Introduction to Satellite Engineering

Mission analysis

Mengu Cho, Ph.D.

Laboratory of Lean Satellite Enterprises and In-Orbit Experiments
Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu, Japan

Acknowledgement: Figures and Tables without source are taken from “Spacecraft 1
Systems Engineering”, 4th Ed., by P. Fortescue et al., Wiley
 Purpose of this lecture
• Understand what is systems engineering
• Understand the Pros/Cons of space applications
• Understand the flow of mission design
• Understand the sun-synchronous orbit

2
Systems Engineering

3
 What is system?
• A group of elements (human, machine, tool, parts, information,
etc.) interrelated each other to achieve one or more purposes
• Example of system
• Launch vehicle
• Elements: Engine, fuel tank, faring, avionics
• Purpose: Send satellites (or human) to space
• Professional football team
• Elements: Players, Coach, Manager, Trainer, Scout, Business, etc.
• Purpose: Provide entertainment by showing a soccer game
• Not necessarily to win
• Not a system
• Knife (no element)
• Zombies (no arrangement of elements)

4
いらすとや
 Space systems

Space segment

Launch vehicle
©JAXA
Ground segment

©JAXA
http://www.mitsubishielectric.co.jp/society/space/control/network.html

Purpose: Serve the humanity by using space

5
 Systems Engineering
• Definition of ‘Systems Engineering” in Chambers
Science and Technology Dictionary
‘A logical process of activities that transforms a set
of requirements arising from a specific mission
objective into a full description of a system which
fulfils the objective in an optimum way. It ensures
that all aspects of a project have been considered
and integrated into a consistent whole’
• Important to build modern complex systems
• To make things done properly, we need Systems
Engineering view and approach

6
 History of Systems Engineering
• Apollo program (Sept. 12, 1962 - December 19, 1972)

http://www.masaakix.interlink.or.jp/apollo/
d_apollo/_module/ap-module- http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/アポロ月
http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/サター
http://www.lizard- ンロケット lmtransfer.htm 着陸船
tail.com/isana/podcast/the_moon_speech.htm
l

http://spaceinfo.jaxa.jp/ja/apollo_11.ht http://www.udel.edu/physics/scen103/ZI
http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/missions
ml NG/apollo13pictures.html
/images/apollo1516_images.html

http://www.masaakix.interlink.or.jp/apollo/d_apollo/
apollo-11/ap11miss.htm

Mission：Send human to the Moon and return them safely 7

 Traditional Systems Engineering
• Evolved out of the space sector to deliver flawless systems to
stakeholders no matter how complex the system became

“Failure is not an option”

https://www.tafp.org/news/POY21-22
http://spaceinfo.jaxa.jp/ja/apollo_11.html

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 System Life Cycle
A typical Engineering system (including space system) goes through the
following system life-cycle
1. Conceptual design
1. Needs analysis
Everything on paper
2. Concept exploration
3. Concept definition
2. Development Limited number of
1. Advance development production
2. Detail design and prototyping
3. Integration and testing Mostly done internally
3. Post-development
1. Production Actual production
2. Operation, maintenance, improvement
Use by customers
3. Disposal

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 Small satellite System Life Cycle
For the case of small satellite, it goes through the
following system life-cycle
1. Mission definition
2. Conceptual design
3. Proof-of-Concept by Bread-Board-Model (BBM)
4. Detailed design
5. System design verification by Engineering Model (EM)
6. Flight Model (FM) assembly, integration and testing
7. Launch
8. Operation
9. Disposal

Traditional satellite (old-space, legacy-space) follows more or less the same cycle
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 Requirement
• Everything you do in the system lifecycle has a
reason (i.e. requirement)
• Hierarchy
• User (customer) is at the top
• From big to detail

11
 Requirements

12
Spacecraft Systems Engineering”, 4th Ed., by P. Fortescue et al., Wiley
 Mission objectives
• Statement of what we achieve using the space systems
• Derived from stakeholder (user, customer)
requirements under constraints (political, financial,
others)
• Qualitative
• General enough to remain intact during the design
phase
• Example 1:
• Provide secure and robust three-dimensional
position and velocity determination to surface and
airborne military users
• Example 2:
• Provide a worldwide mobile communication
13
 Space Mission Design
• Provide a solution to the needs of stakeholders
(customers, users), i.e. the mission objective
• Derive mission requirements to satisfy the
mission objective
• Performance
• Reliability
• Cost
• Coverage
• Lifetime
• Others
• Derive System requirements to satisfy the mission
requirements
14
 Systems Engineering
• There is never only one solution to meet the objectives
• Diverse range of solutions
• Cost, Mass, Schedule, Political Importance, etc
• Systems Engineer
• Balance all these assessments into a single solution
• Example
• Objective: Go to the Moon before the enemy goes
• Solution
• Human (American approach)
• Robot (Russian approach)
• Compare cost, technology, policy, etc

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Space solution

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 Space as “High ground”
Watch tower (observation)
2000 years ago Now

https://www.tripadvisor.jp/LocationPhotoDirectLink-g1121504-
d1371669-i289418957-Yoshinogari_Historical_Park-
Yoshinogari_cho_Kanzaki_gun_Saga_Prefecture.html http://www.hetima.net/firetower/reference/history/

https://www.teikokushoin.co.jp/jhs2020/history/tok
ushokusho01.pdf

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 Space as “High ground”
Navigation
History of human migration

https://gendai.ismedia.jp/articles/-/70410?page=3

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Space as “High ground”

Communication

https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%97%E6%8C%AF%E3%82%8A%E9%80%9A
%E4%BF%A1#/media/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB:Co
mmunications_by_flags.jpg

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 Space as “High ground”
Communication
Ionosphere (D, E layers)

Antenna Travel more than 1000km

http://pax-wisdom.com/vflfl/

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 Space as “High ground”

Communication

VLF (500kHz) antenna

https://www.nist.gov/blogs/taking-measure/nist-and-titanic-how-
sinking-ship-improved-wireless-communications-navigating

https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/04/the-technology-that-allowed-the-titanic-
survivors-to-survive/255848/

https://titanicnhd.weebly.com/communication.html

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Space as “High ground”
Broadcasting

TV antenna

Mt. Sarakura at Kitakyushu

https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9A%BF%E5%80%89%E5%B1%B1#/media/%E
3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB:Sarakurayama03.jpg

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Space as “High ground”

How far can we reach from a tower?

23
Space as “High ground”
H

OK

RE

NG

RE

24
 Space as “High ground”
６３４m

333m

https://www.tokyotower.co.jp/lightup/index.php https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC%E3%82%B9%E3%82%AB%E3%8
2%A4%E3%83%84%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC#/media/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%
82%A4%E3%83%AB:Tokyo_Skytree_2014_%E2%85%A2.jpg

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View from 450m

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Space as “High ground”
Area covered by Tokyo Sky Tree

Population = 40million

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 The usages of space
• Space platforms have advantage of “being high”

Application Access to wide area Access from wide

(from space to area
Earth) (from Earth to Space)
Earth observation
○
(Information collection)
Navigation ○
Communication ○ ○
Broadcasting ○

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Earth observation from Space (Pros)
• Cover wider area Assessment of Tsunami damage
• No need to get permission
• Can fly anytime
• Semi-automatic operation
• No pilot needed

10km

Kaku et al., Int. J.

Disaster Risk
Reduction, Vol.12,
©Digital Globe 2015
Photo of Fukushima nuclear Feb. 27, 2011 March 14, 2011
power plan after the accident
29
Earth observation from Space (Cons)
• Cannot stay over one position except GEO satellites
• Longer distance from the ground
• Lower image resolution
• Resolution ∝ 1/(orbital height)
• Data speed limitation
• Radio power ∝ 1/(orbital height)2

Antenna ©JMA

Image from ”Himawari” weather satellite

Resolution ~ 500m

©JAXA

30
Earth observation, Space vs Air
• If you want to have an aerial photo of a particular area
with high resolution (~cm), you should ask a drone
service
• ~1,000SGD/day
• Need to get permission
• Be careful about privacy!
• If you want to have a daily coverage of 100kmx100km
area (e.g. crop monitoring), you should ask a satellite
service

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 Navigation by space (Pros)
• Global coverage Demoz Gebre-Egziabher et al., 1999

• Ocean, Air
• Access from wider area
• Less number of nodes Needs only 24
• Resilient to natural disaster nodes
https://www.flyingmag.com/guides/what-is-vor-
and-how-does-it-work/

©いらすとや

~40km VOR(VHF omnidirectional

lighthouse radio range) for aviation https://www.gps.gov/multimedia/images/constellation.jpg

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 Navigation by space (Cons)
• Indoor inaccuracy
• Maintenance
• Satellite needs to know their
own position
• Expensive atomic clock

AGV(Automated Guided Vehicle)

https://trakkitgps.com/how-gps-works/

https://risoko.jp/useful-information/10-7/

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Communication via space (Pros)
• Ubiquitous coverage
• Can connect to/from anywhere
• Access from wider area
• Resilient to natural disaster
• Smaller latency

Emergency response car https://sync.cobham.com/satcom/knowledge-library/getting-started-on-satellite-communications/

http://www.qsr.mlit.go.jp/kakoku/works/tokusha/saigai/12.html https://news.satnews.com/2020/10/14/leo-speed-when-milliseconds-are-worth-millions-an-nsr-insight/

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Communication via space (Cons)

• Less capacity
• Not competitive in urban area except special cases
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/principles_of_communication/principles_ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ViaSat-2#/media/File:Viasat-2-satellite.jpg
of_optical_fiber_communications.htm

©JAXA

1Tbps/fiber! ~300Gbps
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 Broadcasting via space (Pros)
• Ubiquitous and wide coverage
• Can connect to/from anywhere
• Radio broadcasting to automobile
• Resilient to natural disaster

https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/sxm-7.htm

https://passionatepennypincher.com/free-siriusxm-in-car-satellite-radio/
https://www.latimes.com/world/great-reads/la-fg-c1-mongolia-media-20150812-story.html

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 Broadcasting via space (Pros)
1/3 of the Earth
https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/asiasat-5.htm

~90km

https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E4%B
A%AC%E3%82%B9%E3%82%AB%E3%82%A4 https://www.skyperfectjsat.space/jsat/en/service/overseas/#2
%E3%83%84%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC#/media
/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%8
3%AB:Tokyo_Skytree_2014_%E2%85%A2.jpg

37
 Broadcasting via space (Cons)
• User terminal cost
• Not competitive in urban area
情報通信統計データベース
Satellite TV subsription in Japan

UHF (regular TV)

7 106

6 106

5 106

Subscription
4 106
Subscription
3 106

Satellite 2 106

1 106

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Year

Information & Communications Statistics Database

https://www.soumu.go.jp/johotsusintokei/field/housou01.html

38
 Broadcasting via space (Cons)
• User terminal cost
• Not competitive in urban area

Satellite TV broadcasting may survive in some countries

https://blog.goo.ne.jp/kikunorinori/e/dc673ddcfe30bc0e3638590b63bdecc0
Cairo, Egypt
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Mission design

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 Mission and orbit
There are orbits suitable for each mission type

46
 GEO
• Geostationary Orbit
• Satellite has a fixed position relative to the features of the Earth
• It is difficult to go and maintain
• $30,000 per kg for GEO (3 times LEO)
• Large propellant requirement
• Satellite dies when the tank becomes empty
• Optimizing the design to achieve the minimum mass
• Long communication distance
• Received power is very weak
• Always visible
• Constant health monitoring
• Less needs of autonomy or complex data handling/storage
47
 LEO
• Low Earth Orbit
• Intermittent nature of ground station passes
• Data relay satellite
• Short distance for communication
• Good for mobile communication
• Frequent eclipses
• Oversized solar array to charge battery
• Changing sun angles
• Solar paddle rotations
• 15 per day compared to 1 per day of GEO
satellites
48
 Mission life time
• Feasibility, definition, design, development,
manufacture, integration, verification
System ready
• Pre-launch to flight
• Launch
• Orbit transfer
• Operation
• Decommissioning

49
 Pre-launch
• Launch site operation

50
 Launch
• Pre-programmed and automatic
• Emergency abort
• Continuous communication and tracking of the rocket

©JAXA

51
52
 Orbit transfer
• Each satellite may have to move by itself to its mission orbit
• Launch vehicle accuracy determines how much
propellant (fuel) each satellite has to carry
• Secondary propulsion system for GEO satellites
• Ariane 5 GTO injection accuracy
• 40 km for the semi-major axis, 4.5 × 10−4 for
eccentricity and 0.02° for inclination
• The amount of fuel must be properly estimated before the
launch
• Less fuel: Shorter mission life
• More fuel: Less mission capability

53
 On-station operation
• Fuel-budgeting for station-keeping and attitude
control
• Mission dictates the constraints on the orbit
stability and the number and rate of attitude
maneuvers
• Excessive angular momentum of reaction wheel
must be dumped by thruster firings or other
torque
• Sufficient lifetime of each components
• Moving parts (Reaction Wheel, Gyro, Paddle
Drive Motor, etc)
• Solar cell
• Battery

54
 Decommissioning
• Need to avoid the increase of space debris
• GEO
• Graveyard orbit
• LEO
• Controlled re-entry of large object
• De-orbiting of satellites within a limited time (25
years)
• Passivation of satellite at EOL
• Remove fuels
• Discharge batteries

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Graveyard Orbit
300km above GEO

http://esamultimedia.esa.int/images/spacecraft-
operations/space_debris/Graveyardorbit3_H1.jpg
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 Mission analysis
• Identify critical features of the mission
• Design requirement
• Define subsets of design requirements
• Thermal
• Structural
• Communication
• Power
• Etc
• Leads to configuration of satellites

57
 Mission analysis
Mission objectives

Mission analysis
Constraints
Mission specification
(Mission scenario)

Mission orbits
Spacecraft system requirements

Ground station requirements

Launcher requirements58
 Orbit selection
• Need to consider
• Ground station visibility
• Eclipse duration
• Launch windows
• Orbit lifetime

59
 Ground station visibility
• Determine
• The amount of data to be transferred between the Earth
and the satellite
• How to control the satellite

φ: geocentric semi-angle

s: range between the ground station and the satellite

ε: elevation angle

Communication time is limited

Less than 10 minutes for a 500km satellite 60
 Ground station visibility

Maximum communication time = (2φ)/360 * orbital period

61
 Launch windows
• For a given mission, there is a certain launch windows to
achieve the mission orbit
• The orbital plane is inertially fixed. The satellite can be
launched only as the launch site rotates through the orbital
plane.

We launch when the

launch site lies on this
plane

66
 Launch window
Interplanetary mission has very limited launch windows

The launch window to the Mars

is open every 780 days

67
 Orbit lifetime
• Define the mission life time
• Atmospheric drag is important for a low altitude
mission
• Need to consider re-entry strategy

KOSMOS 954 crash on Canada in 1977

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cosmos-954_debris_cropped.png 68
 Polar LEO/Remote-Sensing Satellites
• Global coverage
• Higher inclination angle
• Ground track within ±i degree of latitude
• For civil remote sensing
• Wants to operate for a long time
• 600 ~ 900km
• Military has different reason
• Earth-synchronous and/or Sun-synchronous

69
 Earth-synchronous

Rotational period with respect to stars

τ E = 86164.1(s) = 23h56min

τ
Δφ1 = −2π (rad/orbit)
τE
3πJ 2 R 2E
Regression of the line of nodes Δφ 2 = − 2 cosi (rad/orbit)
p
p = a(1− e 2 ) = h 2 / µ
Δφ = Δφ1 + Δφ 2 (rad/orbit) 70
Earth synchronous

Δφ = Δφ1 + Δφ 2 (rad/orbit)

For the satellite to come back to the

same position after n rotation

n Δφ = m2π
m: an integer

The satellite comes back to the same

position after m day

71
Sun synchronous

72
Sun synchronous

73
Local time coverage

Each has its own advantage and disadvantage

74
Sun and Earth Synchronism
n Δφ = m2π Δφ = Δφ1 + Δφ 2 (rad/orbit)
τ
Δφ 2 = 2π (rad/orbit)
τ ES
τ
Δφ1 = −2π (rad/orbit)
τE
Gives ⎛ τE ⎞
nτ ⎜1− ⎟ = mτ E
⎝ τ ES ⎠
In one rotation, the angle difference is
⎛ 1 1⎞ a3
Δφ = 2πτ ⎜ − ⎟ = 7.27 × 10 −5 τ (rad) τ = 2π
⎝ τ ES τ E ⎠ µ
75
Sun and Earth Synchronism
⎛ 1 1⎞
Δφ = 2πτ ⎜ − ⎟ = 7.27 × 10 −5 τ (rad)
⎝ τ ES τ E ⎠

From a3
τ = 2π
µ

τ = 9.952 × 10 −3 a 3 / 2

Δφ = 7.24 × 10 −7 a 3 / 2 (rad)
a is in km
n Δφ = m2π
If we want daily revisit, m=1
2π
n=
7.24 × 10 −7 a 3 / 2 76
 Sun and Earth Synchronism
2π
n=
7.24 × 10 −7 a 3 / 2
n must be an integer

n Radius, a Altitude
(km) (km)
14 7205 827
15 6882 504
16 6592 214

77
Sun and Earth Synchronism
⎛ 1 1⎞
Δφ = 2πτ ⎜ − ⎟ = 7.27 × 10 −5 τ (rad)
⎝ τ ES τ E ⎠

a3
From τ = 2π
µ

For a=6882(km) (504km altitude)

τ=5671 (sec)

⎛ 1 1⎞
Δφ = 2πτ ⎜ − ⎟ = 0.41(rad)
⎝ τ ES τ E ⎠

At the equator, this is 2630km

For m=1, n=15 orbit, the width of 2630km is left unobserved

78
 Swath width

For daily revisit and global coverage

Swath of 2630km

Very limited spatial resolution

Satellite can view only the

limited width on the Earth

http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca.earth-
sciences/files/images/resource/tutor/fundam/images/swath.gif

79
 Revisit time
• To monitor every part of the Earth,
• Increase the swath width
• Increase the revisit time (increase m and n)

n Δφ = m2π
Δφ = 7.27 × 10 −5 τ (rad)
The width covered by the revisit
a3
2πRE 40,000 τ = 2π
= (km) µ
n n
The orbit should be determined by
Revisit time, m (day)
Covered width, n
Resolution, a (km) 80
 Spatial resolution
Distance to the Earth L=a-RE

Z N pixel
Resolution
Diffraction
Focal length http://www.cmehappy.jp/articles/angleofview.html

F；focal length θ x Z /2
tan = =
x: size of CCD 2 2f L
Number of pixels in CCD：N x = Ny
Size of 1 pixel：y
Z yL Size of CCDxdistance
= Resolution∝
N f Focal length 81
 Spatial resolution
• Number of pixels: N=6464x4852 (8k Industrial camera)
• Pixel size: y=3.45µm
• Focal length: f=300mm
• Orbital height: L=400km
• Sensor size: x=22.3mm

• Swath: Z=29.7km
• Resolution: Z/N=4.6m

θ x Z /2
tan = =
2 2f L
82
 Spatial resolution

https://gis.stackexchange.com/questions/82625/calcul
ate-ground-nadir-line-from-pv-coordinates

Image captured by KITSUNE satellite

To have a good resolution, nadir pointing (shortest distance)
To have a good picture, a bigger sensor and aperture (more light!)
83
 Mission analysis
• Before you move into the development stage
(BBM), you work on
• Define the success criteria
• Mission scenario (Concept of operation)
• Budget (Power, Communication, Pointing, etc.)
• Work Breakdown Structure
• Master schedule
• Requirement allocation
• Budget allocation
• Risk management

84