Bio 048

Botany
CHAPTER 4

CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION

The Structure of the Plant Cell

A cell is composed of the following parts:

1. The cell wall – a relatively rigid, presumably non-living, a chemically complicated substance
secreted by the rest of the protoplast.

2. Protoplast – also called Protoplasm. It is the living portion of the cell which is completely
surrounded by a selectively permeably membrane. It includes cytoplasm and nucleus.

The Cell Wall

Many plant cells have walls that are strong enough to withstand the osmotic pressure from the
difference in solute concentration between the cell interior and distilled water. Plant cell walls vary from
1/10 to several µm thick.

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Layers

Up to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell walls:

● The middle lamella, a layer rich in pectin. This outermost layer forms the interface between
adjacent plant cells and glues them together.

● The primary cell wall, generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is
growing.

● The secondary cell wall, a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is fully
grown. It is not found in all cell types. Some cells, such as the conducting cells in xylem, possess
a secondary wall containing lignin, which strengthens and waterproofs the wall.

Composition

In the primary (growing) plant cell wall, the major carbohydrates are cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
The cellulose microfibrils are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose
network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell
wall is xyloglucan. In grass cell walls, xyloglucan and pectin are reduced in abundance and partially
replaced by glucuronoarabinoxylan, a hemicellulose. Primary cell walls characteristically extend (grow)
by a mechanism called acid growth, which involves turgor-driven movement of the strong cellulose
microfibrils within the weaker hemicellulose/pectin matrix, catalyzed by expansin proteins. The outer
part of the primary cell wall of the plant epidermis is usually impregnated with cutin and wax, forming a
permeability barrier known as the plant cuticle.

Secondary cell walls contain a wide range of additional compounds that modify their mechanical
properties and permeability. The major polymers that make up wood (largely secondary cell walls)
include:

● cellulose, 35-50%

● xylan, 20-35%, a type of hemicellulose

● lignin, 10-25%, a complex phenolic polymer that penetrates the spaces in the cell wall between
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin components, driving out water and strengthening the wall.

Additionally, structural proteins (1-5%) are found in most plant cell walls; they are classified as
hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP), arabinogalactan proteins (AGP), glycine-rich proteins (GRPs),
and proline-rich proteins (PRPs). Each class of glycoprotein is defined by a characteristic, highly
repetitive protein sequence. Most are glycosylated, contain hydroxyproline (Hyp) and become cross-

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linked in the cell wall. These proteins are often concentrated in specialized cells and in cell corners. Cell
walls of the epidermis and endodermis may also contain suberin or cutin, two polyester-like polymers
that protect the cell from herbivores. The relative composition of carbohydrates, secondary compounds
and protein varies between plants and between the cell type and age.

Plant cells wall also contain numerous enzymes, such as hydrolases, esterases, peroxidases, and
transglycosylases, that cut, trim and cross-link wall polymers.

The walls of cork cells in the bark of trees are impregnated with suberin, and suberin also forms the
permeability barrier in primary roots known as the Casparian strip. Secondary walls - especially in
grasses - may also contain microscopic silica crystals, which may strengthen the wall and protect it from
herbivores.

Cell walls in some plant tissues also function as storage depots for carbohydrates that can be broken
down and resorbed to supply the metabolic and growth needs of the plant. For example, endosperm cell
walls in the seeds of cereal grasses, nasturtium, and other species, are rich in glucans and other
polysaccharides that are readily digested by enzymes during seed germination to form simple sugars
that nourish the growing embryo. Cellulose microfibrils are not readily digested by plants, however.

Formation

The middle lamella is laid down first, formed from the cell plate during cytokinesis, and the primary cell
wall is then deposited inside the middle lamella. The actual structure of the cell wall is not clearly
defined and several models exist - the covalently linked cross model, the tether model, the diffuse layer
model and the stratified layer model. However, the primary cell wall, can be defined as composed of
cellulose microfibrils aligned at all angles. Microfibrils are held together by hydrogen bonds to provide a
high tensile strength. The cells are held together and share the gelatinous membrane called the middle
lamella, which contains magnesium and calcium pectates (salts of pectic acid). Cells interact though
plasmodesma(ta), which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of
adjacent cells across the cell wall.

In some plants and cell types, after a maximum size or point in development has been reached, a
secondary wall is constructed between the plasma membrane and primary wall. Unlike the primary wall,
the microfibrils are aligned mostly in the same direction, and with each additional layer the orientation
changes slightly. Cells with secondary cell walls are rigid. Cell to cell communication is possible through
pits in the secondary cell wall that allow plasmodesma to connect cells through the secondary cell walls.

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The Protoplasm

Protoplasm is the living contents of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane. It is a general term
for the cytoplasm. Protoplasm is composed of a mixture of small molecules such as ions, amino acids,
monosaccharides and water, and macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and
polysaccharides. In eukaryotes the protoplasm surrounding the cell nucleus is known as the cytoplasm
and that inside the nucleus as the nucleoplasm. In prokaryotes the material inside the plasma
membrane is the bacterial cytoplasm, while in Gram-negative bacteria the region outside the plasma
membrane but inside the outer membrane is the periplasm.

The word "protoplasm" comes from the Greek protos for first, and plasma for thing formed. It was first
used in 1846 by Hugo von Mohl to describe the "tough, slimy, granular, semi-fluid" substance within
plant cells, to distinguish this from the cell wall, cell nucleus and the cell sap within the vacuole. Thomas
Huxley later referred to it as the "physical basis of life" and considered that the property of life resulted
from the distribution of molecules within this substance. Its composition, however, was mysterious and
there was much controversy over what sort of substance it was. Attempts to investigate the origin of life
through the creation of synthetic "protoplasm" in the laboratory were not successful, yet.

The idea that protoplasm of eukaryotes is divisible into a ground substance called "cytoplasm" and a
structural body called the cell nucleus reflects the more primitive knowledge of cell structure that
preceded the development of electron microscopy, when it seemed that cytoplasm was a homogeneous
fluid and the existence of most sub-cellular compartments, or how cells maintain their shape, was
unknown. Today, it is known that the cell contents are structurally very complex and contain multiple
organelles.

Protoplasm can exist in two forms: a liquid-like sol state or a jelly-like gel state. Whether protoplasm is
in the sol or the gel state depends on the physiological state of the cell.

Parts of the Protoplasm

Cell Organelle Information - You will need to know both the structure and function of the organelles in a
cell. Make sure you know the difference in organelles found in plant and animal cells.

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Nucleus

1. Function

The nucleus is the control center of a cell as such it is the most important part of the cell. The control
arises from the genetic information stored in the nucleus. Genes are made of the nucleic acid DNA.
Hundreds of genes are linked together into enormous molecules called chromosomes (chromatin).
Genes can be switched on or off and are indirectly responsible for making proteins which do the work of
the cell.

2. Structure

The nucleus is a large roundish organelle. It is bounded by a double membrane which has numerous
pores. Inside the nucleus are chromosomes and a dark region called a nucleolus which makes
ribosomes. (Ribosomes are necessary for protein synthesis.)

Plasma Membrane

1. Function

The plasma membrane is also a vital component of cellular control. Its responsibility is to restrict what
can enter or leave the cell. This process is called homeostasis.

2. Structure

The plasma membrane is made up of a bilayer of phospholipids. Many specialized proteins are found
floating in the bilayer and are necessary for homeostasis. Because the lipid bilayer is fluid numerous
pores or openings are created as the phospholipids swirl about. This makes the membrane selectively
permeable to small molecules. Large molecules rarely make it through these pores.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

1. Function

This folded membrane forms sacs to store proteins or other substances. It creates a vast surface area
where the manufacture of proteins and new membranes can take place.

2. Structure

Endoplasmic reticulum is a folded mass of membranes made of the same phospholipids found in the
plasma membrane. There are two types of ER smooth (without ribosomes) and rough (with ribosomes)

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Ribosomes

1. Function

Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis

2. Structure

Cells normally have millions of ribosomes; each ribosome has two parts which come together during
protein synthesis. A ribosome is made of numerous proteins and RNA.

Golgi Complex

1. Function

The Golgi complex takes proteins made by the endoplasmic reticulum and exports them out of the cell
as needed. It is able to keep dangerous proteins from damaging the cell which made them. It is like a
packaging department ready to deliver the protein products made in the cell.

2. Structure

The Golgi complex looks like a stack of pancakes made of membranes with smaller vacuoles or vesicles
on either side of the main structure.

Lysosome

1. Function

Lysosomes are only needed by animal cells. They help break down and remove old worn-out cell parts.
They are also involved in the digestion of food particles brought into the cell through infoldings in the
plasma membrane

2. Structure

A membrane bound sac lysosomes are a small vacuoles or vesicles in the cytoplasm filled with digestive
enzymes. They bud off from the Golgi complex and fuse with food vacuoles

Vacuole

1. Function

Vacuoles are generally used to store cell products or protect the rest of the cell from invading
microorganisms. The large central vacuole of plant cells is a special case. It is used to store water and
cellular wastes and helps maintain the necessary internal pressure of plants called turgor pressure.

2. Structure

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Vacuoles are membrane bound sacs with little or no internal structure.

Mitochondria

1. Function

Mitochondria found in both plants and animals are called the power houses of the cell. They convert the
energy in the bonds of glucose and oxygen to readily available energy in the form of ATP. This process is
called aerobic respiration.

2. Structure

Mitochondria are oval, sometimes branching organelles which have a double membrane. The pair of
membranes create two compartments one of which is used to store hydrogen ions. This gives
mitochondria an electrical potential like a miniature battery. The inner membrane of mitochondria is
highly folded. The rod-like folds are called a cristae.

Chloroplast

1. Function

Chloroplasts are large organelles found in plants cells which are responsible for photosynthesis. Plants
use photosynthesis to convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose. Chloroplasts are green because of
the pigment chlorophyll. Plants can store other pigments in organelles similar to chloroplasts. Tomatoes
have plastids which store a red pigment.

2. Structure

Chloroplasts are a double membrane organelle. Like mitochondria two compartments are formed one of
which stores hydrogen ions. The inner membranes of chloroplasts are called thylakoids. The thylakoids
often form coin-like stacks called grana.

Cytoskeleton

1. Function

The cytoskeleton provides support and movement for a cell and its organelles. Organelles can be from
place to place in a cell by attaching to microtubule track ways. The various shapes of cells are controlled
by the cytoskeleton. Microtubules are involved in cell division.

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 2. Structure

The cytoskeleton is made of a network of protein fibers, filaments, and tubules. They attach to special
proteins on the interior surface of the plasma membrane forming a semisolid region called a gel.

Cilia and Flagella

1. Function

Cilia and flagella are used primarily by animal cells for movement. Flagella are larger single versions of
cilia. Cilia are short but numerous compared to flagella.

2. Structure

Each cilia (or flagella) is a circular series of 9 pairs of microtubules (often containing an additional central
pair of tubules) surrounded by a long slender sheath of plasma membrane.

Plastids

1. Function

Plastids are sites for photosynthesis

2. Structure, with stacks of grana inside, enclosed in thylakoid membrane.

Non-living inclusions-are products of metabolic processes serving as reserved or storage form of water.

Several Inclusions are the following:

1. Fat droplets

2. Protein bodies

3. Starch grains

4. Secretory granules

5. Crystals

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Chemical Components of the Protoplasm

Protoplasm is the living material that is found in cell. Its grainy substance that was found in plant cells.
Protoplasm which makes up the fluid portion of the cell consists of the cell cytoplasm and its nucleus. It
is mainly composed of nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, inorganic salts, water and carbohydrates.

Inorganic Compounds include:

Inorganic Salts: Inorganic salts, which are compounds, composed of sodium, potassium, chloride and
calcium play vital roles in the cell. All of these compounds are essential to life and play an important role
in reactions which take place in the cell.

Organic Compounds include:

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA are the most important examples of nucleic acids. Both DNA and RNA
function in cells as a means of giving important instructions to the cell, as far as structure and function;
for example, functioning in cell growth and replication.

Types of RNA:

1. Ribosomal or rRNA- found in the cytoplasm in forms of small particles, the ribosomes. This is
called insoluble RNA

2. Messenger or mRNA- name is based from the belief that molecules of this take up genetic
information to the cytoplasm to be used in protein synthesis.

3. Transfer or tRNA- generally smaller than the molecules of the mRNA and rRNA. Found in the
cytoplasm and functions to bring specific amino acid to the ribosomes for synthesis of
proteins. The molecules are folded like a hairpin.

Proteins: Proteins which are made up of polymers of amino acids are found in the DNA molecule. In
addition to the role they play with DNA, proteins are involved in just about every other cell function.

A certain type of protein, known as an enzyme, works within the cell to speed up necessary cell
reactions, reactions which are crucial to cellular metabolism.

Lipids: Lipids are molecules which include sterols, fats, and some important vitamins. Lipids function in
energy storage and are found within cell membranes. Lipid’s function is cell signaling, a method of
communication between different parts of a cell.

Carbohydrates: A carbohydrate is an organic compound which is made up of carbon, oxygen and

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Carbohydrates function in cells in energy storage and structure; lending themselves often to shape,
lending their backbones to the structure of RNA. Carbohydrates also function in the process of
biosynthesis in cells, a process where more complex compounds are made from simpler ones.

Proteins, known as enzymes are often involved in the biosynthesis process. Examples of these more
complex compounds include such things as proteins and vitamins.

Nucleic Acids - A nucleic acid is a molecule that consists of a repeating chain of phosphates, 5-carbon
sugars, and nucleotides. There are two types of nucleic acids; they are DNA and RNA. The order of the
different nucleotides in a nucleic acid is where genetic information is stored. Nucleic acids are the most
important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry
instructions for the functioning of the cell.

The Physiological properties of the protoplasm:

1. Absorption and Secretion

2. Metabolism

3. Growth and Reproduction

4. Movement

5. Irritability

Cell Division

Cell division process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. Cell division is
usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis,
and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort of cell division in
prokaryotes is known as binary fission. In another type of cell division present only in eukaryotes, called
meiosis, a cell is permanently transformed into a gamete and may not divide again until fertilization.
Right before the parent cell splits, it undergoes DNA replication.

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Phases of cell cycle and mitosis

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Meiosis

Meiosis is a special type of cell division necessary for sexual reproduction in eukaryotes. The cells
produced by meiosis are gametes or spores. In many organisms, including all animals and land plants
(but not some other groups such as fungi), gametes are called sperm and egg cells.

Whilst the process of meiosis bears a number of similarities with the 'life-cycle' cell division process of
mitosis, it differs in two important respects:

● the chromosomes in meiosis undergo a recombination which shuffles the genes producing a
different genetic combination in each gamete, compared with the co-existence of each of the
two separate pairs of each chromosome (one received from each parent) in each cell which
results from mitosis.

● the outcome of meiosis is potentially four (genetically unique) haploid cells, compared with the
two (genetically identical) diploid cells produced from mitosis.

Meiosis begins with one diploid cell containing two copies of each chromosome—one from the
organism's mother and one from its father. The cell divides twice, potentially producing up to four
haploid cells containing one copy of each chromosome. ("Potentially" because in some cases, such as
the formation of oocytes in mammals, only one of the possible four haploid cells survives.) In animals
the haploid cell resulting from meiosis is a male or female gamete. Each of the resulting chromosomes in
the gamete cells is a unique mixture of maternal and paternal DNA, resulting in offspring that are
genetically distinct from either parent. This gives rise to genetic diversity in sexually reproducing
populations.

Characteristics of Meiosis

1. First division is reductional and the second is equational

2. Chromosomes synapses and form chiasmata, genetic exchange occurs between homologous
chromosomes.

3. Two division per cycle

4. Four daughter cells per cycle

5. Haploid

6. Cannot go further meiotic division but may undergo mitotic division

7. Occurs in zygote of some algae and fungi.

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