CELLULAR METABOLISM ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE)

within
E
It refers to the collective process that occur
living cells to accomplish different cellular
The human body constantly use energy to able
to function properly. This energy is in the form
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activities. Living cells require transfusions of

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of ATP. It is composed of adenine, sugar ribose,
energy from outside sources, such as food, to and a phosphate group. It serves as an energy
perform various tasks. The stored energy in the carrier in cells. However, it will only be available
organic molecules of food ultimately comes for the cells to perform their functions (e.g.
from the sun. In cellular metabolism, the protein synthesis) when the three-molecule
mitochondria in the cells of animals, plants, and phosphate is split from the ATP to produce
other organisms break down these organic
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adenosine diphosphate and inorganic
molecules, generating ATP and waste products phosphate.
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(e.g. CO₂, H2O, heat).
REDOX REACTIONS
CATALYSTS e
Transfer of electrons during chemical reactions
These are substances that facilitate chemical
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enable catabolic pathways to generate energy.
reactions. cannot make an energetically The relocation of electrons releases stored
impossible Reaction happen energy in organic molecules, which is used to
ENZYMES synthesize ATP. In many chemical reactions,
These are special, complex molecules that there is a transfer of one or more electrons from
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catalyze biochemical reactions. They are very one reactant to another, which is called Redox
important in the completion of the different (oxidation-reduction) reactions. Oxidation is
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metabolic pathway in cellular respiration. the loss of electrons (donate). Reduction is the
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Almost all enzymes are pure proteins, which addition of electrons to another substance
are made-up of amino acid chains. Moreover, (receive), as negative charge reduces the
they lower the activation energies of chemical amount of positive charge when added through
reactions inside the cell by binding to and an atom.
holding the reactant molecules to facilitate
- Oxygen as peactant
chemical bond-breaking and bond-forming
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AEROBIC RESPIRATION
processes. They also require participation of It is the most efficient catabolic pathway
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non-protein groups called Cofactors, which are because oxygen is consumed as a reactant

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very important in the different catabolic pathway along with the organic fuel. The word “aerobic”
(e.g. carbonic anhydrase, cytochromes, and is derived from the Greek aer meaning “air” and
troponin). Coenzymes, which are another bios meaning “life”. Aerobes are - organisms
class of cofactors, are organic and contain
groups &
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derived from vitamins (e.g. NAD

E
that use molecular oxygen as the final electron
acceptor.
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(Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide),

coenzyme A, and FAD (Flavin Adenine ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Dinucleotide). In addition, enzymes bind to a It is a&process that harvest chemical energy
substrate to form an enzyme-substrate without oxygen. Anaerobes are organisms that
complex, which leads to the formation of E
employ another molecule as the final electron
another molecule. Substrate are chemical acceptor.
reactants to which an enzyme bind. There may
be one or more substrates depending on the CELLULAR RESPIRATION
particular chemical reaction. In some reactions, It is the oxidation of fuel molecules to produce
a single reactant substrate is broken down into &
energy. Hans Krebs contributed to the
multiple products, while sometimes two understanding of this process. It has three key
substrates may come together to create one pathways: Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and
larger molecule. Enzymes active site is the Electron Transport Chain.
location where the substrate binds to an
enzyme. GLYCOLYSIS (SUGAR-SPLITTING)
It is an anaerobic process that splits glucose
(six-carbon sugar) into 2 three-carbon sugars

RAMOS, NIEL IVAN D. | ZOOL 1

and are oxidized to form 2 molecules of ENERGY INVESTMENT PHASE
pyruvate. It can be divided into two phases: STEP 6: There are two sequential reactions: (a)
energy investment phase and energy payoff the G3P is oxidized by the transfer of electrons
phase. The cells spend 2 ATP molecules NAD+, forming NADH; then (b) using the
during the energy investment phase. The used energy from this exergonic redox reaction, a
ATP will be repaid with interest during the end phosphate group is attached to the oxidized
of the energy payoff phase, where ATP is substrate, making a high energy product in the
produced by substrate level phosphorylation form of 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate. This is the
and NAD+ is reduced to NADH by electrons only step in glycolysis that produces NADH.
released from the oxidation of glucose. In STEP 7: Through the phosphoglycerokinase,
glycolysis, the net energy yield per glucose the phosphate group is transferred to ADP,
molecule is 2 ATP + 2 NADH. which is a substrate level phosphorylation.
Once the phosphate group is transferred from
GLYCOLYSIS the 1-3 bisphosphoglycerate to the ADP, it will
LOCATION REACTANTS PRODUCTS
Glucose
create 2 ATP again. The carbonyl group of the
2 pyruvate
2 ADP G3P has been oxidized to the carboxyl group of
Cytosol 2 NADH
2 pyruvate an organic acid, making two 3-
2 ATP
2 NAD+
phosphoglycerate.
ENERGY INVESTMENT PHASE STEP 8: Through phosphoglyceromutase, an
STEP 1: It all starts with the glucose. An enzyme that relocates the remaining phosphate
enzyme called hexokinase transfers a group, it translocated the attached phosphate in
phosphate group from ATP to glucose, making the third carbon to the second carbon, making
it more chemically reactive. The cell uses 1 ATP a 2-phosphoglycerate.
in this step. From glucose through the STEP 9: The enolase causes a double bond to
hexokinase, it will attach a phosphate to the form in the substrate by extracting a water
glucose, making it glucose 6-phosphate. molecule, yielding phosphoenolpyruvate
STEP 2: The phosphoglucoisomerase (PGI) (PEP), which is a compound with a very high
converts the glucose 6-phosphate into one of its potential energy.
isomers, which is fructose six-phosphate. STEP 10: Through pyruvate kinase, the
Isomerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the phosphate group is transferred from PEP to
conversion of a molecule into one of its isomers. ADP, which will create 2 ATP, making a total of
STEP 3: From fructose 6-phosphate through 4 ATP. This process is a second example of
phosphofructokinase, it will transfer a substrate level phosphorylation, which will now
phosphate group from an ATP to the opposite form pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis.
end of the sugar, investing a second molecule There will be only 2 net ATP at the end of this
of ATP. The fructose 6-phosphate, with the phase, as the spent ATP from the energy
addition of phosphate group, will now become investment phase will be paid.
the fructose 1,6-biphosphate. This is a key
step for regulation of glycolysis. 1 molecule of glucose generates:
- 2 G3P
STEP 4: Through aldelase, the fructose 1,6-
- 2 NADH
bisphosphate, particularly the sugar molecule, - 2 net ATP
will be cleaved or splitted into two different 3- - 2 molecules of water
carbon sugars: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate - 2 molecules of pyruvate
(G3P) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate
(DHAP). OXIDATION OF PYRUVATE TO ACETYL-
STEP 5: the DHAP will undergo isomerization COA
or the arrangement of atoms to convert it into The 3-carbon molecule pyruvate has to be
G3P, which will be used in the next step as converted first to acetyl coenzyme a before
soon as it forms. undergoing the next stage. The acetyl CoA or
the acetyl group has 2 carbons; the third carbon
is released as carbon dioxide. The function of
CoA is to activate a metabolite for a particular

RAMOS, NIEL IVAN D. | ZOOL 1

molecule; any metabolites attached to STEP 4 - SECOND OXIDATION: It is very
coenzyme a is activated, which is the acetyl similar to the third step; the 5-carbon alpha-
group in this case. This reaction of pyruvate to ketoglutarate is converted into 3-carbon
acetyl CoA is coupled to the reduction of NAD+ succinyl CoA. The succinyl group is attached to
to NADH. A complex of several enzymes called another coenzyme A.
pyruvate dehydrogenase process the STEP 5 - HYDROLYSIS: The succinyl CoA is
pyruvate when it enters the mitochondrion converted to Succinate. This is the only step
through a transport protein. The acetyl CoA is that is coupled to the phosphorylation of GDP
primarily involved in the citric acid cycle. to form GTP. This is important because GTP is
used in the phosphorylation of ADP to produce
3 THINGS TO REMEMBER IN PYRUVATE ATP. It is the only step in Krebs cycle that
OXIDATION produces ATP.
1. The carbon dioxide molecule will STEP 6 – THIRD OXIDATION: The succinate
diffuse out of the cell. This is the first is converted to Fumarate. This is the only
step in which carbon dioxide is oxidation step in the Krebs cycle that produces
released during respiration. FADH2 (flavin adenine dinucleotide).
2. NADH will be used in oxidative STEP 7 – HYDRATION: The fumarate is
phosphorylation that will occur in the converted to Malate. The addition of a water
mitochondria. molecule in this step rearranges the bonds in
3. The acetyl group of acetyl CoA will the substrate.
enter the citric acid cycle or the Krebs STEP 8 - FOURTH OXIDATION: The malate is
cycle. converted back to oxaloacetate to repeat the
process. This oxaloacetate will be used to
KREBS CYCLE (CITRIC ACID CYCLE) repeat the cycle as it will combine again with
Also called the tricarboxylic acid cycle, it is another molecule of acetyl CoA for another
named after Sir Hans Krebs who is credited for round of the Krebs cycle.
the Krebs cycle and won a Nobel Prize in
Medicine and Physiology in 1953 for his The pyruvate from glycolysis will produce 2
discovery. This cycle is considered as the acetyl CoA, each of which will enter the
central metabolic pathway and it is also an Krebs cycle. Hence, there will be two cycles
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for each acetyl CoA.
aerobic process. All the nutrients in this cycle
are completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and 1 molecule of acetyl CoA generates:
water. Moreover, the electron carriers FAD+ - 2 carbon dioxide (step 3, 4)
(flavin adenine dinucleotide) and NAD+ - 3 NADH (step 3, 4, 8)
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) are - 1 FADH2 (step 6)
involved here. There are a total of 8 - 1 GTP (step 5)
reactions/steps in this cycle:
The NADH and FADH2 will proceed to the
next stage to produce more ATP.
STEP 1 - CONDENSATION REACTION: The
2-carbon acetyl group from Acetyl CoA will ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC)
combine with the 4-carbon oxaloacetate to It is made up of membrane-bound, electron
produce a total of 6-carbon, forming the citrate transport complexes. It is an- elaborate chain
ions. where the transfer of hydrogen ions and
STEP 2 - ISOMERIZATION: The citrate ions
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electrons from NADH and FADH2 to the final

are converted to isocitrate, by removing and -
electron acceptor (molecular oxygen) is
then adding one water molecule.
STEP 3 - FIRST OXIDATION: The 6-carbon &
accomplished. It occurs in the inner membrane
of mitochondria.
isocitrate is oxidized to produce 5-carbon -

alpha-ketogluarate. The 6th carbon is STEP 1: The carrier molecules I to IV accept

released as carbon dioxide (byproduct). This and release electrons. The NADH will give its
oxidation is also coupled to the reduction of electrons to complex I; these electrons will
NAD+ to the NADH. proceed to complex III then to complex IV, while

RAMOS, NIEL IVAN D. | ZOOL 1

the complex II is bypassed. Both complex I and
II are entry points, thus, they will give the FERMENTATION
electrons they received to coenzyme Q. The The pyruvate from glycolysis will undergo
FADH2 will give its electrons to complex II, then fermentation if there is no available oxygen. It
it will proceed to complex III and IV. is a way of harvesting chemical energy - without
STEP 2: Protons are pumped out into the using either oxygen or any electron transport
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intermembrane space via complex I, III, and IV , chain. There are types of fermentation:
creating the proton gradient or H+ gradient 1. LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION: The
which is very important in ATP synthesis. pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH
Complex II is not involved in the pumping of to form lactate as an end product.
protons. As the electrons pass from one carrier Lactate is the ionized form of lactic acid.
molecule to another, free energy is released Moreover, lactic acid fermentation by
and is used to transport an H+ ions, creating the certain fungi and bacteria is utilized in
proton gradient. The intermembrane space the dairy industry (e.g. cheese and
contains more hydrogen ions than the yogurt production). Conversely, the
mitochondrial matrix; this is crucial in the ATP complex series of fermentation and
synthesis. aerobic respiration pathways carried
STEP 3: The H+ gradient will drive or start the out by yeasts and bacteria on cacao
ATP synthesis. This is called the beans is responsible for the production
chemiosmotic coupling or chemiosmosis. of chocolate. If oxygen is present, the
STEP 4: Chemiosmosis states that as electrons lactic acid fermentation is reversible. It
are carried down by the electron transport chain can also cause muscle fatigue if
from complex I to IV, they activate the proton oxygen is absent.
transporting molecules that move protons 2. ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION: This
outward and into the space between the happens when the pyruvate is
mitochondrial membranes. converted to ethanol or ethyl alcohol.
STEP 5: The H+ gradient rise, producing a Many bacteria carry out alcohol
diffusion gradient that drive back protons to the fermentation under anaerobic
mitochondrial matrix through an enzyme called conditions. Yeast, which is a fungus, in
ATP synthase, which facilitates ATP addition to its ability to conduct aerobic
production in the mitochondria. It is the smallest respiration, also carries out this type of
molecular rotary motor known in nature. fermentation. For thousands of years,
STEP 6: ATP synthase pumps H+ ions back humans have used yeast in brewing,
into the mitochondrial matrix to convert ADP wine making, and baking.
and inorganic phosphate to ATP.
STEP 7: ATP synthase uses the energy of an
existing ion gradient to power ATP synthesis. CELL DIVISION
The power source for ATP synthesis is the
difference in the concentration of H+ ions on the DEFINITION TYPE
SOMATIC SEX
opposite sides of the inner mitochondrial CELLS CELLS
It involves
membrane. Alongside with electron transport

X
meiosis or
It is formed by
chain comprised the oxidative
=

It provides the basis for one the

mitosis and
form of growth = production of
phosphorylation which is the method of involved in
germ cells
asexual
through
energy capture from electron carriers such as reproduction
sexual
NADH and FADH2 . reproduction

1 molecule of glucose can generate a Cells in the most general sense have a definite
maximum of 28 ATP produced by oxidative life cycle. It begins when cells are born followed
phosphorylation plus the 4 ATP from by the interphase. As it matures, it undergoes
substrate-level phosphorylation, making a cell division. Somatic cells will generally

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total of 32 ATP. undergo mitosis, while sex cells undergo
meiosis.

RAMOS, NIEL IVAN D. | ZOOL 1

 INTERPHASE
STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOMES The cell spends most of its time in this phase. It
has three phases that serves as important
checkpoints before a cell undergo mitosis.
1. G1 PHASE (FIRST GAP PHASE)
• involves the cell growth and
the preparation for DNA
synthesis
2. S PHASE (SYNTHESIS PHASE)
• a copy of the genome is
synthesized
3. G2 PHASE (SECOND GAP PHASE)
a. CHROMOSOME: These are organized
• prepares the cell for mitosis
linear bodies of chromatin, which is
- There is actually another phase called the G0
loosely organized, when not dividing.
PHASE, which is the non-dividing state of the
Humans haveO 46 chromosomes.
cell. Cells that are not dividing is in this specific
b. CENTROMERE: The position for
phase (e.g. mature nerve and muscle cells).
constriction between chromosomes.
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c. KINETOCHORE: It is located in the

CELL DIVISION
G
location of the centromere; a disk of
proteins that bind with microtubules of
STAGE DESCRIPTION
the spindle fibers especially during cell Division of nuclear
I .

Mitosis -

division. chromosomes
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2 Cytokinesis Division of cytoplasm

d. SISTER CHROMATIDS: two identical
.

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copies of each chromosome.
MITOSIS (M PHASE)
1. PROPHASE
CELL CYCLE
• Replication of centromeres
It is the life cycle of a cell from the time it is
• Disintegration of nuclear
formed until it is capable to divide and make
envelope
new cells. It is an ordered sequence of events
- • Formation of spindle fibers
in the life of the cell.
• Condensation of chromatin
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into chromosomes
2. METAPHASE
• Movement of sister chromatids
to the middle of nuclear region
called metaphase plate
3. ANAPHASE
• Separation of two sister
chromatids to become two
independent chromosomes
• Movement of chromosomes to
opposite poles
• Shortest phase
4. TELOPHASE
• Arrival of chromosomes on
their respective poles
• Breakdown of spindle fibers
begins to disappear
• Formation of nuclear
membrane around the two
daughter nuclei

RAMOS, NIEL IVAN D. | ZOOL 1

 MEIOSIS I
1. PROPHASE I
• centrosome movement
• spindle fibers formation
• nuclear envelope breakdown
• chromosomes progressively
condense
Mitosis usually last for less than 10% of the • homologous chromosomes
overall time of the cell cycle, lasting for 10 to line up side by side in a
30 hours. process called synapsis,
forming a tetrad of chromatids
CYTOKINESIS
or bivalents
A cleavage furrow appears on the surface of
• each homologous pair has one
the dividing cell. This cleavage furrow deepens
or more egg-shaped regions
and then pinches the plasma membrane,
called the chiasmata where
dividing the cell into two daughter cells.
crossovers occur
• crossing over is the exchange
MEIOSIS
of genetic information between
It is a type of cell division that involves the sex
homologous chromosomes
cells in producing another sex cells orG
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gametes
(egg and sperm). It produces cells with half the
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chromosomes (haploid) of the parent cell. In

humans, the haploid =
cells (n) are O 23
chromosomes, while the diploid (2n) areO 46
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chromosomes. Meiosis occurs only in

specialized cells, such as those from testes and
ovaries. A diploid cell with two sets of
homologous chromosomes will divide, giving 2. METAPHASE I
rise to haploid daughter cells with one set of
• pairs of homologous
chromosomes. It has two stages:
chromosomes are arranged at
1. MEIOSIS I – separate the two versions
the metaphase plate, with one
of chromosomes
chromosome of each pair
2. MEIOSIS II – separate the sister
facing each pole
chromatids; it is the same with mitosis
• each pair are lined up
independently of other pairs,
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
an arrangement called
independent assortment
3. ANAPHASE I
• the homologous chromosomes
move toward the opposite
poles, guided by the spindle
apparatus
4. TELOPHASE I
• each half of the cell has a
complete haploid set of
Also known as homologues, these are two duplicated chromosomes
chromosomes of a pair that have the same 5. CYTOKINESIS
length, centromere position, staining pattern.
• usually occurs simultaneously
with Telophase I, forming 2
haploid daughter cells
• a cleavage furrow forms

RAMOS, NIEL IVAN D. | ZOOL 1

 There is no chromosome duplication that
occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II;
there are only haploid daughter cells, not
diploid.

MEIOSIS II
1. PROPHASE II
• reformation of spindle
apparatus
2. METAPHASE II
• chromosomes are positioned
at the metaphase plate
• the sister chromatids of each
chromosome are not identical
because of crossing over that
occurred from prophase I
• the kinetochore of sister
chromatids are attached to the
microtubules, extending from
the opposite poles
3. ANAPHASE II
• the breakdown of proteins, holding
the sister chromatids together at
the centromere, allows the
chromatids to separate and move
toward opposite poles
• each chromatid, since they are
now separated, has now become
an individual chromosome
4. TELOPHASE II
• formation of nuclei
• chromosomes begin to
decondense
• cytokinesis occurs (overlaps)

The miotic division of one parent cell produces

4 daughter cells, each with a haploid set of
unduplicated chromosomes. These daughter
cells are genetically distinct from one another
and the parent cell.

RAMOS, NIEL IVAN D. | ZOOL 1