AFTE Journal--Volume 40 Number 1--Winter2008 3

Toolmark Reproducibility on Fired Bullets and Expended Cartridge Cases

By: Tsuneo Uchiyama, Identification Center, National Research Institute of Police Science – 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa,
Chiba 277-0882 Japan

Keywords: Breechface Mark, CMS, Consecutive Matching Striae Firing pin mark, Landmark, Reproducibility of
Mark

ABSTRACT

The reproducibility of landmarks, breechface marks and firing pin marks on one hundred successively fired bullets and car-
tridge cases was examined. Three types of Speer brand, one of Remington brand and one of DFA brand frangible cartridges
were fired in a semi-automatic pistol. Remarkable differences were observed in the general appearance of the landmarks,
breechface marks and firing pin marks which were impressed on the different brands of cartridges, even when consecu-
tively fired. Identification of the landmarks between bullets from different brands of cartridges was difficult because their
general appearance differed greatly. Difference in bullet diameters was found to be a major cause of changes in landmarks
among different manufacturer’s bullets. Although the depth and number of striations decreased gradually, reproducibility
of breechface marks on the primers of cartridges was rather good. The diameter of firing pin indentations also differed
among different brands of cartridges. Although the reproducibility of the diameter of circular lines on firing pin indenta-
tions was good, the detail in these circular lines fluctuated a great deal. Quantitative CMS was used as a means of critically
evaluating and communicating the extent of striated pattern agreement among the rifling impressions on the fired bullets
in this study.

Introduction whereas that of ejector and extractor marks was low [13-15].
Another study showed that remarkable change occurred on
The discipline of firearm and toolmark identification is breech face markings within three hundred rounds [16].
based on two empirical hypotheses. The first hypothesis is
the consistency/reproducibility of markings which originates The author was involved in the study of five thousand
from the same firearm or tool. The second hypothesis is the consecutively fired bullets and cartridge cases. The comparison
existence of differences between markings originating from microscope was the only tool used for examining how
two different firearms or tools [1-5]. However, in reality, toolmarks changed when that study was performed. Current
markings will change rather rapidly in the process of successive computer technology has provided new tools for examining
firing. On the other hand, markings from two different tools striation matching and we can retrieve similar markings from
or firearms of the same make and type are sometimes similar many candidates [17-19]. We can also use low cost digital
because of high quality control during the production process photography and we can easily retrieve those photos using
[6]. the computer. The author developed a digital image retrieval
system for firearm identification named the BIRI (Ballistic
Marking reproducibility is crucial to firearm and/or toolmark Image Retrieval and Identification) system [20]. We now have
identification. Identification criteria are essential when the ability to check a large number of photos quickly using
marking reproducibility is lower than usually expected [7- this technology.
12]. There have been some experiments in which marking
reproducibility was examined in the course of successive In preparation for the present study, the author examined marking
firing of ammunition from a firearm. The results of those reproducibility of these same five thousand consecutively
experiments indicated that consistent markings were found fired bullets and cartridge cases using digital photos. As
through several hundred or several thousands rounds. reported earlier, good reproducibility of these markings was
Reproducibility of prominent markings was good, however confirmed [21]. Fig.1 shows the marking reproducibility of
the life of some accidental minute markings was found to be landmark 4 throughout five thousand firings. Fig. 2 shows the
very short. The reproducibility of breech face marks was high, marking reproducibility of breechface marks throughout five
thousand expended cartridge cases. In this five thousand round
Date Received: January 29, 2007 experiment, ball ammunition manufactured under the same lot
Peer Review Completed: April 15, 2008 number was fired. In Japan, criminals often use mixed brand
 4 Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility

cartridges from different manufacturers in real shooting cases.

When multiple shots of mixed cartridges are fired from guns bullets were taken using a FUJI HC-2500 digital camera
having the same general rifling characteristics, it can be rather mounted on a LEICA DMC comparison macroscope with the
difficult to determine how many guns were used in a shooting magnification of the objective lens set to 20X. Bullets were
case. obliquely illuminated using a KL1500LCD light source. Each
landmark on the bullet of Gold Dot 115 grain, Gold Dot 124
In this present study, the author consecutively fired one hundred grain, Remington and Federal bullets were recorded by two
rounds comprised of several brands of ammunition. Markings photos. Each landmark on the Gold Dot 147 grain bullet and
on one hundred fired bullets and expended cartridge cases were the Frangible bullets was recorded with three photos. In total,
recorded using digital photos and marking reproducibility was 2,160 landmark photos were taken.
examined using the BIRI system. The extent of agreement was
critically evaluated and described using a quantitative CMS Digital photos of the heads of the expended cartridge cases
(consecutive matching striae) technique. were taken using a LEICA M420 macroscope under three
lighting conditions. They were vertically illuminated,
Materials and Methods obliquely illuminated from the top, and obliquely illuminated
from the left. The orientation of the cartridge cases in the
A Hi-Point brand, C9 model, 9 mm Luger caliber, semi- photomicrographs was the same as when they were loaded in
automatic pistol, serial number P222153 (Fig.3), was used the chamber of the pistol (headstamp upright). Photos of the
in this experiment. This pistol was imported from the United entire surface of each cartridge case head were taken using
States for this experiment. The general rifling characteristics the 0.5X adapter lens and 8X magnification of the objective
of this pistol were nine lands and grooves with a left hand zoom lens. Photos of markings on the primers were taken
twist. The width of the landmarks measured on frangible using 12.5X magnification of the objective zoom lens. Photos
bullets was 1.4 mm and the angle of twist was 4.7 degrees. of firing pin markings were taken using 20X magnification
of the objective zoom lens. In total, 900 photos of cartridge
In this experiment, five brands of ammunition were fired in case markings were taken. All the photos taken in this process
semi-automatic mode. Catalogued data of these five brands were viewed on the computer display using the BIRI system.
of ammunition is indicated in Table 1. Speer ammunition As the images can be sorted by various criteria, using BIRI,
was received packed in 20-round boxes and other brands of marking reproducibility can be evaluated easily.
ammunition were received packed in 50-round boxes. Four
Federal cartridges with 124 grain, full metal cased bullets Results
were also used.
General Characteristics of Landmarks
Five cartridges were loaded into a magazine in reverse sequence Great difference was observed in the shapes of landmarks
of firing, such as Gold Dot with a 147 grain bullet, Remington, among different brands and types of ammunition. BIRI is
Gold Dot with a 124 grain bullet, Frangible and Gold Dot with capable of displaying up to nine landmarks of a fired bullet
a 115 grain bullet. These five types of ammunition were then on the computer display in a tile mode. Landmarks 1, 2 and
fired in semi-automatic mode into a water recovery tank. As 3 are shown from left to right in the upper row, landmarks
the cartridge cases of the three brands of Gold Dot ammunition 4, 5 and 6 are shown from left to right in the middle row,
were indistinguishable in appearance, the Gold Dot cases with and landmarks 7, 8 and 9 are shown from left to right in the
124 grain bullets were marked with black paint, the Gold Dot lower row. Landmarks were numbered clockwise as viewed
cases with 147 grain bullets were marked with red paint, and from the bullet base. Landmarks with the same number are
the Gold Dot cases with 115 grain bullets were left unpainted. in phase and their markings are expected to correspond. The
After firing each group of five shots the bullets were recovered degree of change in landmark shape was small on Frangible
from the water tank and each bullet was packed into a bullets. Fig. 4 shows each landmark on the second shot using
separate card box with the corresponding expended cartridge Frangible bullets. Fig. 5 shows each landmark on the 97th shot
case. A label with the description, shot sequence number, with Frangible bullets. These photos are the display copy of
and headstamp was attached to each cartridge box. It took the BIRI system illustrating all nine landmarks in one image.
approximately one hour to fire and package one hundred shots
in the manner described. To prevent mushrooming of Speer Every landmark on the Frangible bullets was well defined.
Gold Dot bullets, the hollowpoint cavities of the bullets were Every driving edge of these landmarks had enough depth and
filled with araldite, an epoxy adhesive. Cartridges were loaded almost all of the trailing edges of these landmarks also had
into the magazine with the headstamps in an upright position. enough depth. The widths of the landmarks were consistent in
all twenty of the fired Frangible bullets. Whereas the shape of
Digital photos of each landmark of the recovered 100

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 5

1 5000

Fig. 1 This series of spliced digital photos demonstrates the change in the striated markings of 5,000 test fired bullets taken
at the bullet base area on Landmark 4. This composite represents every 20th bullet fired between 1 and 100, every 50th bullet
fired between 100 and 1,000, and every 100th bullet fired between 1,000 and 5,000. This comparison indicates that prominent
striated markings are rather consistent throughout the 5,000 rounds fired.

Fig. 2 This is a series of spliced digital photos that demonstrates the extent of change of the breechface markings of 5,000 test
fired cartridge cases taken of the breechface impression. This composite represents every 20th cartridge case fired between 1
and 100, every 50th cartridge case fired between 100 and 1,000, and every 100th cartridge case fired between 1,000 and 5,000.
This comparison indicates that prominent breechface markings are rather consistent throughout the 5,000 rounds fired.

AFTE Journal--Volume 40 Number 1--Winter2008

 6 Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility

the landmarks of Frangible bullets was consistent, many small later stages of firing looked wider than the original widths.
pits or stipples were scattered on their surface. When these Fig. 8 shows each landmark of the first shot with a Speer 115
pits covered wide areas of the landmarks, it became difficult grain and Fig.9 shows those of the 100th shot with a Speer
to examine minute striations (Fig. 6). However, these pits or 147 grain bullet.
small holes did not represent a major problem or difficulty
for the identification of landmarks on Frangible bullets. There The shapes of the landmarks on the Remington bullets was
was no trend toward increasing numbers of these pits with somewhat similar to those of the Speer bullets. The trailing
successive shots (Fig.7). The landmark surface of Frangible edges of Remington bullets were shallower than those on the
bullets was light in color throughout this experiment. To the Speer bullets. The surfaces of the Remington bullet landmarks
contrary, the surface of Speer and Remington bullets were were usually dark in color and the number of striations was
rather smooth and dark in color. Some Remington bullets small. Fig. 10 shows each landmark of the fourth shot with
were especially dark in color. Remington 124 grain and Fig. 11 shows those of the 99th shot.
The trailing edges were clear in the fourth shot but were all
The three types of Speer Gold Dot bullets had similarly shaped obscure on the 99th shot.
landmarks, and the driving edges of these landmarks were
clear in the early stages of firing. The driving edges looked There were many landmarks with shallow trailing edges on
like they were doubly engraved in the bullets in later stages Speer, Remington, and Federal bullets. The author subjectively
of firing. Many of the double-appearing edges engraved on classified these trailing edges into three categories. Trailing
the right side of the landmarks were the edges of skid marks. edges with enough depth to be clearly discerned were classified
These skid marks originated near the breech end of the barrel. as rank 2. Shallow trailing edges and/or partly engraved
Trailing edges of landmarks on Speer bullets were shallow trailing edges were classified as rank 1. Non-visible trailing
from the beginning, and the depth of the trailing edges became edges were classified as rank 0. Table 2 shows the average
shallower with successive firing. Since the trailing edges of rank of trailing edge depth of landmarks for each brand of
skid marks were deep, and the trailing edges of landmarks ammunition.
were obscure, the widths of the landmarks on the bullets in

Fig. 3 Hi-Point brand, model C9, caliber 9x19 mm semi-automatic pistol, serial number P222153 used in this experiment.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 7

Table 1 Catalogue data of the cartridges used in this experiment

Ammunition Caliber Bullet Muzzle Muzzle Headstamp

Weight velocity energy
(gr) (fps) (ft-lb)

Speer Gold Dot 9 mm Luger 115 1200 368 .SPEER.

9 mm LUGER
Speer Gold Dot 9 mm Luger 124 1150 364 .SPEER.
9 mm LUGER
Speer Gold Dot 9 mm Luger 147 985 317 .SPEER.
9 mm LUGER

DFA Frangible 9 mm CT 115 1153 340 WIN

9 mm LUGER

Remington 9 mm Luger 124 1110 339 R.P.

9 mm LUGER

Table 2 Edge Depth Rank of landmark trailing edges

Ammunition L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 Average

Speer 115 0.74 0.63 0.58 0.68 0.95 0.89 0.95 0.95 0.74 0.79

Speer 124 1.00 1.00 1.11 0.89 0.74 1.05 1.26 1.21 1.00 1.03

Speer 147 0.44 0.50 0.94 0.72 0.33 0.39 0.72 1.17 1.28 0.72

Frangible 2.00 1.75 1.95 1.80 1.95 1.95 1.65 1.85 2.00 1.88

Remington 1.40 1.45 1.55 0.75 0.15 0.15 0.30 0.95 1.20 0.88

Federal 0.75 0.50 0.50 0.50 1.25 0.75 0.25 0.25 1.25 0.67

Average 1.06 0.97 1.10 0.89 0.89 0.86 0.86 1.06 1.24 0.99

L1 means landmark 1.

Frangible bullets had the highest average rank of trailing edge and some of landmark 4 of some of the fired bullets. Marking
depth and Federal bullets the lowest. The average rank of the reproducibility of these prominent striations was not always
three types of Speer bullets was about half that of the Frangible high. Prominent striations were observed on every landmark
bullets, with the Speer 124 grain bullets ranking highest. Fig. 1 of the Frangible bullets; however the relative position of
10 shows the change in average rank of trailing edge depth of this striae to the driving edge was shifted toward the trailing
groups of five consecutively fired shots. It shows the trailing edge with successive firing. This situation can be confirmed
edges of landmarks to become remarkably shallow during the by comparing sequential photographs (Fig.13). Figure 13 was
first thirty shots and the rate of change in depth to become made by pasting together segments of photos which were cut
moderate after thirty shots. from bullet base areas. No such prominent striations were
observed on landmark 1 of Speer 115 grain bullets (Fig.14)
Prominent Striations on Landmarks but were observed on some of the Speer 124 grain and Speer
A deep and wide striation was observed on some of landmark 1 147 grain bullets. These prominent striations on Speer 124

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 8 Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility

and 147 grain bullets were wider and deeper than those among the six brands of cartridges used in this experiment.
observed on landmark 1 of the Frangible bullets; however, There were some corresponding striations in the nose area of
some of these bullets had no such prominent striations at all. landmark 9 of the Remington bullets. In this area, CMS runs
The position shift of these striations on Speer bullets with greater than three were observed between the 39th and the
successive shots was restricted compared to the shift on the 44th shots and between the 44th and the 49th shots (Fig. 21).
Frangible bullets described above (Fig. 15, 16). There were no It was generally difficult to find matching striations between
prominent striations on landmark 1 of the Remington bullets different brands of bullets. Fig. 22 shows an example of
(Fig. 17). This type of prominent striae was also observed on matching striations found between different brands of bullets
landmark 4 of the Speer 124 grain bullets. Reproducibility of whose firing order was far apart. This was a comparison
these striations on Speer 124 grain bullets was high, however, between the 7th shot of a Frangible bullet and the 98th shot
only a small number of other brands of bullets had such of a Speer 124 grain bullet. Some conspicuous striations are
prominent markings on landmark 4. matched in this photo, however CMS runs greater than three
were not found. The counting procedure used by this author
Matching Striations on Landmarks was the same as the standard method proposed by Biasotti,
The reproducibility of striations was not high throughout Murdock and Moran[22] with the exception of counting the
these one hundred bullets. Some landmarks of the Frangible dark/gray valleys instead of the bright, reflected light areas
bullets had a lot of minute striations. Reproducibility of represented by the tops of the striations. This is because
striations on landmark 1 of Frangible bullets was good tabulation of the valleys in this way is commonly used in
despite the dislocation of the prominent striation already Japan. Counting the valleys and not the brightly reflected
discussed (Fig.18). Numerous striations on landmark 2 of light areas represented by the tops of the striations does not
the Frangible bullets showed good reproducibility (Fig.19). effect the tabulations of CMS.
The reproducibility of striations on landmarks 3, 4 and 9 was
rather good. The reproducibility of striations on landmarks 5, As Remington bullets had less markings overall, it was difficult
6, 7, and 8 was not very good. to find corresponding striations between the Remington and
other different brands of bullets. Fig. 23 shows a rare example
It was easy to find matching striations on the Frangible bullet of matching striations between a Remington bullet and a
landmarks. To the contrary, there were less minute striations Frangible bullet. On the Remington bullet there was no deep
on the landmarks of other brands of bullets. It was difficult striation such as the one which appeared on the Frangible
to find consecutive matching striations on landmarks which bullet. Although the firing interval between these shots was
had only a small number of striations. The author searched only two, the number of corresponding striations was small
for matching striations on all of these bullets using the BIRI and CMS runs greater than three were not found.
system. Some matching striations were found toward the
nose area of landmark 2 of Speer 115 grain bullets. Marking General Characteristics of Breechface Marks on Primers
reproducibility in this area was rather good until the 51st All the primers used in this experiment, except Federal,
shot. Some matching striations were found on the bullet base were nickel plated. The character “A” was found stamped
areas between the 21st shot and 71st shot of the Speer 115 on the Speer primers. There were no conspicuous non-firing
grain bullets. It was a marginal match, and opinion may be markings on the Speer primers except for this “A” shaped
divided over the significance of the existence of three CMS mark. Marks on the primers of the first five shots are shown
(consecutively matching striae). in Fig. 24. There are prominent parallel breech face marks on
these primers. The diameters of the breechface marks on the
Within the Speer 124 grain bullets compared, three CMS primers and the diameters of the firing pin indentations were
are easily found between the bullets whose firing order was different for each brand of ammunition.
separated by 10 rounds; however, it was difficult to find
three CMS between the 3rd and 98th shot. Fig. 20 shows the The diameter of the primer area which contacted the breech
reproducibility of markings on landmark 1 of the Speer 147 face was measured. In this measurement, the diameter was
grain bullets. Markings were gradually changing and a deep calculated from an enlarged image through the LEICA M420
striation was not aligned between the 10th and 35th shots. using EZDOC imaging software from Mideo Systems. The
However, CMS runs greater than three were easily found result of these measurements is shown in Fig. 25. The diameter
between adjacent segments of photos compared. CMS runs of the firing pin indentations was measured in the same way.
greater than three were also found between the 10th and 95th Fig. 26 shows the diameters of firing pin indentations. Fig.
shots. The 60th shot was a Federal bullet and marking on it is 25 and Fig. 26 show a strong correlation between the size of
a little different from the others. the primer that contacted the breechface and the size of the
firing pin indentation. The diameter of the contacted area of
Remington bullets had the least striations on landmarks the primer and the diameter of the firing pin indentation of the

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 9

Frangible cartridges was largest while those of the Speer 115

grain and 124 grain cartridges were the smallest. Fig. 27 shows circular lines in the firing pin indentations of Speer cartridges
the area of the primer that contacted the breechface calculated looked deeper than those of Frangible cartridges.
from the results shown in Fig. 25 and Fig. 26. Basically, the
number of parallel lines was large and the parallel lines were Marking Reproducibility of Firing Pin Marks
long on the primers with a widely contacted area. To the Concentric circular striations had some similarity among every
contrary, the number of striations in the breechface marks of brand of expended cartridge case. Similarity between those
Speer cartridges was small and striations were shorter than firing pin marks was easily observed using the BIRI system.
those of Frangible and Remington because the contacted area It was confirmed that the similarity between cartridges from
of the primer was narrower. the same manufacturer was rather high. On the other hand,
similarity between cartridges from different manufacturers
Marking Reproducibility of Breechface Marks was low, even between successively fired cartridge cases.
Prominent parallel striations were observed on the primers
of Frangible and Remington cartridge cases. Fig. 28 shows To examine marking reproducibility in two dimensions, the
the reproducibility of these markings. These figures were author applied the Sobel X differential filter to the images of
made by arranging segments of photos of successive firings firing pin marks using down light illumination. Two enhanced
of breechface marks from top to bottom. Each photo was cut images of firing pin marks appearing on Speer 115 grain
from the middle area between the upper edge of the primer (bullet) cartridge cases, which were shot ten rounds apart,
and the firing pin indentation. These rectangular areas are were compared in Fig. 38. Fig. 39 shows a comparison
shown in Fig. 29. Fig. 28 indicates that the reproducibility of between Frangible cartridges ten shots apart. These photos
parallel striations was very good until around the 70th shot. show that the diameter of each concentric circular line was
Some striations became shallow in this area after the 72nd similar; however, details in the shape of the circular lines were
shot. This situation is confirmed in Fig. 29. Fig. 30~34 shows different even among cartridge cases of the same brand.
the reproducibility of the breechface marks impressed on
the primers of each brand of ammunition. Each portion of a To ascertain the reproducibility of the diameter of the
photo in these figures was cut from the area near the firing pin concentric circular lines, the author measured their diameters
indentation. Although the reproducibility of breechface marks using the three point method (Fig.40). It was rather difficult to
was fairly good throughout one hundred rounds, a trend of determine the diameter of the circular lines because the lines
decreasing numbers of lines and decreasing depth of lines was were not exact circles. In this measurement, a firing pin image
observed. 256 by 256 pixels was used, and the interval of two adjacent
pixels was about 10 micrometers.
To evaluate this trend of decreasing lines, the author applied
a differential filter to the image. The obliquely lighted primer Fig. 41 shows a number of circular lines counted on each firing
images were enhanced using a Sobel X filter. Fig. 35 shows pin indentation. The total number of circular lines ranged from
two enhanced primer images of Frangible cartridge cases. six to twelve and the number of prominent circular lines ranged
The number of lines was large in the second shot and small in from one to four. There was no clear indication of decrease or
the 97th shot. The author counted lines on expended primers. increase of the number of lines along successive firings.
Using the filtered primer images, the dark striations were
counted in the upper half area on each primer. The line counts Fig. 42 shows the diameters of all of the circular lines. Some
are shown in Fig. 36. The number of lines gradually decreased regularity was observed in the diameters which were less
in each brand of cartridge. than a thousand micrometers; however, circular lines of a
diameter greater than one thousand micrometers were less
General Characteristics of Firing Pin Indentations consistent. Fig. 43 shows the diameters of the prominent
Firing pin indentations of the first five shots fired for each circular lines. The fluctuation band for the diameter is roughly
cartridge brand, illuminated with oblique light, are shown fifty micrometers in the small prominent circular lines and
in Fig. 37. The shape of the firing pin indentation was one hundred micrometers in the large prominent circular
hemispherical in each brand of cartridge. Many of them had a lines. Fig. 44 shows an example of the prominent circular
firing pin skid mark from the center toward the nine o’clock lines which were counted in this experiment. Four prominent
direction (as viewed in the illustrations). These skid marks circular lines are observed in Fig. 44.
were shallow and narrow. There were several concentric
circular lines in these indentations. As described earlier, the Discussion
diameter of the firing pin indentation was large in Frangible
and Remington cartridges. On the other hand, concentric Differences in General Characteristics of Landmarks

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 10 Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility

Fig. 4 Landmarks of second shot using Frangible 115 grain bullets.

From left to right, landmark 1, 2, and 3 in the upper row; Landmark 4, 5 and 6 in the middle row; Landmark 7, 8 and 9 in the
lower row

The shape of the landmarks varied greatly among the different of the Speer Gold Dot 124 grain bullets between these two.
brands of ammunition. The surface of the landmarks of
Frangible bullets was light in color. On the other hand, the A strong correlation was observed between bullet diameter
surface of the landmarks of Remington bullets was dark. This and rank of trailing edges. This is shown in Table 2. Bullet
color change is caused by smoke from burned powder. The diameter and the appearance of prominent marking on
author measured the diameter of all of the fired bullets. Each landmark 1 also had strong correlation.
bullet was examined using a LEICA M420 macroscope with
digital camera and a Chuo Seiki digital stage. The diameter Position Shift of the Prominent Mark on Landmark 1
was measured using Mideo EZDOC software. The diameter A prominent striation was observed on landmark 1 of each
of each bullet was measured six times by rotating every sixty Frangible bullet and many of the Speer 124 grain and 147
degrees using a digital stage. grain bullets. The position of this prominent striation shifted
from left to right with successive firing. This phenomenon
Fig. 45 shows the average diameter of each fired bullet. The indicates two things; firstly, this prominent marking may be
average diameter of twenty Frangible bullets was 9.03mm and originating from the breech end area of the barrel, secondly,
that of the Remington bullets was 8.93mm with the diameter the land in the breech end area was eroded by successive firing

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 11

in this experiment. The degree of shift in Speer 147 grain the widest deep striations was not always good. It will be noted
bullets was small compared with that of the Frangible bullets. that the relative position of two striations will change when
This difference in degree of line shift may be caused by the they originate from different areas of the bore. Deep striations
difference in bullet velocity. The velocity of bullets when may strongly affect an examiner’s impression regarding
forced into the breech end area of the bore is considered slow identification. On the other hand, minute striations may affect
in heavy bullets and fast in light bullets. Frangible light weight CMS counts. We must examine both of them carefully.
bullets moved into the breech end area with high velocity and
the bullets slipped a lot. To the contrary, the velocity of Speer Striations on Primers
147 grain bullets was low and they started their rotational The general appearance of primers is very different between
movement after a short slippage movement. each brand of ammunition. The “A” shape character on Speer
primers interferes with the imprinting of striations and the
Change in Surface Contour of the Land number of striations on primers decreased somehow in the
The reproducibility of striations on the Frangible bullets was presence of this character. The number of striations on primers
rather high. This indicates that the surface contour of the decreased after around seventy rounds. Disappearance of fine
bore changed only a little throughout this experiment. Low striations was the reason for this decrease of lines. In the
reproducibility of marking on other brands of ammunition case where minute striations between prominent striations
might be caused by insufficient contact with the bore. disappeared, CMS runs will decrease considerably.

Identifiability of Landmarks of Frangible Bullets Circular Striations in Firing Pin Indentations

There has been an assertion that the markings of frangible Circular striations were analyzed using images illuminated
bullets are impossible to identify with the firearm from which by down light. The striations in the center area of firing pin
they were fired [23]. Although the surface of Frangible bullets indentations look prominent under down light illumination.
often had many pits or small holes, the landmarks of DFA Some circular lines located in the surrounding area of the
Frangible bullets were the easiest to identify in this experiment. firing pin indentation looked prominent under oblique lighting,
Continued firing of Frangible bullets is said to deteriorate especially on the Frangible and Remington cartridge cases.
the rifling of the firearm used, and early replacement of the
service firearm due to rifling wear was also asserted. In this The Size of the Primer’s Areas of Contact with the Breech
experiment, erosion near the breech end of the bore causes a Face and Firing Pin
shift of location in prominent striations on landmark 1. The When the size of the primer’s area of contact with the breech
author agrees that firing Frangible bullets could cause early face was large, the number of lines on the primer was also
erosion of the bore because the diameter of Frangible bullets large. The shape of expended primers of the Frangible bullets
in this caliber is large and they have limited compressibility indicated that high pressure was developed inside the chamber.
in diameter. This high pressure may be caused by the large diameter and
incompressibility of the Frangible bullets. The size of the
It was rather easy to identify Frangible bullets up to fifty- Remington primers’ areas of contact were larger than those of
two shots because the corresponding phase of landmarks the Speer, even though Remington’s bullet diameter was the
was easily found using the prominent mark on landmark 1. smallest. This phenomenon may be caused by primer hardness
Reproducibility of striations on landmark 1 and landmark differing between each brand of ammunition.
2 was also good. However, it is the author’s opinion that
identification between fired Frangible bullets separated by Conclusion
more than fifty rounds was difficult without prior knowledge.
Markings on one hundred successively fired bullets and
Identifiability of Landmarks Between Different Brands of expended cartridge cases were examined. Markings among
Ammunition different manufacturers of ammunition differed significantly
Since the general shape of landmarks is very different among even between consecutively fired bullets. Identification
different brands of ammunition, examiners may potentially between bullets from different manufacturers was generally
eliminate bullets from different brands of ammunition in the difficult. Since the reproducibility of striations on frangible
early stage of comparison if he/she has no prior knowledge of bullets was rather good, the change in the bore surface was
this variability. considered rather small. From an analysis of skid marks on
landmarks, the surfaces of the bore near the breech end area
Deep Striations vs. Shallow Striations were eroded within one hundred fired rounds. Diameter,
Reproducibility of the deepest striations was rather good weight and/or velocity of bullets will affect the reproducibility
compared with shallow striations. However, reproducibility of of striations on landmarks. A smaller number of striations were

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 12 Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility

Fig. 5 Landmarks of 97th shot using Frangible 115 grain bullets.

observed on the small diameter bullets. There were prominent References

parallel breech face markings on the primers of expended
cartridge cases. The size of the primer’s areas of contact with [1.] J. S. Hatcher, Textbook of Firearms Investigation,
the breech face and firing pin was different among each brand Identification and Evidence, Small Arms Technical
of ammunition but they were consistent within the same make Publishing Company, Marines, 1935.
of ammunition. The number of parallel striations on primers
decreased with successive firing. There were concentric [2.] J. D. Gunther, C. O. Gunther, The Identification of
circular lines on hemispherical firing pin indentations. These Firearms, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1935.
circular lines were not exactly circular. The similarity of
these circular lines between the same make of cartridge was [3.] J. S. Hatcher et al, Firearms Investigation, Identification
rather high. On the other hand, the similarity of these circles and Evidence, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, 1954.
between different makes of cartridges was low, even between
successively fired cartridge cases. The reproducibility of the [4.] J. H. Mathews, Firearms Identification, The University
diameter of these circular lines was rather high. However, of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1962.
detail in these circular lines changed from firing to firing and
therefore could not be used as individual characteristics for [5.] G. Burrard, The Identification of Firearms and
identification purposes. Forensic Ballistics, Herbert Jenkins, London, 1934.

AFTE Journal--Volume 40 Number 1--Winter2008

Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 13

[6.] A. A. Biasotti, “A Statistical Study of the Individual AFTE Journal 29, 1997, pp. 42-44.
Characteristics of Fired Bullets,” J. of Forensic Sci.
4-1, 1959, pp. 34-50. [18.] J. Miller, M. McLean, “Criteria for identification of
toolmarks,” AFTE Journal 30, 1998, pp. 15-61.
[7.] A. A. Biasotti, J. E. Murdock, “Criteria for
Identification or State of the Art of Firearm and [19.] J. Miller, “Criteria for identification of toolmarks Part
Toolmark Identification,” AFTE Journal 16-4, 1984, II single land impression comparisons,” AFTE Journal
pp. 16-24. 32, 2000, pp. 116-131.

[8.] R. G. Nichols, “Firearm and Toolmark Identification [20.] T. Uchiyama, “Ballistic Image Retrieval and
Criteria: A Review of the Literature,” J. of Forensic Identification (BIRI) system,” Forensic Sci. Int. 136
Sci. 42-3, 1997, PP. 466-474. Suppl1, 2003, pp. 157-158.

[9.] R. G. Nichols, “Firearm and Toolmark Identification [21.] T. Uchiyama, “5000 consecutively fired bullets and
Criteria: A Review of the Literature, Part 2,” J. of cartridge cases after a quarter of a century,” Presented
Forensic Sci. 48-2, 2003, pp. 466-474. at the 33rd AFTE Training Seminar, San Antonio, TX,
May, 2003.
[10.] S. G. Bunch, “Consecutive Matching Striation
Criteria: A General Critique,” J. of Forensic Sci. 45-5, [22.] A. Biasotti, J. Murdock, B. R. Moran, “Firearm and
2000, pp. 955-962. Toolmark Identification, Chapter 36, Modern Scientific
Evidence-The Law and Science of Expert Testimony,”
[11.] R. G. Nichols, “Consecutive Matching Striations Faigman, Kaye, Saks, Sanders, Cheng, (Editors) West
(CMS): Its Definition, Study and Application in the Publishing Co., Eagan, Minnesota, USA, 2006 – 2007
Discipline of Firearms and Tool Mark Identification,” (see footnote #8 pg 567 – 568, Tabulation of CMS)
AFTE Journal 35, 2003, pp. 298-306.
[23.] D. E. Balash, “Frangible Bullets: A Firearms
[12.] C. Champod, D. Baldwin, F. Taroni, J. S. Buckleton, Examiner’s Nightmare,” AFTE Journal 30-2, 1998,
“Firearm and Tool Marks Identification : The Bayesian pp. 340-342.
Approach,” AFTE Journal 35-3, 2003, pp. 307-316.

[13.] R. J. Shem, P. P. Striupaitis, “Comparison of 501

consecutively fired bullets and cartridge cases from
a 25 caliber Raven pistol,” AFTE Journal 15-3, 1983,
pp. 109-112.

[14.] S. J. Kirby, “Comparison of 900 consecutively fired

bullets and cartridge cases from a 455 caliber S&W
revolver,” AFTE Journal 15-3, 1983, pp. 113-126.

[15.] Y. Ogihara, M. Kubota, M. Sanada, K. Fukuda,

T. Uchiyama, J. E. Hamby, “Comparison of 5000
consecutively fired bullets and cartridge cases from
a 45 caliber M1911A1 pistol,” AFTE Journal 15-3,
1983, pp. 127-140.

[16.] R. D. Carter, “Study of semi-automatic breechface

change in first 300 rounds,” Presented at the 33rd
AFTE Training Seminar, San Antonio, TX, May,
2003.

[17.] J. J. Masson, “Confidence Level Variations in Firearms

Identifications through Computerized Technology,”

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 14 Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility

Fig. 6 Landmarks of first

shot using Speer Gold
Dot 115 grain bullets.

Fig. 7 Landmarks of 100th

shot using Speer Gold Dot
147 grain bullets.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 15

Fig. 8 Landmarks of fourth shot

using Remington 124 grain
bullets.

Fig. 9 Landmarks of 99th shot using

Remington 124 grain bullets.

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Fig. 10 Change in the rank of trailing edge depth (each group of five consecutively fired shots averaged).

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Fig. 11 Landmark 1 of 7th shot on a Frangible 115 grain bullet. Note: Pits covering striae.

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Fig. 12 Landmark 1 on the 92nd shot on a Frangible 115 grain bullet. Note: No buildup of pitting.

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Fig. 13 Reproducibility of prominent striations on landmark 1 of Frangible 115 grain bullets. Note that the relative position of
these striae to the driving edge was shifted toward the direction of the trailing edge in accordance with successive firing. This
photo was made by overlaying segments of photos which were cut from bullet base areas.

Fig. 14 Reproducibility of striations on landmark 1 of Speer Gold Dot 115 grain bullets
(51 is Federal bullet.) Note: No prominent striations on these bullets.

Fig. 15 Reproducibility of striations on landmark 1 of Speer Gold Dot 124 grain bullets
(53 is Federal bullet.) Note: Prominent striations were observed on some of these bullets.

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Fig. 16 Reproducibility of striations on landmark 1 of Speer Gold Dot 147 grain bullets
(55 and 60 are Federal bullets.) Note: Prominent striations were observed on some of these bullets.

Fig. 17 Reproducibility of striations on landmark 1 of Remington 124 grain bullets

Note: No prominent striations on these bullets.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 21

Fig. 18 Reproducibility of striations on landmark 1 of Frangible 115 grain bullets

Fig. 19 Reproducibility of striations on landmark 2 of Frangible 115 grain bullets

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Fig. 20 Striation matching found on base area of landmark 1 of Speer Gold Dot 147 grain bullets. Note: In this area, CMS runs
greater than three were observed between the 90th and the 95th shots and between the 10th and the 95th shots.

Fig. 21 Striation matching found on nose area of landmark 9 of Remington bullets. Note: In this area, CMS runs greater than
three were observed between the 39th and the 44th shots and between the 44th and the 49th shots.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 23

Fig. 22 Comparison between the 7th shot of a Frangible bullet and the 98th shot of a Speer 124 grain bullet. Some compelling
agreement of matching striations is observed in this photo, however, CMS runs greater than three were not found with this
author’s counting procedure.

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Fig. 23 A rare example of matching striations between a Remington bullet and a Frangible bullet comparison on landmark 1
between 44th and 42nd shot (respectively). Note: Although the firing interval of these shots was only two, the number of
corresponding striations was small and CMS runs greater than three were not found.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 25

Fig. 24 Breechface marks on the primers of the first five shots.

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Fig. 25 Diameter of the primer area which contacted the breechface with respect to ammunition type.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 27

Fig. 26 Diameter of firing pin indentation with respect to ammunition type.

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Fig. 27 Area of primer that contacted the breechface calculated from the results shown in Fig. 25 and Fig. 26.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 29

Fig. 28 Reproducibility of breechface marks on the primers of Frangible and Remington cartridge cases. Portions of photographs
of breechface marks are arranged from top to bottom in firing order from 1 to 100.

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Fig. 29 Each segment of a photo was cut from the middle area between the upper edge of the primer and the firing pin
indentation. The reproducibility of parallel striations was very good until around the 70th shot. Some striations became shallow
in this area after the 72nd shot.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 31

Fig. 30 Reproducibility of breechface marks on the primers of Speer 115 grain (bullet) cartridge cases.

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Fig. 31 Reproducibility of breechface marks on primers of Frangible (bullet) cartridge cases.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 33

Fig. 32 Reproducibility of breechface mark on primers of Speer 124 grain (bullet) cartridge cases.

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 34 Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility

Fig. 33 Reproducibility of breechface marks on primers of Remington (bullet) cartridge cases.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 35

Fig. 34 Reproducibility of breechface marks on primers of Speer 147 grain (bullet) cartridge cases.

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 36 Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility

Fig. 35 Enhanced primer image using Sobel X filter.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 37

Fig. 36 Line counts of breechface marks on primers of each type of cartridge.

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Fig. 37. Firing pin indentations of the fifth shot fired for each cartridge type

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 39

Fig. 38 Images of enhanced firing pin marks using Sobel X filter. These marks are from ten shots apart (56th and 66th shots)
using Speer 115 grain (bullet) cartridges.

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 40 Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility

Fig. 39 Images of enhanced firing pin marks using Sobel X filter. These marks are from ten shots apart (56th and 66th shots)
using Frangible (bullet) cartridges.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 41

Fig. 40 Measurement of diameter of circular lines on enhanced image using three points method.

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 42 Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility

Fig. 41 Number of circular lines on each firing pin indentation.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 43

Fig. 42 Diameter of circular lines observed on each firing pin indentation.

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Fig. 43 Diameter of prominent circular lines observed on each firing pin indentation.

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Uchiyama--Fired Bullet and Cartridge Case Reproducibility 45

Fig. 44 Example of four prominent circular lines appearing in the 13th shot (Speer 124 grain (bullet) cartridge cases).

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Fig. 45 Average diameter of each fired bullet.

AFTE Journal--Volume 40 Number 1--Winter2008