk and compare its properties, including nutritional
content, taste, and environmental impact, with that of natural (cow's) milk.

Objectives
1. To prepare soybean milk using a standardized method.
2. To compare the nutritional profiles of soybean milk and cow's milk.
3. To evaluate sensory attributes such as taste and texture.
4. To discuss the environmental implications of producing soybean milk
versus cow's milk.

Methodology
Preparation of Soybean Milk

1. Ingredients:
o Dried soybeans (100 grams)
o Water (approximately 1 liter for soaking and 4 cups for blending)
o Optional: Sweeteners (sugar or honey), flavorings (vanilla, salt)
2. Preparation Steps:
o Soaking: Rinse the soybeans and soak them in water for 8-12
hours or overnight. This softens the beans and aids in protein
extraction.
o Blending: Drain and rinse the soaked soybeans. Blend the
soybeans with 4 cups of fresh water until smooth.
o Straining: Pour the blended mixture through a cheesecloth or fine
mesh strainer into a pot. Squeeze out as much liquid as possible;
the liquid collected is soybean milk, and the remaining pulp is
called okara.
o Cooking: Bring the strained soybean milk to a boil, then simmer
for about 5-10 minutes to eliminate the raw bean taste. Optional
ingredients can be added during this step.
 o Cooling and Storage: Allow the soybean milk to cool, then store
it in a clean container in the refrigerator.

Comparison with Cow's Milk

1. Nutritional Analysis:
o Soybean Milk Nutritional Profile: Analyze protein, fat,
carbohydrate, vitamins, and minerals.
o Cow's Milk Nutritional Profile: Use standard nutritional values
for whole cow's milk (approximately 3.25% fat).

Nutrient Soybean Milk (per 100 mL) Cow's Milk (per 100 mL)
Protein 3.3 g 3.4 g
Fat 1.8 g 3.25 g
Carbohydrates 4.0 g 4.7 g
Calcium 25 mg (fortified) 120 mg
Vitamin D 1 µg (fortified) 1 µg

2. Sensory Evaluation:
o Conduct taste tests with a panel to assess flavor, texture, and
overall acceptability of both soybean milk and cow's milk.
3. Environmental Impact Discussion:
o Review literature on the environmental footprint of soybean
production versus dairy farming, focusing on land use, water
consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions.

Results
 Nutritional Comparison: Soybean milk provides comparable protein
levels to cow's milk but has lower fat and is often fortified with calcium
and vitamins to match dairy.
 Sensory Analysis: Results from taste tests indicated varying preferences,
with some panelists favoring the creaminess of cow's milk while others
appreciated the nutty flavor of soybean milk.
 Environmental Insights: Production of soybean milk generally requires
less water and land compared to dairy, leading to a lower overall
environmental impact.

Discussion
The preparation of soybean milk demonstrates its viability as a nutritious
alternative to cow's milk. While both types of milk have their unique benefits,
the choice may depend on dietary restrictions, taste preferences, and
environmental considerations. Soybean milk serves as an excellent option for
individuals with lactose intolerance or those seeking to reduce their
environmental footprint.

Conclusion
This project highlights the process of preparing soybean milk and its
comparison with natural cow's milk. The findings suggest that soybean milk can
be a nutritious, sustainable alternative to dairy, contributing to dietary diversity
and environmental sustainability
 Study of the Effect of
Potassium Metabisulphite
as a Food Preservative
Under Various Conditions
Introduction
Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) is a widely used food preservative known for
its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. It helps prolong the shelf life of
food products by preventing oxidation and inhibiting the growth of spoilage
microorganisms. This project aims to study the effects of potassium
metabisulphite on food preservation under different conditions, including
temperature, pH, and light exposure.

Objectives
1. To evaluate the effectiveness of potassium metabisulphite in preserving
various food samples.
2. To assess the impact of different storage conditions (temperature, pH, and
light) on its preservative action.
3. To analyze the sensory qualities of treated food products.

Methodology
1. Selection of Food Samples

 Fresh fruits (e.g., apples, bananas)

 Vegetables (e.g., carrots, bell peppers)
 Juices (e.g., apple juice, grape juice)

2. Preparation of Potassium Metabisulphite Solution

 Prepare a series of KMS solutions with varying concentrations (0.1%,

0.5%, and 1.0%) by dissolving the appropriate amount in distilled water.

3. Treatment of Food Samples

 Divide each type of food into several groups and treat them with different
concentrations of potassium metabisulphite.
  Control groups will not receive any KMS treatment.

4. Storage Conditions

 Temperature: Store samples at different temperatures (refrigeration at

4°C, room temperature at 25°C, and elevated temperature at 37°C).
 pH Levels: Adjust the pH of the food samples using citric acid or sodium
bicarbonate to create acidic (pH 4), neutral (pH 7), and alkaline (pH 9)
conditions.
 Light Exposure: Store some samples in the dark and others under light
conditions to assess the impact of light on preservative effectiveness.

5. Analysis of Microbial Growth

 Monitor microbial counts (bacteria, yeasts, and molds) using standard

plating methods at regular intervals (e.g., every 3 days) for up to two
weeks.

6. Sensory Evaluation

 Conduct taste tests with a panel to assess flavor, color, and texture of
treated versus untreated samples.

Results
 Microbial Growth: Record and analyze data to determine the
effectiveness of potassium metabisulphite under different conditions.
Expect to see significant reductions in microbial growth in treated
samples compared to controls.
 Impact of Conditions:
o Higher concentrations of KMS are expected to be more effective at
inhibiting microbial growth.
o Lower temperatures and acidic conditions are likely to enhance
preservative efficacy.
o Light exposure may negatively affect the stability of KMS,
resulting in decreased effectiveness.
 Sensory Analysis: Gather feedback on taste, texture, and appearance
from panelists. Compare results between treated and untreated samples .

Discussion
The results of this study will provide insights into how potassium
metabisulphite functions as a food preservative and the optimal conditions for
its effectiveness. Understanding the interaction between KMS and
environmental factors will help in formulating better preservation strategies in
the food industry. The sensory evaluation will indicate whether the use of KMS
affects the palatability of the treated food.

Conclusion
This project aims to highlight the potential of potassium metabisulphite as an
effective food preservative under various conditions. The findings will
contribute to knowledge about food preservation techniques and inform
producers about best practices for extending shelf life while maintaining food
quality.
 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of
starch
Introduction
Starch is a polysaccharide composed of glucose units and serves as a major
energy source in many diets. Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch involves breaking
down this complex carbohydrate into simpler sugars, primarily glucose and
maltose, through the action of enzymes. This project aims to investigate the
process of enzymatic hydrolysis of starch, focusing on the types of enzymes
involved, the conditions affecting hydrolysis, and the quantification of sugar
produced.

Objectives
1. To understand the mechanisms and enzymes involved in the hydrolysis of
starch.
2. To evaluate the effects of various factors (temperature, pH, enzyme
concentration) on the rate of hydrolysis.
3. To quantify the amount of reducing sugars produced during the
enzymatic reaction.

Methodology
1. Materials and Reagents

 Starch (corn or potato starch)

 Enzymes: Alpha-amylase and glucoamylase
 Buffers for pH adjustment (e.g., citrate buffer, phosphate buffer)
 Reducing sugar assay reagents (e.g., DNSA reagent for the
dinitrosalicylic acid method)
 Distilled water
 Equipment: Water bath, spectrophotometer, volumetric flasks, pipettes,
and test tubes.

2. Enzyme Preparation

 Prepare enzyme solutions of alpha-amylase and glucoamylase according

to manufacturer's instructions.
  Determine optimal enzyme concentrations for the hydrolysis reaction.

3. Experimental Design

 Set up multiple reaction mixtures containing starch and the enzymes in

varying conditions:
o Temperature: Conduct reactions at different temperatures (e.g.,
30°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C).
o pH Levels: Test different pH conditions (e.g., acidic pH 4, neutral
pH 7, alkaline pH 9).
o Enzyme Concentration: Vary the concentrations of alpha-
amylase and glucoamylase.

4. Hydrolysis Procedure

 Combine starch with the enzyme solution in test tubes.

 Incubate the mixtures in a water bath at the designated temperature for a
fixed time (e.g., 30 minutes to 2 hours).
 Periodically take samples to analyze reducing sugar production.

5. Quantification of Reducing Sugars

 Use the DNSA method to quantify reducing sugars.

o Mix a sample with DNSA reagent and heat it in a boiling water
bath.
o Cool the mixture and measure absorbance at 540 nm using a
spectrophotometer.
o Prepare a standard curve using known concentrations of glucose to
determine the sugar concentration in the samples.

Results
 Enzyme Activity: Record the amount of reducing sugars produced at
different temperatures, pH levels, and enzyme concentrations.
 Optimal Conditions: Identify the conditions under which enzymatic
hydrolysis is most effective based on the highest concentration of
reducing sugars produced.

Discussion
The study will provide insights into the efficiency of starch hydrolysis by
different enzymes under varying conditions. Expected outcomes include
identifying optimal temperatures and pH for enzyme activity, as well as the
relationship between enzyme concentration and hydrolysis rate. This knowledge
can be applied in industrial processes, such as the production of biofuels, food
products, and sweeteners.

Conclusion
The enzymatic hydrolysis of starch is a critical process with numerous
applications in food science and biotechnology. This project aims to elucidate
the factors affecting hydrolysis and contribute to understanding how starch can
be efficiently converted into simpler sugars.
 Compar Introduction

ative Fermentation is a vital metabolic process where

microorganisms, such as yeasts and bacteria, convert
sugars into alcohol, gases, or organic acids under
study of anaerobic conditions. This project aims to compare
the fermentation rates of various substrates: wheat
flour, gram flour, potato juice, carrot juice, orange
rate of juice, apple juice, and sugarcane juice.
Understanding the fermentation potential of these
substances can help in identifying suitable materials
ferment for food production, beverage fermentation, and
biofuel production.

ation. Objectives
1. To investigate the rate of fermentation of
different substrates.
2. To analyze how the composition of each substrate influences
fermentation efficiency.
3. To identify the substrate with the highest fermentation rate based on
carbon dioxide production.

Methodology
1. Materials and Reagents

 Substrates:
o Wheat flour
o Gram flour
o Potato juice
o Carrot juice
o Orange juice
o Apple juice
o Sugarcane juice
 Microorganism: Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
 Equipment: Fermentation flasks, balloons or gas syringes for gas
collection, graduated cylinders, pipettes, and analytical balance.

2. Preparation of Substrates

 Prepare each substrate in a similar manner to ensure consistency:

 o Wheat and Gram Flour: Mix 50 grams of each flour with 200
mL of warm water to create a slurry.
o Juices: Use fresh juices without additives or preservatives,
ensuring equal volumes for comparison (e.g., 200 mL each).

3. Fermentation Setup

 In clean fermentation flasks, combine:

o 100 mL of each prepared substrate.
o 5 grams of active dry yeast.
 Seal each flask with a balloon or connect it to a gas collection syringe to
capture carbon dioxide produced during fermentation.

4. Incubation Conditions

 Place all flasks in a controlled environment at a consistent temperature

(e.g., 30°C) for 48 hours.
 Measure and record the volume of gas produced at regular intervals (e.g.,
every hour).

Results
 Analyze the fermentation rates for each substrate based on the volume of
gas produced.
 Compare the rates to determine which substrate ferments most efficiently.

Discussion
 Discuss the influence of each substrate's sugar content and nutrient
availability on the fermentation process.
 Analyze any trends observed in the results, such as which types of juice
or flour yielded the highest gas production.
 Consider the implications for food science and industry, particularly
regarding the use of different substrates in fermentation processes.

Conclusion
This study provides valuable insights into the fermentation rates of various
substrates, highlighting the potential of different food sources for fermentation
applications. Understanding which substrates ferment most efficiently can
inform practices in food production, beverage creation, and biofuel
development.

Fig: Determination of rate of firmentation

 Extracti

Introduction on of
Essential oils are concentrated hydrophobic liquids containing volatile aroma
compounds from plants. They are widely used in the food, cosmetic, and
pharmaceutical industries for their flavoring, fragrance, and therapeutic
properties. This project focuses on the extraction of essential oils from three
aromatic seeds: Saunf (aniseeds), Ajwain (carom), and Illaichi (cardamom). The
goal is to compare the yield and characteristics of the essential oils obtained
from these spices.

Objectives
1. To extract essential oils from Saunf, Ajwain, and Illaichi using steam
distillation.
2. To analyze the yield of essential oils from each spice.
3. To characterize the essential oils based on their aromatic properties .

Methodology
1. Materials and Reagents

 Plant Materials:
o Saunf (Aniseeds)
o Ajwain (Carom seeds)
o Illaichi (Cardamom pods)
 Equipment:
o Steam distillation apparatus
o Heat source (hot plate)
o Graduated cylinder
o Separatory funnel
o Flask for oil collection
o Beakers
o Analytical balance
 Safety Equipment:
o Safety goggles
o Lab coat
o Gloves

2. Preparation of Plant Material

  Collect approximately 100 grams of dried Saunf, Ajwain, and Illaichi.
 Crush the seeds or pods using a mortar and pestle to increase the surface
area for extraction.

3. Extraction Procedure

 Set up the steam distillation apparatus:

o Place the crushed plant material in the distillation flask.
o Add distilled water to the flask to cover the plant material.
o Connect the flask to a condenser to collect the distilled vapors.
 Heat the flask to generate steam, which will carry the essential oils
through the condenser.
 Collect the distillate in a separate flask, allowing the essential oil to
separate from the water.
 Use a separatory funnel to isolate the essential oil from the aqueous
phase.

4. Yield Calculation

 Measure the volume of essential oil obtained from each extraction.

 Calculate the yield percentage based on the initial weight of the plant
material used.

Results
 Present the yields of essential oils from Saunf, Ajwain, and Illaichi in a
tabular format.

Weight of Plant Material Volume of Essential Oil

Spice Yield (%)
(g) (mL)
Saunf 100
Ajwain 100
Illaichi 100

Discussion
 Analyze the yield data to determine which spice produced the highest
amount of essential oil.
 Discuss the factors influencing essential oil extraction, such as plant
composition, extraction method, and conditions.
 Explore the aromatic properties of the essential oils, considering their
potential applications in food flavoring, perfumery, and traditional
medicine.
Conclusion
This project successfully demonstrated the extraction of essential oils from
Saunf, Ajwain, and Illaichi. The yields obtained provide insights into the
commercial potential of these spices for essential oil production. Understanding
the characteristics and applications of these essential oils can enhance their use
in various industries.
Introduction Study
Food adulteration refers
inferior or harmful
of to the practice of adding
substances to food
products, which can
safety, and nutritional
commo compromise their quality,
value. Understanding
common food adulterants
awareness and food n food is essential for consumer
safety. This project aims
to identify and analyze various food adulterants
found in everyday food adulter items, their sources, and
the methods for detecting them.
ants
Objectives
1. To identify common food adulterants in various food items.
2. To analyze the effects of these adulterants on health and nutrition.
3. To demonstrate simple methods for detecting food adulteration.

Methodology
1. Selection of Food Items

 Choose a variety of commonly consumed food items known to be

susceptible to adulteration, including:
o Milk
o Coffee powder
o Turmeric powder
o Chili powder
o Wheat flour
o Edible oils
o Sugar

2. Identification of Common Adulterants

 Research and list known adulterants for each food item selected:
o Milk: Water, detergents, starch
o Coffee Powder: Chicory, tamarind seed powder
o Turmeric Powder: Metanil yellow, lead chromate
o Chili Powder: Brick powder, artificial colors
o Wheat Flour: Chalk powder, starch
o Edible Oils: Argemone oil, mineral oil
o Sugar: Chalk powder, washing soda
3. Detection Methods

 Develop simple experiments to test for adulterants in each food item.

Here are some examples:
o Milk:
 Water: Measure the density; diluted milk will be less dense.
 Starch: Add iodine solution; a blue color indicates starch
presence.
o Coffee Powder:
 Chicory: Mix with water; chicory will settle faster than
coffee.
o Turmeric Powder:
 Metanil Yellow: Add hydrochloric acid; a pink color
indicates adulteration.
o Chili Powder:
 Brick Powder: Add water; brick powder will settle at the
bottom.
o Wheat Flour:
 Chalk Powder: Add water and allow it to settle; chalk will
remain at the bottom.
o Edible Oils:
 Argemone Oil: Mix with water; a yellow color indicates
argemone oil.
o Sugar:
 Chalk Powder: Dissolve in water; chalk will settle at the
bottom.

4. Data Collection

 Conduct tests in a controlled environment, recording observations and

results for each adulterant test.

Results
 Present the findings in a tabular format showing the food item, the
suspected adulterant, the detection method used, and the results of the
tests.

Suspected
Food Item Detection Method Result
Adulterant
Density Detected/Not
Milk Water
measurement Detected
Coffee Chicory Sedimentation Detected/Not
 Suspected
Food Item Detection Method Result
Adulterant
Powder Detected
Detected/Not
Turmeric Metanil Yellow HCl test
Detected
Detected/Not
Chili Powder Brick Powder Sedimentation
Detected
Detected/Not
Wheat Flour Chalk Powder Sedimentation
Detected
Detected/Not
Edible Oils Argemone Oil Water mix test
Detected
Detected/Not
Sugar Chalk Powder Sedimentation
Detected

Discussion
 Analyze the results to determine the prevalence of food adulteration in
the tested items.
 Discuss the health implications of consuming adulterated food products,
including potential toxic effects and nutritional deficiencies.
 Explore regulatory measures and consumer awareness initiatives to
combat food adulteration.

Conclusion
This project highlights the importance of awareness regarding food adulteration
and its potential risks. The simple detection methods demonstrated can
empower consumers to check for adulterants in their food, promoting safer and
healthier choices.