BlOCK-1: FOUNDATION OF BEHAVIOUR CHANGE

Human behaviour
Human behaviour is the potential and expressed capacity (mentally, physically, and socially)
of human individuals or groups to respond to internal and external stimuli throughout their
life. While specific traits of one's personality, temperament, and genetics may be more
consistent, other behaviors change as one moves between life stages—i.e., from birth
through adolescence, adulthood, and, for example, parenthood and retirement.
Importance of human behaviour
1. It can change.
Personality is fixed and unlikely to change, so it makes sense to focus our efforts at
the point where changes can be made: our behaviour. Since behaviour is within our locus of
control, affirmative feedback on behaviour offers a positive lead for personal development,
showing where and how we can adapt to meet the needs of a particular situation or job role.
2. It can be observed.
Personality is what’s on the inside; behaviour is what comes out, and it affects – and
is affected by – those around us. Measuring behaviour allows us to focus on the words and
actions which shape our interactions with others. Arguably, we aren’t experts on someone
else’s personality – we don’t know what’s going on “behind the scenes” – but we can
comment on what we can see before us.
By giving and receiving feedback on behaviours within a team, we move to a
democratic, evidential process. We can corroborate – or disagree with – one another, and
provide evidence of the behaviours in question from our own experience. This can
depersonalise difficult conversations and take the heat out of conflicts which might otherwise
descend into ad hominem attacks. It can also provide a significant learning opportunity –
your observers might uncover strengths you didn’t know you possessed.
3. It’s situational.
Our behavioural tendencies influence the kinds of work we might be best suited to,
and who we work best with. Some people behave very differently at work than they do at
home, despite the underlying personality being one and the same. Measuring behaviour in a
particular context allows discussion to focus on the workplace, whereas more wide-ranging
measurements might muddy the waters.
4. It’s practical.
Belbin isn’t a label to apply or a box to put someone in, it’s a language designed to
help people better understand each other. Once people understand the Team Roles and the
basic concept behind them, this language can be used as a shorthand to describe how different
kinds of work might be approached or what sort of contributions are required at a particular
meeting.
5. It makes individuals and teams tick.
Understanding strengths and weaknesses makes people more engaged, happier and
more productive at work, promoting a positive working environment and reducing turnover
costs. In 2013, Gallup reported that only 13% of employees were engaged at work.[1] In
2016, their findings showed that teams in the top quartile for engagement outperformed those
in the bottom quartile by 21%.[2] In another 2016 study, Harvard Business School outlined
the importance of “relational affirmation” in this process: identifying and communicating
individual strengths, and using a common language and frame of reference.[3]
6. It can be predicted.
Since we can observe behaviour, we can predict it too. People may not always behave
as we expect in every little way – as human beings, we always possess the capacity to
surprise one another – but broadly speaking, we settle into ways of working, communicating
and relating to others that can be expected to remain the same over a period of time. This
means we can use behavioural styles for recruitment and teambuilding, to suggest whether
someone might be a good fit for a particular job role or to join an existing team.
7. It’s more important than intelligence in predicting success.
“The best way to build a great team is not to select individuals for their smarts or
accomplishments but to learn how they communicate and to shape and guide the team so that
it follows successful communication patterns.” - “The New Science of Building Great
Teams”, Alex “Sandy” Pentland, April 2012
As part of his original research at Henley Management College during the 1970s, Dr
Belbin set up so-called “Apollo teams”, composed of those individuals who had achieved the
highest scores on a battery of intelligence tests. Almost without exception, these teams were
the worst performers, owing to competitiveness and negativity within the teams. This initial
finding spurred Dr. Belbin on to discover which qualities did predicate success – and Team
Role theory was the result.
8. It can be extrapolated.
Personality comes down to the individual – it’s their outlook on the world. By its very
nature, behaviour is more fluid and interconnected with others, so it lends itself naturally to
collation. We can aggregate key Team Role information to design and build teams, or map
the behavioural preferences of two individuals to examine how well a partnership might
work.

Factors Influencing Human Behaviour

In order to address human factors in workplace safety settings, peoples' capabilities and
limitations must first be understood. The modern working environment is very different to the
settings that humans have evolved to deal with. The following human characteristics that can
lead to difficulties interacting with the working environment.

Attention -The modern workplace can 'overload' human attention with enormous amounts of
information, far in excess of that encountered in the natural world. The way in which we
learn information can help reduce demands on our attention, but can sometimes create further
problems
Perception -In order to interact safely with the world, we must correctly perceive it and the
dangers it holds. Work environments often challenge human perception systems and
information can be misinterpreted.
Memory -Our capacity for remembering things and the methods we impose upon ourselves
to access information often put undue pressure on us. Increasing knowledge about a subject
or process allows us to retain more information relating to it.
Logical reasoning -Failures in reasoning and decision making can have severe implications
for complex systems such as chemical plants, and for tasks like maintenance and planning.

Environmental, organisational and job factors, in brief, influence the behaviour at work in a
way which can affect health and safety. A simple way to view human factors is to think about
three aspects: the individual, the job and the organisation and their impact on people's health
and safety-related behaviour.
 Following figures shows that all three are interlinked and have mutual influence

The typical examples of immediate causes and contributing factors for human failures are
given below:
Individual factors
 low skill and competence level
 tired staff
 bored or disheartened staff
 individual medical problems
Job factors
 illogical design of equipment and instruments
 constant disturbances and interruptions
 missing or unclear instructions
 poorly maintained equipment
 high workload
 noisy and unpleasant working conditions
Organisation and management factors
 poor work planning, leading to high work pressure
 poor SOPs
 lack of safety systems and barriers
 inadequate responses to previous incident
 management based on one-way communications
 deficient co-ordination and responsibilities
 poor management of health and safety
 poor health and safety culture.
Biological bases of human behaviour
Nervous system
The Nervous System Human nervous system is the most complex and most developed of all
living creatures. Though the nervous system functions as a whole, for the ease of study, we
can divide it into many parts depending on its location or functions. Based on location, the
nervous system can be divided into two parts: Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS). The part of the nervous system found inside the hard bony cases
(cranium and backbone) is classified as CNS. Brain and spinal cord are the organs of this
system. The parts of the nervous system other than central nervous system are placed in the
PNS. PNS can be further classified into Somatic and Autonomic nervous system. Somatic
nervous system is concerned with voluntary actions, while the autonomic nervous system
performs functions on which we have no voluntary control.
The Brain and Behaviour
It is believed that the human brain has evolved over millions of years from the brains of
lower animals, and this evolutionary process still continues. We can examine the levels of
structures in the brain, from its earliest to the most recent form in the process of evolution.
The limbic system, brain stem and cerebellum are the oldest structures, while Cerebral Cortex
is the latest development in the course of evolution. An adult brain weighs about 1.36 kg and
contains around 100 billion neurons. However, the most amazing thing about the brain is not
its number of neurons but its ability to guide human behaviour and thought. The brain is
organised into structures and regions that perform specific functions. Brain scanning reveals
that while some mental functions are distributed among different areas of the brain, many
activities are localised also. For example, the occipital lobe of the brain is a specialised area
for vision.
The Endocrine System
The endocrine glands play a crucial role in our development and behaviour. They secrete
specific chemical substances, called hormones, which control some of our © NCERT not to
be republished Psychology 52 behaviours. These glands are called ductless glands or
endocrine glands, because they do not have any duct (unlike other glands) to send their
secretions to specific places. Hormones are circulated by the bloodstream. The endocrine
glands form the endocrine system of the body. This system works in conjunction with
different parts of the nervous system. The whole system is thus known as neuroendocrine
system.
GENES AND BEHAVIOUR
We inherit characteristics from our parents in the form of genes. A child at birth possesses a
unique combination of genes received from both parents. This inheritance provides a distinct
biological blueprint and timetable for an individual’s development. The study of the
inheritance of physical and psychological characteristics from ancestors is referred to as
genetics. The child begins life as a single zygote cell (mother’s ovum fertilised by father’s
sperm). Zygote is a tiny cell with a nucleus in its center containing chromosomes. These
chromosomes with all genes are inherited from each parent in equal numbers.
Intelligence:- Despite substantial interest in the subject, there still isn't a consensus among experts
about the components of intelligence or whether accurate measurements of intelligence are even
possible.

Ability:- Is defined as the knowledge, experience, and skill that an individual or group brings
to a particular task or activity.

Creativity:- is defined as the tendency to generate or recognize ideas, alternatives,

or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems, communicating with others,
and entertaining ourselves and others.
Social development– improvements we make in our ability to interact and get along with
others.
Moral development– advances in our conceptions of right and wrong and prosocial traits
such as honesty and respect for others.
Personality development– involves changes to our attitudinal, emotional, and behavioral
responses that occur over time
Self-concept– cognitive assessments of our physical, social, and academic competences.
Self-esteem (self-worth)– is an emotional reaction to, or an evaluation of, the self, and it
raises a number of personal questions. Culture plays a role.

Motivation
1) Psychosocial Development Theory By: Erikson 2) Psycho-Analysis Theory By: Sigmund
Freud
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory of personality has 8 stages:
1) Trust vs. Mistrust
2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
3) Initiative vs. Guilt
4) Industry vs. Inferiority
5) Identity vs. Confusion
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation
7) Generativity vs. Stagnation
8) Integrity vs. Despair

1) Trust vs. Mistrust

 Birth -to- year 1

 The first stage of Erikson's theory of psycho-social development occurs from birth.
 The development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child‘s care
person.
 If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world.
 If family members, specially mother, is unresponsive, then the child will learn to
mistrust people.
 Moreover, feeding is the most critical event for learning trust or mistrust and mother
is the most important social agent.
2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
 1 year --- 3 years
 The second stage takes place during early childhood and is focused on children
developing a greater sense of personal control.
 Erikson believe that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of
control and a sense of independence.
 Children going through this stage generally insist on doing things on their own.
 Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.
 Toilet training is the most critical event for learning shame or doubt.
 Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those
who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

3) Initiative vs. Guilt

 3 years --- 6 years

 Age of pre-school
 During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the
world through directing play and other social interactions.
 The family, and later the teacher, can help the child to take initiative .
 Teacher should arrange activities so that children are less likely to interfere with one
another.
 Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those
who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of
initiative.

4) Industry vs. Inferiority

 6 years --- 12 years

 This is the age of primary and elementary grades.
 In this stage, children start comparing their academic performance and social action
with their peers.
 Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
 Children who are encouraged parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence
and belief in their skills.
 Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will
doubt their abilities to be successful.

5) Identity vs. Confusion

 12 years --- 20 years
 This is a stage of teenagers.
 Children want to establish their own identity in the society.
 During adult stage, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
 Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self.
 Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused
about themselves and the future.
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation
 20 years --- 40 years.
 This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships.
 People face the crisis of trying to share their identity with others in the form of close
friendships and with a life partner.
 Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are
committed and secure.
 Failure to establish close relationships leads to a sense of isolation.

7) Generativity vs. Stagnation

 40 years --- 65 years
 This is an age of maturity.
 During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
 Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community.
 Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

8) Integrity vs. Despair

 65 years and above.
 This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
 Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted
and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of
bitterness and despair.
 Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
 Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction.

Freud proposed 3 Categories of Psycho-Analysis Theory:-

1) Structure of the personality
2) Psycho-Development
3) Psycho-Dynamics

1) Structure of the personality

ID:-
 This category is also called as “pleasure principle”.
 It is the selfish part of the personality.
 In this phase, there are irrational demands of person and he/she do not think of any
ethical value. Ego
 This is named as “Reality Principle”.
 It is a balance between Id and super ego.
 It is totally related to ethics. Super ego.
Super ego
 is known as “Morality Principle”.
 It is concerned with the moral and ethical issues of world.

2) Psycho-Development
It has 5 stages;
 i. Oral stage
ii. Anal stage
iii. Phallic stage
iv. Latency stage
v. Genital stage

1) Oral stage
 Birth to 2 years
 According to Freud, mouth is the first organ for providing pleasure to child.
 It is manifested by chewing and biting.
 The objective is to establish a comfortable expression and gratification of oral needs
without excessive conflict.
 Succession of oral stage provides a basis in character for a capacity to trust others as
well as have a sense of self–reliance and self–trust.
2) Anal stage:-
 from 18 – 36 months of age.
 This is essentially a period of striving for independence and separation from control
by the parent.
 Successful resolution leads to development of a capacity for independence and
personal initiative without guilt.
 A capacity for self determining behavior without a sense of shame or self doubt also
came to personality of person.

3) Phallic stage
 from 3rd year of life and goes on till the 5th year.
 This stage is characterized by primary focus of sexual interests, and excitement in the
genital area.
 This focusing lays the foundation of gender identity.
 The patterns of identification that emerge from the phallic phase are the primary
determinants of the development of human character, according to Freud.
 This stage gives rise to powerful internal resources for regulation of drive impulses
and their direction to constructive ends known as the superego.

4) Latency stage
 starting at the age of 5 or 6 and going on to age of 11 – 13 years.
 There is a further integration of sex – role identity.
 The quietness allows for development of ego and mastery of important skills.
 This is the phase when there is broadening of contacts with other significant figures
outside the family, such as teachers, coaches, and other adults.

5) Genital stage
 It starts from 11 to 13 years till young adulthood.
 The primary objective of this phase is the ultimate separation from dependence on and
attachment to the parents.
 The establishment of adult, mature relationships.
 The person reaches a satisfying capacity for self realization
 Meaningful participation in the areas of work and love; fulfilling one’s roles and
duties.
Impression:- An idea, feeling, or opinion about something or someone, especially one formed
without conscious thought or on the basis of little evidence.

Opinions:- a view or judgement formed about something, not necessarily based on fact or
knowledge.

TYPES OF EMOTIONS
In the 1970s, a psychologist named Paul Eckman identified six basic types of
emotions that are universally present in all human cultures.
1. HAPPINESS:
Of all the different types of emotions, happiness tends to be the emotion people seek the
most. It can be defined as a pleasant emotional state that involves joy, gratification, feelings
of contentment, satisfaction and well-being. Happiness and health are interconnected and
there are many positive outcomes of increased happiness.
2. SADNESS:
Sadness is often characterized by feelings of grief, disappointment, disinterest and
hopelessness. Like other types of emotions, sadness is something that each person
experiences from time to time. The severity of one's sadness depends upon the situation or
event causing the sadness. Prolonged sadness can affect one's health, which is why we should
address our feelings by talking to others.
3. FEAR:
This a powerful emotion rooted in our survival instincts. When we face danger, we
experience fear. It gives way to two types of emotional feelings—‘fight’, or responding to the
threat, and ‘flight’ or avoiding the threat. When we feel fearful, our physiological responses
help ensure that we’re prepared to effectively deal with the threats in our environments.
4. DISGUST:
One of the core emotional feelings is disgust. Some of the ways of expressing disgust are:
 Body language, such as when we turn away from the object of disgust
 Physical reactions, such as vomiting
 Facial expressions, such as wrinkling our nose
5. ANGER:
Anger is one of the most powerful emotions. It involves feelings of hostility, frustration and
agitation. Anger can be expressed in various ways like the tone of the voice through yelling
or physical responses such as one's face turns red or the use of aggressive body language.
While anger is considered a negative emotion, it can be constructive at times. It can motivate
us to find solutions or make decisions when we want to solve a problem.
6. SURPRISE:
Surprise is briefer an emotion than the others. It is a physiological response to being startled.
Surprise is not inherently a positive or negative emotion. Whether a surprise is a happy, sad
or neutral one depends on the situation.
 BLOCK-2 : COGNITIVE PROCESS AND LEARNING
UNIT-1: COGNITIVE PROCESSES AFFECTING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

Attention is the behavioral and cognitive process of selectively concentrating on a discrete

aspect of information, whether considered subjective or objective, while ignoring other
perceivable information.

Perception (from Latin perceptio 'gathering, receiving') is the organization, identification,

and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented
information or environment.

Remembering (episodic memory) is the conscious and vivid recollection of a prior event
such that a person can mentally travel to the specific time and place of the original event and
retrieve the details; he or she is able to bring to mind a particular association, image, or
sensory impression from the time of the event.

Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or modification of information already

encoded and stored in an individual's short or long-term memory. It is a spontaneous or
gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage.
Knowledge
Knowledge is a term that refers to the collection of facts, information and experience that a
person has collected throughout their life and education that they are able to use and apply to
new life experiences.

Expertise refers to the psychological processes that underlie the superior achievement of
experts, who are typically defined as those who have acquired special skills in, or knowledge
of, a particular subject through professional training and practical experience.

Principles of Perceptions
1. Closure:
Gestalt psychologists claimed that when we receive sensations that form an incomplete or
unfinished visual image or sound, we tend to overlook the incompleteness and perceive the
image or sound as a complete or finished unit. This tendency to fill in the gaps is referred to
as closure.
2. Pragnanz:
The term pragnanz indicates fullness or completeness. Gestalt psychologists are of the
view that the process of perception is dynamic and goes on changing until we reach a stage of
perceiving with maximum meaning and completeness. Once we reach this point, the
perceived gestalt remains stable. Such a stable gestalt is called a good gestalt.
The perceptual process according to gestalt psychology tends to move towards a good
gestalt. This phenomenon is very obvious in the case of children. If once they perceive
something, they keep on asking questions about it which may appear silly to an adult. Closure
is one basic mechanism which illustrates the principle of pragnanz.
 The reader should not confuse between perceiving a good gestalt and the accuracy of
perception. The term good gestalt means that at that stage the perceptual process is stable and
that under given conditions a clear figure-ground demarcation has been arrived at.
Apart from the above principles, other principles which play a role in the organisation
of perception are proximity, similarity, continuity, etc. They explain how perception takes
place in the presence of a large number of stimuli. Perceptual organisation, under such
circumstances, is determined to a great extent by the laws of association-similarity,
continuity, etc. These principles are explained with the aid of illustrations below.
3. Proximity:
When objects are close to each other, the tendency is to perceive them together
rather than separately. Even if the individual items do not have any connection with each
other they will be grouped under a single pattern or perceived as a meaningful picture (Fig.
7.3).

For instance, when the English teacher in the class questions a student, ‘What is
often?’ This is completely different from the question, ‘What is of..ten?’Both the sentences
contain the same sounds but the way the speaker groups the sounds and where he pauses will
determine how the sounds are perceived.
4. Similarity:
Similar elements tend to be perceived as belonging together. Stimuli that have the
same size, shape and colour tend to be perceived as parts of the pattern as shown in Fig.7.4

5. Continuity:
Anything which extends itself into space in the same shape, size and colour without a
break is perceived as a whole figure (Fig. 7.5). For example, when several dots form a curved
 line, an individual may perceive the figure as two different continuous lines irrespective of
the factors like proximity and similarity of the dots. Thus, the whole figure is organised into a
continuum though the dots are unconnected (Fig.7.5).

6. Inclusiveness:
The pattern which includes all the elements present in a given figure will be perceived
more readily than the other figures. For example, in Fig.7.6 the hexagonal figure formed by
all the dots may be perceived more readily than the square formed by the four middle dots.
Single dots at either end act as a fence or enclosure within which all the other elements are
included.

Process of Perception
 Reception: In this process, a person receives the information through stimuli.
 Selection: This is governed by two types of factors:
o External factors: These are size, intensity, proximity, motion and novelty.
o Internal factors: These are attitude, motives, experiences, interests and expectations.
 Organization: It is the process by which we sort stimuli into a meaningful pattern. It
involves the following:
o Grouping: Assembling of stimuli on the grounds of similarity.
o Proximity: This is the closeness of stimuli to one another that affects perception.
o Closure: It is the ability to organize stimuli so that together they form a whole pattern.
 Interpretation: It is the formation of an idea about the information that is sensed, selected
and organized. It involves the following phenomena: primacy effect, selective perception,
stereotyping, halo effect, projection and expectancy effect. They are the types of perceptual
errors.
o Primacy/ Recency Effect: The first impression is given the most important which is known
as the primacy effect. Recency effect, on the other hand, is that human beings remember
latest events more than the less recent ones.
o Stereotyping: It is the effect caused by forming a certain belief about a category of stimuli
and generalizing that notion to encounters with each member of that category. In reality, there
is a difference between the perceived notion of each category and the actual traits of the
members. It may affect the interview process in an organization.
o Halo effect: It is the process of generalizing from a comprehensive analysis to a single
attribute or trait. A negative halo effect is known as the reverse halo effect. It affects the
performance appraisal of employees in a company.
o Projection: It is a psychological defence mechanism which makes a person compare his
negative traits with other people and conclude that they are better off than others. Perceptual
checking minimizes the negative effects of projection.
o Selective Perception: This means a person sees, feels or hears what he wants to and skips
other information which are inconsistent to his view.
o Expectancy effect: It is the tendency of an individual to interpret any person or object based
on how he expects the person or object to be in the first place. It is also called as Pygmalion
effect.

Consciousness refers to your individual awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings,
sensations, and environments. Essentially, your consciousness is your awareness of yourself and the
world around you. This awareness is subjective and unique to you. If you can describe something you
are experiencing in words, then it is part of your consciousness.

Types of Consciousness
There are a number of things that can cause changes or alterations in consciousness. Some of
these occur naturally, while others are the result of things such as drugs or damage to the
brain. Changes to consciousness can also result in changes in perception, thinking,
understanding, and interpretations of the world.

Some different states of consciousness include:

 Dreams
 Hallucinations
 Hypnosis
 Meditation
 Sleep
 States induced by psychoactive drugs

There are two normal states of awareness: consciousness and unconsciousness. Altered levels
of consciousness can also occur, which may be caused by medical or mental conditions that
impair or change awareness.
Altered types of consciousness include:

 Coma
 Confusion
 Delirium
 Disorientation
 Lethargy
 Stupor

Sleep and Dreaming: Why do we need to sleep and dream?

What is sleep?

A condition of body and mind which typically recurs for several hours every night, in which
the nervous system is inactive, the eyes closed, the postural muscles relaxed, and
consciousness practically suspended.

Stages of sleep
NREM Sleep
Stage 1

Light sleep, can be easily woken up. Muscles are less active, slow eye movements. Sense of
falling is common or sudden muscle jerk.

Alpha brain activity is resting and theta shows periods between wake and sleep.

Stage 2

Eye movements stop, Body temperature drops and heart rates slows. Relatively easy to wake
up.

Theta brainwaves slow down but bursts of brain activity. (spindles)

Stage 3

Stage is between light and deep sleep. Body repairs itself. Heart and breathing rate continue
to fall. Difficult to wake up

Slow delta and some faster waves

Stage 4

Hard to wake up. (Cataplesy). No eye movements. Can experience sleepwalking or night
terrors.

All delta waves are slow.

REM Sleep

REM is the deepest stage of sleep and people spend approx. 2 hours dreaming during REM
sleep. Characteristics of this stage include: Irregular breathing, Eyes jerking, Movement
inhibition (paralysed muscles), an increase in heart rate and blood pressure and dreaming.
Also, individuals experience sensory blockade which is when all incoming sensory
information is stopped.

REM sleep stimulates learning and an increase in proteins. Adults spend approx 20% of sleep
in this stage compared to Infants who spend approx 50%.

Dream

Freud believed that there are different aspects and content of dreams which can reveal
unconscious thoughts.

The manifest content of a dream refers to the story that is told. Whereas the latent
content is the deeper meaning behind what has been said.

Dreamwork

 Dreamwork refers to the way the mind keeps unconscious thoughts hidden during
dreaming.
 This is to protect the individual and keep them asleep by disguising repressed
thoughts and ideas.
 Dreamwork consists of condensation, displacement and secondary elaboration.

Learning and memory are closely related concepts. Learning is the acquisition of skill or
knowledge, while memory is the expression of what you’ve acquired. Another difference is the speed
with which the two things happen. If you acquire the new skill or knowledge slowly and laboriously,
that’s learning. If acquisition occurs instantly, that’s making a memory.

Types of Memory

Psychologists and neuroscientists have divided memory systems into two broad categories,
declarative and nondeclarative (Figure). The declarative memory system is the system of
memory that is perhaps the most familiar. It is the memory system that has a conscious
component and it includes the memories of facts and events. A fact like 'Paris is the capital
of France', or an event like a prior vacation to Paris. Nondeclarative memory, also called
implicit memory, includes the types of memory systems that do not have a conscious
component but are nevertheless extremely important. They include the memories for skills
and habits (e.g., riding a bicycle, driving a car, playing golf or tennis or a piano), a
phenomenon called priming, simple forms of associative learning [e.g., classical conditioning
(Pavlovian conditioning)], and finally simple forms of nonassociative learning such as
habituation and sensitization. Sensitization will be discussed in detail later in the Chapter.
Declarative memory is "knowing what" and nondeclarative memory is "knowing how".
 Fig: Memory system in brain

Mechanisms of Memory

Much of what has been learned about the neural and molecular mechanisms of learning and
memory have come from the use of so called “model systems” that are amenable to cellular
analyses. One of those model systems is illustrated in Figure 7.8A. Aplysia californica is
found in the tidal pools along the coast of Southern California. It is about six inches long and
weighs about 150 grams. At first glance it is an unpromising looking creature, but
neuroscientists have exploited the technical advantages of this animal to gain fundamental
insights into the molecular mechanisms of memory. Indeed, the pioneering discoveries of
Eric Kandel using this animal were recognized by his receipt of the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 2000. Aplysia have three technical advantages.

First, it exhibits simple forms of nondeclarative (implicit) learning like classical (Pavlovian)
conditioning, operant conditioning and sensitization.

Second, Aplysia have a very simple nervous system. Compared to the 100’s of billions of
nerve cells in the human brain, the entire nervous system of this animal only has about 10,000
cells. Those cells are distributed in different ganglia like the one illustrated in Figure 7.8B.
Each ganglia like this one has only about 2,000 cells, yet it is capable of mediating or
controlling a number of different behaviors. This means that any one behavior can be
controlled by 100 neurons or even less. One has the potential of working out the complete
neural circuit underlying a behavior, and then, after training the animal, the neural circuit can
be examined to identify what has changed in the circuit that underlies the memory.

Third, the ganglia contain neurons that are very large. A ganglion under a dissecting
microscope. It is about 2mm in diameter. The spherical structures throughout the ganglia are
the cell bodies of individual neurons. Each neuron is identifiable and has a unique
localization and function. A related advantage is that individual neurons can be removed and
placed in culture medium where they can survive for many days. Indeed, multiple neurons
can be removed from the ganglia and they reestablish their normal synaptic connections,
thereby providing a very powerful experimental system to study the physiology of nerve cells
and the properties of the connections between them. In the micrograph it is possible to see
the shadow of a microelectrode that has impaled the sensory neuron, and the shadow of a
microelectrode that has impaled a motor neuron for performing intracellular recordings.

Instructor Notes
 Metacognition is one’s awareness of thinking and the self-regulatory behavior that
accompanies this awareness. There are variables that impact metacognition including
person, task, and strategy variables.
 Involves knowledge and control of self
 Knowledge and control of process
 Successful learning and transfer of knowledge is dependent on the students’ ability to
effectively control and monitor their learning
 Creativity is the use of the imagination or original ideas especially in the production of an
artistic work. It is the act of turning new and imaginative ideas into reality. It can be
characterized by the ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden patterns, to
make connections between seemingly unrelated phenomena, and to generate solutions.
 Convergent thinking: the combining of information into a single idea or product.
 Divergent thinking: the process of generating many different but related ideas for a
given topic or solution to a problem.
 Transfer of knowledge is a phenomenon in which something a person has learned at one
time affects how the person learn or performs in a later situation.
 Types of transfer: positive, negative, specific, and general
 Factors impacting transfer include the meaningfulness of the original learning, how
similar the new material is to the original learning, the type of material (theories are
more easily transferred than discrete facts), the relevance of learning, and the cultural
environment and expectations.
 Problem Solving is any situation in which you are trying to reach some goal and must
find a way to do so. One creates new solutions for the problems.
 Algorithm is a step-by step prescription for achieving a goal.
 Heuristic is a general strategy used in attempting to solve problems.
 Examples are means-end analysis, working backwards strategy, analogical thinking,
and verbalization.
 UNIT-2 : INFORMATIO PROCESSING
Information processing is the change (processing) of information in any manner detectable
by an observer. As such, it is a process that describes everything that happens (changes) in
the universe, from the falling of a rock (a change in position) to the printing of a text file from
a digital computer system. In the latter case, an information processor (the printer) is
changing the form of presentation of that text file (from bytes to glyphs). The computers up
to this period function on the basis of programs saved in the memory, they have no
intelligence of their own

Principles of the information processing approach

According to Huitt (2003), there are a few basic principles that most cognitive psychologists
agree with:

 The mental system has limited capacities, i.e. bottlenecks in the flow and processing of
information, occur at very specific points
 A control mechanism is required to oversee the encoding, transformation, processing,
storage, retrieval and utilization of information. This control mechanism requires itself
processing power and that varies in function of the difficulty of the task.
 There is a two-way flow of information. Sensory input is combined with information
stored in memory in order to construct meaning.
 The human organism has been genetically prepared to process and organize information
in specific ways.

WAUGH AND NORMAN’S MODEL OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MEMORY

The first modern behavioural model to travel down memory lane, and one whose
concept of primary memory has served as a departure point for most modern theories, was
developed by Waugh and Norman (1965). The theory is dualistic; primary memory (PM), a
short-term storage system, is conceptualised as being independent of secondary memory
(SM), a longer-term storage system. Waugh and Norman borrowed freely from William
James’s dichotomy of primary and secondary memory and illustrated their theory by means
of the model shown in Figure below, which encouraged the memory metaphor of boxes in the
head that soon proliferated in the literature of cognitive psychology.

What Waugh and Norman did that James never attempted was to quantify properties
of primary memory. This short-term storage system was taken to have very limited capacity,
so that loss of information from it was postulated to occur not as a simple function of time but
(once the storage capacity was exhausted) by displacement of old items by new ones. PM
could be conceptualised as a storage compartment much like a vertical file, in which
information is stored in a slot or, if all the slots are filled, displaces an item occupying one of
the slots.
 Waugh and Norman traced the fate of items in PM (primary memory) by using lists of
sixteen digits, that were read to subjects at the rate of one digit per second or four digits per
second. The purpose of presenting digits every second or quarter second was to determine
whether forgetting was a function of decay (presumed to be due to time) or interference in
PM.

If forgetting was a function of decay, then less recall could be expected with the
slower rate (one digit per second); if forgetting was a function of interference in PM, then no
difference in recall could be expected according to the presentation rate. The same amount of
information is presented at both presentation rates, which, by Waugh and Norman’s logic,
allows the same time for decay to occur. It might be argued that even at one item per second,
subjects would allow extra experimental information to enter their PM, but later
experimentation (Norman, 1966) in which presentation rates varied from one to ten digits (for
a given period), yielded data consistent with a rate of forgetting expected from the original
model. The rate of forgetting for the two presentation rates is similar. Interference seems to
be a greater factor than decay in forgetting in PM.

Waugh and Norman’s system makes good sense. PM holds verbal information and is
available for verbatim recall; this is true in our ordinary conversation. We can recall that last
part of a sentence we have just heard with complete accuracy, even if we were barely paying
attention to what was said. However, to recall the same information sometime later is
impossible unless we rehearse it, which makes it available through SM.

ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN’S THE STAGE MODEL

Traditionally, the most widely used model of information processing is the stage
theory model, based on the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). The key elements of this
model are that it views learning and memory as discontinuous and multi-staged. It is
hypothesised that as new information is taken in, it is in some way manipulated before it is
stored. The stage theory model, as shown in Figure :, recognises three types or stages of
memory: sensory memory, shortterm or working memory, and long-term memory.
 In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, memory starts with a sensory input from the
environment. This input is held for a very brief time – several seconds at most – in a sensory
register associated with the sensory channels (vision, hearing, touch, and so forth). This
occurs in as little as ½ second for visual stimuli (Sperling, 1960), 47 Models of Infromation
Processing and about 4 or 5 seconds for auditory stimuli (Darwin et al., 1972). The transfer of
new information quickly to the next stage of processing is of critical importance, and sensory
memory acts as a portal for all information that is to become part of memory. There are many
ways to ensure transfer and many methods for facilitating that transfer. To this end, attention
and automaticity are the two major influences on sensory memory, and much work has been
done to understand the impact of each on information processing.

Information that is attended to and recognised in the sensory register may be passed
on to second stage of information processing, i.e. short-term memory (STM) or working
memory, where it is held for perhaps 20 or 30 seconds. This stage is often viewed as active or
conscious memory because it is the part of memory that is being actively processed while
new information is being taken in. Some of the information reaching short-term memory is
processed by being rehearsed – that is, by having attention focused on it, perhaps by being
repeated over and over (maintenance rehearsal), or perhaps by being processed in some other
way that will link it up with other information already stored in memory (elaborate rehearsal).
Generally 5 + 2 number of units can be processed at any given time in STM.

Information that is rehearsed may then be passed along to long-term memory (LTM);
information not so processed is lost. When items of information are placed in long-term
memory, they are organised into categories, where they may reside for days, months, years,
or for a lifetime. When you remember something, a representation of the item is withdrawn,
or retrieved, from long-term memory.

Organisations of long-term memory - Each of the memory unit or structures

represented in the mind is distinct and serves a different operational function. However, it is
evident that some type of very specialised categorisation system exists within the human
mind. One of the first to make this idea explicit was Bruner (as cited in Anderson, 1998).
“Based upon the idea of categorisation, Bruner’s theory states ‘To perceive is to categorise, to
conceptualise is to categorise, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to
categorise’”.

Tulving (1972) was the first to distinguish between episodic and semantic memory.
“Episodic memories are those which give a subject the sense of remembering the actual
situation, or event” (Eliasmith, 2001). Episodic memory’s store is centered on personal
experience and specific events. It is entirely circumstantial and it is not generally used for the
processing of new information except as a sort of backdrop. Semantic memory, in contrast,
deals with general, abstract information and can be recalled independently of how it was
learned. It is semantic memory that is the central focus of most current study because it
houses the concepts, strategies and other structures that are typically used for encoding new
information. Most researchers now combine these two in a broader category labeled
declarative.

Other researchers have identified additional organisational types. For example, Abbott
lists declarative and procedural while Huitt (2000), citing the work of Paivio (1971, 1986)
adds imagery to this list. However, Pylyshyn (2002) states that imagery is not a distinct
organisational structure, but follows the rules that apply to semantic and episodic memory.
Abbott (2002) and Huitt (2000) define declarative memory as that which can be talked about
or verbalised. It is, then, 48 Information Processing the sum of stored information that can be
readily retrieved and put into words in conscious thought and sharing. As previously stated,
declarative memory can be subdivided into both semantic and episodic memories. Procedural
memory can be thought of as “how to” knowledge (Huitt, 2000). It is the type of long-term
memory sometimes associated with information that has reached a state of automaticity, but it
not limited to this. This type of memory is defined in terms of learned skills and the ability to
recall instruction-like memory. Paivio (1971, 1986) describes imagery as the memory
structure for collecting and storing information related to pictures. It captures information
much like a photograph and can be extremely useful for context and visual presentation of
information.

Information Processing in Three Stage Model - Atkinson and Shiffrin make an

important distinction between the concepts of memory and memory stores; they use the term
memory to refer to the data being retained, while store refers to the structural component that
contains the information. Simply indicating how long an item has been retained does not
necessarily reveal where it is located in the structure of memory. Information processing from
one store to another is largely controlled by the subject. Information briefly held in the
sensory register is scanned by the subject, and selected information is introduced into the
STS. Transfer of information from the STS was regarded as capable of taking place so long
as it was held there. Atkinson and Shiffrin postulated that information might enter the
longterm store directly from the sensory register.
 UNIT-3: LEARNING

What is a “Learning Approach”?

A learning approach is a pretty self-explanatory term. Any learning method that you
use to gain knowledge is a learning approach.
The difference here is that a learning approach is categorized based on the goals that it helps
to achieve.
So, if a learning approach has proven to help memorize facts, it will be defined all
around this characteristic instead of the way the brain work, the information is retained or any
other scientific explanation.
Now what happens here is that a learner is expected to opt for a learning approach that
suits the learning aims. This is what ensures that the process itself will prove effective.
Each learning approach is best suited for the respective objective and works seamlessly for
the learner regardless of their learning style.

6 Types of Learning Approaches

Since learning is technically boundary-less, it is only right if there are numerous learning
approaches to match various learning goals.
It is best to be aware of all the available options so that you can choose the best one as per
your objectives.
1. Behavioristic Approach
If you have a faint idea about the behaviorism theory in learning, you’ll understand this
approach very easily.[1]
Basically, as the name suggests, this approach is focused on behavior for the most part. Any
sort of learning that is aimed towards a change in behavior is learned best by this approach.
Several skills require a change in behavior rather than the retention of information. It is
mostly used in practical learning.
The behavioristic learning approach emphasizes repetition and reinforcement. To elaborate,
you can look at the 8 types of learnings introduced by Gagne. These include:

1. Recognition: The stage where the learner gets a signal of new knowledge or
occurrence
2. Stimulus: The learner reacts to the received information
3. Multiple discrimination: In this learning, the individual reacts but the responses are
carefully chosen to be most relevant to the information received
4. Concept learning: Based on the stimulus activated by the information, the individual
understands the meaning instead of the information itself
5. Verbal chain learning: Based on whatever information is received, the learner
associates a certain verbal pattern with this new knowledge
6. Motor chain learning: In this type of learning, the individual follows a chain of
actions that they deem necessary
7. Acquisition of rules: This is an extension of concept learning where the learner
behaves as per the understanding by creating certain rules in their head
8. Problem-solving: the learner creates rules after understanding the concept and then
uses the entire information to come up with something creative
All these types technically define the types of behaviors that any new information can
stimulate.
2. Social Learning
 Social learning is very closely related to the behavioristic approach. In fact, it is an
extension of the same concept.
 However, the social learning approach involves the observations of others’ behaviors
instead of focusing on the behavior of the learner. For example, children do what they see
their parents doing.
 This approach also emphasizes the fact that students of any age and in any environment
will do as they see, not as they hear.
3. Constructivist Approach
 Constructing basic knowledge is what the constructivist learning approach is all about.
 Skills that require the learner to be creative should be practiced using this approach. This
technique puts a lot of focus on reflection and reevaluation. This encourages the learner to
brainstorm by creating connections and links in their minds with prior knowledge. It also
puts the learner in charge of the route that the learning takes.
4. Cognitive Approach
 The cognitive learning approach is focused on memorizing and remembering. Don’t
misunderstand to be a process of cramming information. Instead, it is a deep method that
allows the brain to understand the information and then remembers it for long-term.
 It is a great learning method to use for anything that involves the memorization of bigger
pieces of information. But, at the same time, you want a solid understanding of every bit
of knowledge that gets imprinted in your mind.
5. Experiential Approach
 When you learn something by doing it practically, you are following the experiential
learning approach.
 There are various categories of experiences that teach you something. This may be an
observation of an event, being a part of an occurrence, purposely trying out a new skill or
process, or reflecting on any of these experiences.
 Whatever the case, it is generally important that the learner is an important part of the
experience. this leads to first-hand learning.
6. Humanist Approach
 The humanistic theory is based entirely on the concept of goodness for all. It aims for a
united world that is at peace, where there is an even spread of knowledge, and the learners
gain skills and knowledge that have positive effects. [2]
 Now, you may have already guessed that this approach works best for group tasks.
Learning that has spiritual grounds or aimed towards a community will be done right with
this learning approach. This technique starts by encouraging the learner to focus on the
right versus the wrong.
 Moreover, the humanistic approach has two forms:
 Pedagogy is the mere transmission of knowledge which is basic learning. However,
andragogy makes things interesting by putting all the learning control in the hands of the
learner.
 Hence, this method is well-suited for leaners that are highly motivated and do not like to
be controlled.

The learning theories

Today, much research, study, and debate have given rise to the following five learning
theories:
 THEORY EXPLANATION APPLICATION
As Simply Psychology
puts it: “Behaviorism is Learning is based on a system of routines that
only concerned “drill” information into a student’s memory bank, as
with observable stimulus- well as positive feedback from teachers and an
Behaviorism
response behaviors, as educational institution itself. If students do an
they can be studied in a excellent job, they receive positive reinforcement
systematic and observable and are signaled out for recognition.
manner.”
Developed in the 1950s, this theory moves away
from behaviorism to focus on the mind’s role in
Learning relies on both
learning. According to the International Bureau of
external factors (like
Education: “In cognitive psychology, learning is
Cognitivism information or data) and
understood as the acquisition of knowledge: the
the internal thought
learner is an information-processor who absorbs
process.
information, undertakes cognitive operations on it
and stocks it in memory.”
“The passive view of teaching views the learner as
The learner builds upon
‘an empty vessel’ to be filled with knowledge,”
his or her previous
explains Simply Psychology,
experience and
Constructivism “whereas constructivism states that learners
understanding to
construct meaning only through active engagement
“construct” a new
with the world (such as experiments or real-world
understanding.
problem solving).”
With the understanding that people are inherently
A “learner-centric
good, humanism focuses on creating an
approach” in which the
environment conducive to self-actualization. In
Humanism potential is the focus
doing so, learners’ needs are met and they are then
rather than the method or
free to determine their own goals while the teacher
materials.
assists in meeting those learning goals.
Informed by the digital
Strongly influenced by technology, connectivism
age, connectivism departs
focuses on a learner’s ability to frequently source
from constructivism by
Connectivism and update accurate information. Knowing how and
identifying and
where to find the best information is as important as
remediating gaps in
the information itself.
knowledge.

Application of learning

An application of learning, as my principal Bill Zima says, doesn’t have to be an outhouse. It

doesn’t have to be someplace we are hesitant to go; nor does it have to be a huge,
complicated project, like actually building an outhouse. The meaning of the word apply is,
simply, to put to use. Here is a process for working out how to get your students to put their
skills and knowledge to use:
Step One: Go back to the learning target(s) from your unit of study and review the reasoning
level (see my earlier posts for a brush up on learning targets and reasoning levels). This is
important! You don’t want to find yourself suddenly asking students to apply skills and
knowledge in a new context while using a higher reasoning level.

Step Two: Create a new assessment task at the same reasoning level, but in a different
context. The idea here is that the teacher would have evidence that a student is meeting a
target before asking that student to apply their learning in a new context. Here is an example:

Target (Reasoning Level) Assessment Application

Understands the traditionalSort the last 10 U.S. Presidents Given a particular scenario,
leadership roles and their into categories defined by the and four possible decisions a
impact around the impacts of their leadership leader could make, as well as
world(Analysis: Classifying) the immediate results of each
decision, classify the decisions
according to leadership-style
using the chart format below

You can see how the application is this example is not an outhouse. That task is one that
should not take any longer than one class period to complete. The reasoning level required of
the task has not been altered, and the declarative knowledge in the target is still being
assessed.

You say you want to build an outhouse? The easiest way to do that is to create an
interdisciplinary application, also known by the anxiety-inducing label: a project. Projects
can get big and complicated quickly. The best way to ensure success is to work together with
your cross-content partners to make sure that each of the targets from each content area being
applied in the project has been carefully considered. In other words, you may not want to ask
students to build an outhouse for math class if they haven’t explored some fundamentals of
construction or structure design, or maybe even how water travels through different soil types
(think drainage).

Step 3: Select an appropriate audience. To whom will your students show their application
of knowledge? The answer to this largely depends on the application you have created.
Keep in mind, however, that teachers and peers are a powerful and perfectly acceptable
audience. There are many ways to orchestrate an in-class or in-school audience that still feels
authentic; it doesn’t need to be a seemingly endless string of power-points. An in-class
exhibition hall works well.

Step 4: Write up the task and include a checklist or product descriptor if needed. Keep
directions simple and clear. This holds true for any application, project or otherwise.
Checklists and product descriptors are helpful because they separate design elements and
quality factors from the actual learning targets. Sometimes even the most efficient, well-
designed outhouses can smell a little funky.
 UNIT-4: JUDGMENT, CHOICE AND DECISION-
MAKING
Human judgment
 an act or instance of judging.
 the ability to judge, make a decision, or form an opinion objectively, authoritatively,
and wisely, especially in matters affecting action; good sense; discretion:a man of
sound judgment.
 the demonstration or exercise of such ability or capacity:The major was decorated for
the judgment he showed under fire.
 the forming of an opinion, estimate, notion, or conclusion, as from circumstances
presented to the mind:

Human nature
Human nature is a concept that denotes the fundamental dispositions and characteristics—
including ways of thinking, feeling, and acting—that humans are said to have naturally. The
term is often used to denote the essence of humankind, or what it 'means' to be human.

The Nature of Judgment

Theories of cognitive judgment both prior to and after Kant tend to divide
dichotomously into the psychologistic and platonistic camps, according to which, on the one
hand, cognitive judgments are nothing but mental representations of relations of ideas, as,
e.g., in the Port Royal Logic (Arnaud & Nicole 1996), or mentalistic ordered combinings of
real individuals, universals, and logical constants, as, e.g., in Russell’s early theory of
judgment (Russell 1966), or on the other hand, cognitive judgments are nothing but assertoric
psychological states or attitudes aimed at mind-independent, abstract propositions or
thoughts, as, e.g., in Bolzano’s and Frege’s theories of judgment (Bolzano 1972, Frege 1979,
Frege 1984). And, seemingly, never the twain shall meet (Martin 2006, Hanna 2006a, ch. 1).
But by sharp contrast to both the psychologistic and platonistic camps, Kant’s theory of
judgment is at once cognitivist, anti-psychologistic, and anti-platonistic. More precisely,
according to Kant, judgments are complex conscious cognitions that (i) refer to objects either
directly (via intuitions) or indirectly (via concepts), (ii) include concepts that are predicated
either of those objects or of other constituent concepts, (iii) exemplify pure logical concepts
and enter into inferences according to pure logical laws, (iv) essentially involve both the
following of rules and the application of rules to the objects picked out by intuitions, (v)
express true or false propositions (truth-aptness), (vi) mediate the formation of beliefs and
other intentional acts, and (vii) are unified and self-conscious.
The three leading features of this account are, first, Kant’s taking the innate capacity
for judgment to be the central cognitive faculty of the human mind, in the sense that
judgment, alone among our various cognitive achievements, is the joint product of all of the
other cognitive faculties operating coherently and systematically together under a single
higher-order unity of rational self-consciousness (the centrality thesis); second, Kant’s
insistence on the explanatory priority of the propositional content of a judgment over its basic
cognitive-semantic constituents (i.e., intuitions and concepts), over the logical form of
judgments, over the inferential role of judgments, over the rule-like character of the
judgment, over the self-conscious psychological states in which propositions are grasped as
well as the non-self-conscious psychological processes in which propositions are
synthetically generated, over epistemic beliefs in those propositions, over all other
propositional attitudes, and also over intentional acts guided and mediated by those
propositions, including non-epistemic acts of various kinds (the priority-of-the-proposition
thesis); and third, Kant’s background metaphysical doctrine to the effect that judgments are
empirically meaningful (objectively valid) and true (objectively real) if and only if
transcendental idealism is correct (the transcendental idealism thesis).

A situational judgement test (SJT), or situational stress test (SStT) or inventory

(SSI) is a type of psychological test which presents the test-taker with realistic, hypothetical
scenarios and ask them to identify the most appropriate response or to rank the responses in
the order they feel is most effective. [1][2] SJTs can be presented to test-takers through a variety
of modalities, such as booklets, films, or audio recordings.[3] SJTs represent a
distinct psychometric approach from the common knowledge-based multiple choice
item.[2][4] They are often used in industrial-organizational psychology applications such
as personnel selection. Situational judgement tests tend to determine behavioral tendencies,
assessing how an individual will behave in a certain situation, and knowledge instruction,
which evaluates the effectiveness of possible responses. [5] Situational judgement tests could
also reinforce the status quo with an organization.

Kant’s Theory of Judgment

Theories of judgment, whether cognitive (i.e., object-representing, thought-
expressing, truth-apt) judgment or practical (i.e., act-representing, choice-expressing,
evaluation-apt) judgment, bring together fundamental issues in semantics, logic, cognitive
psychology, and epistemology (collectively providing for what can be called the four “faces”
of cognitive judgment [see also Martin 2006]), as well as action theory, moral psychology,
and ethics (collectively providing for the three “faces” of practical judgment): indeed, the
notion of judgment is central to any general theory of human rationality. But Kant’s theory of
judgment differs sharply from many other theories of judgment, both traditional and
contemporary, in three ways: (1) by taking the innate capacity for judgment to be the central
cognitive faculty of the rational human mind, (2) by insisting on the semantic, logical,
psychological, epistemic, and practical priority of the propositional content of a judgment,
and (3) by systematically embedding judgment within the metaphysics of transcendental
idealism . Several serious problems are generated by the interplay of the first two factors with
the third. This in turn suggests that the other two parts of Kant’s theory of judgment can be
logically detached from the strongest version of his transcendental idealism and defended
independently of it. This entry also includes five supplementary documents covering (i) the
debate about Kant’s conceptualism vs. Kant’s non-conceptualism, (ii) the epistemology of
Kantian judgment and the ethics of Kantian belief, (iii) Kant’s logic in relation to his theory
of judgment, (iv) kinds of use for judgments, and (v) completing the picture of Kant’s
metaphysics of judgment.
Brentano’s Theory of Judgement
Franz Brentano (1838–1917) is famous for arguing in his Psychology from an
Empirical Standpoint (1874) that intentionality—being directed toward something—is the
mark of the mental. Brentano used that conception not only for distinguishing mental from
physical phenomena, but also for developing a classification of mental phenomena. If
intentionality is a fundamental feature of any mental act, Brentano argues, differences in the
way mental phenomena are directed toward something constitute differences in kind between
mental acts. Judgements are one of the three basic kinds of intentional phenomena with
which Brentano deals at great length in his Psychology. That is not to say, however, that
Brentano’s theory of judgement is just concerned with psychological issues. Brentano also
aims to show how an experience of judging, specifically the experience of judging correctly,
can provide us with a basis for grasping concepts like existence, truth, and logical inference.
Brentano’s investigation of the mental act of judgement promises therefore to advance logic,
epistemology, and ultimately metaphysics.
Much of that work which Brentano started in his Psychology remained unfinished. It
was left to his students to further flesh out his view by drawing on lecture notes, letters, and
unpublished material from Brentano’s Nachlass. Whether all the claims that have been
ascribed to Brentano in this literature actually belong to his theory remains a matter of debate
in the literature.[1] From a contemporary perspective, an interesting question is which of the
following two claims find support in Brentano’s theory:
(A) Some judgements have a propositional content, others not.
(B) No judgement has a propositional content.
Most scholars take claim (B) to be Brentano’s view. They do this on the ground that
Brentano often takes a dismissive attitude towards “half way” theories by his contemporaries
that have room for both propositional and non-propositional judgements. However, when we
consider Brentano’s conception of double judgement in section 5 below, we will find that
double judgements play the role that predicative judgements are supposed to play in other
theories. It is therefore also possible to interpret Brentano as being committed only to a
version of claim (A), according to which the propositional content of a judgement supervenes
on the content of several non-propositional acts that make up the judgement.

choice
choice is the range of different things from which a being can choose. The arrival at a choice
may incorporate motivators and models. For example, a traveler might choose a route for a
journey based on the preference of arriving at a given destination at a specified time. The
preferred (and therefore chosen) route can then account for information such as the length of
each of the possible routes, the amount of fuel in the vehicle, traffic conditions, etc.

In SDM, evaluation criteria are used to characterize the degree to which different alternatives
are expected to meet objectives. They are used to:

 compare alternatives accurately and consistently;

 expose trade-offs including trade-offs among different degrees of uncertainty;
 generate productive discussion about better alternatives;
 prioritize information needs;
 communicate the rationale for and improve the transparency of decisions.
It isn’t easy to define good evaluation criteria that are widely agreed upon by stakeholders,
experts and decision makers. However, the up-front investment pays off in streamlined
decision making, for two principal reasons:

 because data, modeling and expert judgment processes are focused on producing
decision-relevant information;
 because large numbers of very complex options can be consistently and efficiently
evaluated by multiple decision makers.
Brainstorming evaluation criteria

Each lowest level objective in the hierarchy will need an evaluation criterion. There are a
number of things to consider in selecting or designing good criteria which we cover in the
next section. However, the first step is simply brainstorming an initial list of candidate
criteria. It’s easiest to know what criteria will be useful if you have a clear idea of the
alternatives under consideration. (In fact most often you can’t really identify useful criteria at
all without this knowledge!) Therefore, a good approach involves:

 Brainstorm a list of alternatives. Ask, what are all the possible ways we could achieve
these objectives? You don’t need the details of the alternatives at this point, but you
do need to identify the full range of them;
 Sketch out a consequence table, with the objectives listed in the rows and a few
sample alternatives shown in the columns.
 Ask, “What specific metric could we use to report the impact of these alternatives on
this objective?” Or “What specific information would you like to see to be able to
evaluate the impact of these alternatives on this objective?”
 At this point, write down all the possible responses. It is possible that the responses
will reveal that some people have different interpretations of the objectives. This is
good. One of the key reasons for structuring objectives is to build common
understanding and improve communication. Refine the objectives if you need to.

Theories of Individual Behaviour and Behaviour Change

The Theory of Planned Behaviour & Theory of Reasoned Action

The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) is one of the most widely cited and applied
behaviour theories. It is one of a closely inter-related family of theories which adopt a
cognitive approach to explaining behaviour which centres on individuals’ attitudes and
beliefs. The TPB (Ajzen 1985, 1991; Ajzen and Madden 1986) evolved from the theory of
reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975) which posited intention to act as the best predictor
of behaviour. Intention is itself an outcome of the combination of attitudes towards a
behaviour. That is the positive or negative evaluation of the behaviour and its expected
outcomes, and subjective norms, which are the social pressures exerted on an individual
resulting from their perceptions of what others think they should do and their inclination to
comply with these. The TPB added a third set of factors as affecting intention (and
behaviour); perceived behavioural control. This is the perceived ease or difficulty with which
the individual will be able to perform or carry out the behaviour, and is very similar to
notions of self-efficacy (see Bandura 1986, 1997; Terry et al. 1993). These key components
of the TPB are illustrated in Figure 1. Existing literature provides several reviews of the TPB
(e.g. Armitage and Conner 2001; Hardeman et al. 2002; see also Rutter and Quine 2002;
Munro et al. 2007; Nisbet and Gick 2008; Webb et al 2010).

The TPB is suited to predicting behaviour and retrospective analysis of behaviour and
has been particularly widely used in relation to health (Armitage and Conner 2001; Taylor et
al. 2007). Evidence suggests that the TPB can predict 20-30% of the variance in behaviour
brought about via interventions, and a greater proportion of intention. Strong correlations are
reported between behaviour and both the attitudes towards the behaviour and perceived
behavioural control components of the theory. To date only weak correlations have been
established between behaviour and subjective norms.
 Armitage and Conner (2001), however, suggest that this issue is most likely to be
methodological and state that the few studies which measured subjective norms appropriately
actually illustrate reasonably strong relationships with behaviour. The TPB is not considered
useful or effective in relation to planning and designing the type of intervention that will
result in behaviour change (Hardeman et al 2002; Taylor et al. 2007; Webb et al. 2010).
Using the theory to explain and predict likely behaviour may, however, be a useful method
for identifying particular influences on behaviour that could be targeted for change. As
Hardeman et al. (2002: 149) conclude:

‘even when authors use the TPB to develop parts of the intervention, they seem to see
the theory as more useful in identifying cognitive targets for change than in offering
suggestions on how these cognitions might be changed’.

The Health Belief Model

The health belief model (HBM) (Hochbaum, 1958; Rosenstock 1966; Becker, 1974;
Sharma and Romas, 2012) is a cognitive model which posits that behaviour is determined by
a number of beliefs about threats to an individual’s well-being and the effectiveness and
outcomes of particular actions or behaviours. Some constructions of the model feature the
concept of self-efficacy (Bandura 1997) alongside these beliefs about actions. These beliefs
are further supplemented by additional stimuli referred to as ‘cues to action’ which trigger
actual adoption of behaviour. Perceived threat is at the core of the HBM as it is linked to a
person’s ‘readiness’ to take action. It consists of two sets of beliefs about an individual’s
perceived susceptibility or vulnerability to a particular threat and the seriousness of the
expected consequences that may result from it. The perceived benefits associated with a
behaviour, that is its likely effectiveness in reducing the threat, are weighed against the
perceived costs of and negative consequences that may result from it (perceived barriers),
such as the side effects of treatment, to establish the overall extent to which a behaviour is
beneficial. The individual’s perceived capacity to adopt the behaviour (their self-efficacy) is a
further key component of the model. Finally, the HBM identifies two types of ‘cue to action’;
internal, which in the health context includes symptoms of ill health, and external, which
includes media campaigns or the receipt of other information. These cues affect the
perception of threat and can trigger or maintain behaviour. Nisbet and Gick (2008: 297)
summarise the model as follows:

‘in order for behaviour to change, people must feel personally vulnerable to a health
threat, view the possible consequences as severe, and see that taking action is likely to either
prevent or reduce the risk at an acceptable cost with few barriers. In addition, a person must
feel competent (have self-efficacy) to execute and maintain the new behaviour. Some trigger,
either internal ... or external ..., is required to ensure actual behaviour ensues’.

Of course the opposite to much of this is also true. When an individual perceives a
threat as not serious or themselves as unsusceptible to it, they are unlikely to adopt mitigating
behaviours. Low benefits and high costs can have the same impact. The main elements of the
HBM are illustrated in Figure 2. There are a number of reviews and summaries of the model
available (Janz and Becker, 1984; Harrison et al 1992; Armitage & Conner 2000; see also
Rutter and Quine 2002; Munro et al. 2007; Nisbet and Gick 2008; Webb et al. 2010)

Although designed and developed in the healthcare context, the HBM has been
applied to the analysis of other types of behaviour, such as recycling (Lindsay and Strathman
1997), and is most suited to explaining or predicting patterns of behaviour. Formal reviews
have, however, concluded that it has generally weak predictive power, suggesting it can
predict only around 10% of behavioural variance (Harrison et al. 1992). Literature suggests
that, of the HBM’s components, perceived barriers are the most significant in determining
behaviour (Janz and Becker 1984). The two established criticisms of this model are that its
components and rules about their inter-relationships are not well defined, and (in common
with other cognitive rational choice based models focused on the individual) that it does not
include social or economic or unconscious (e.g. habitual) determinants of behaviour, which
are generally considered to be at least as important as the personal cognitive factors covered
by the model. Jackson 2005: 133) clearly explains this latter problem: ‘this model [rational
choice] is inadequate as a basis for understanding and intervening in human behaviours for a
number of reasons. In particular it pays insufficient attention to the social norms and
expectations that govern human choice and to the habitual and routine nature of much human
behaviour. It also fails to recognise how consumers are locked into specific behaviour
patterns through institutional factors outside their control.’

Stages of Change (Transtheoretical Model)

The Stages of Change (SoC) model (also referred to as the Transtheoretical Model)
(Prochaska 1979; Prochaska and DiClemente 1983; Prochaska et al 1992) is a widely applied
cognitive model which sub-divides individuals between five categories that represent
different milestones, or ‘levels of motivational readiness’ (Heimlich and Ardoin 2008: 279),
along a continuum of behaviour change. These stages are (i) precontemplation, (ii)
contemplation, (iii) preparation, (iv) action, and (v) maintenance (see Table 3 for a
summary). First developed in relation to smoking, and now commonly applied to other
addictive behaviours, the rationale behind a staged model is that individuals at the same stage
should face similar problems and barriers, and thus can be helped by the same type of
intervention (Nisbet and Gick 2008). Whilst practitioners acknowledge many hundreds of
different interventions, the SoC model identifies ten types (‘processes’) which are most
widely used and investigated (see Table 3). Movement or transition between stages is driven
by two key factors (i) self-efficacy and (ii) decisional balance (that is, the outcome of
individual assessment of the pros and cons of a behaviour) (Heimlich and Ardoin 2008;
Armitage et al 2004). Relapse, moving backwards through the stages, is common. There are a
number of summaries and reviews available (Prochaska et al. 1992; Sutton 2002; Littell and
Girven 2002; Rutter and Quine 2002; Armitage et al. 2004; Munro et al. 2007; Nisbet and
Gick 2008).

The SoC model is more popular amongst practitioners than researchers as its
constructs and concepts are not particularly well defined. Questions regarding how discrete
the stages actually are and whether an individual must move through each (and not jump
stages) are common. Further to this, the model is not clear on how individuals change or why
some change more effectively or quickly than others.

Choice architecture is the design of different ways in which choices can be presented
to consumers, and the impact of that presentation on consumer decision-making. For
example, each of the following:

 the number of choices presented

 the manner in which attributes are described
 the presence of a "default"
can influence consumer choice. As a result, advocates of libertarian
paternalism and asymmetric paternalism have endorsed the deliberate design of choice
architecture to nudge consumers toward personally and socially desirable behaviors like
saving for retirement, choosing healthier foods, or registering as an organ donor. These
interventions are often justified in that well-designed choice architectures can compensate for
irrational decision-making biases to improve consumer welfare. These techniques have
consequently become popular among policymakers, leading to the formation of the
UK's Behavioural Insights Team and the White House "Nudge Unit" for example. While
many behavioral scientists stress that there is no neutral choice-architecture and that
consumers maintain autonomy and freedom of choice despite manipulations of choice
architecture, critics of libertarian paternalism often argue that choice architectures designed to
overcome irrational decision biases may impose costs on rational agents, for example by
limiting choice or undermining respect for individual human agency and moral autonomy.
The term "choice architecture" was coined by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein in
their 2008 book Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Thaler
and Sunstein have endorsed thoughtful design of choice architecture as a means to improve
consumer decision-making by minimizing biases and errors that arise as the result of bounded
rationality. This approach is an example of "libertarian paternalism", a philosophy endorsed
by Thaler and Sunstein that aims to "nudge" individuals toward choices that are in their best
interest without limiting choice. Libertarian paternalism may also be described as soft
paternalism.
Behavioral scientists have grouped the elements of choice architecture in different
ways. For example, Thaler, Sunstein, and John P. Balz have focused on the following "tools"
of choice architecture: defaults, expecting error, understanding mappings (which involves
exploring the different ways that information presentation affects option comparisons), giving
feedback, structuring complex choices, and creating incentives. Another group of leading
behavioral scientists has created a typology of choice architecture elements dividing them
into those that structure the choice set and those that describe the choice. Examples of choice
set structuring include: the number of alternatives, decision aids, defaults, and choice over
time. Describing choice options include: partitioning options and attributes, and designing
attributes.
Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering
information, and assessing alternative resolutions.
Using a step-by-step decision-making process can help you make more deliberate, thoughtful
decisions by organizing relevant information and defining alternatives. This approach
increases the chances that you will choose the most satisfying alternative possible.

Step 1: Identify the decision

You realize that you need to make a decision. Try to clearly define the nature of the decision
you must make. This first step is very important.

Step 2: Gather relevant information

Collect some pertinent information before you make your decision: what information is
needed, the best sources of information, and how to get it. This step involves both internal
and external “work.” Some information is internal: you’ll seek it through a process of self-
assessment. Other information is external: you’ll find it online, in books, from other people,
and from other sources.
Step 3: Identify the alternatives
As you collect information, you will probably identify several possible paths of action, or
alternatives. You can also use your imagination and additional information to construct new
alternatives. In this step, you will list all possible and desirable alternatives.

Step 4: Weigh the evidence

Draw on your information and emotions to imagine what it would be like if you carried out
each of the alternatives to the end. Evaluate whether the need identified in Step 1 would be
met or resolved through the use of each alternative. As you go through this difficult internal
process, you’ll begin to favor certain alternatives: those that seem to have a higher potential
for reaching your goal. Finally, place the alternatives in a priority order, based upon your own
value system.

Step 5: Choose among alternatives

Once you have weighed all the evidence, you are ready to select the alternative that seems to
be best one for you. You may even choose a combination of alternatives. Your choice in Step
5 may very likely be the same or similar to the alternative you placed at the top of your list at
the end of Step 4.

Step 6: Take action

You’re now ready to take some positive action by beginning to implement the alternative you
chose in Step 5.

Step 7: Review your decision & its consequences

In this final step, consider the results of your decision and evaluate whether or not it has
resolved the need you identified in Step 1. If the decision has not met the identified need, you
may want to repeat certain steps of the process to make a new decision. For example, you
might want to gather more detailed or somewhat different information or explore additional
alternatives.
Decision- making and Problem- solving
Appreciate the Complexities Involved in Decision-Making & Problem Solving
 Develop evidence to support views
 Analyze situations carefully
 Discuss subjects in an organized way
 Predict the consequences of actions
 Weigh alternatives
 Generate and organize ideas
 Form and apply concepts
 Design systematic plans of action
A 5-Step Problem-Solving Strategy
 1. Specify the problem – a first step to solving a problem is to identify it as specifically
as possible. It involves evaluating the present state and determining how it differs
from the goal state.
2. Analyze the problem – analyzing the problem involves learning as much as you can
about it. It may be necessary to look beyond the obvious, surface situation, to
stretch your imagination and reach for more creative options.
o seek other perspectives
o be flexible in your analysis
o consider various strands of impact
o brainstorm about all possibilities and implications
o research problems for which you lack complete information. Get help.
3. Formulate possible solutions – identify a wide range of possible solutions.
o try to think of all possible solutions
o be creative
o consider similar problems and how you have solved them
4. Evaluate possible solutions – weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each
solution. Think through each solution and consider how, when, and where you
could accomplish each. Consider both immediate and long-term results. Mapping
your solutions can be helpful at this stage.
5. Choose a solution – consider 3 factors:
o compatibility with your priorities
o amount of risk
o practicality
Keys to Problem Solving
 Think aloud – problem solving is a cognitive, mental process. Thinking aloud or
talking yourself through the steps of problem solving is useful. Hearing yourself
think can facilitate the process.
 Allow time for ideas to "gel" or consolidate. If time permits, give yourself time for
solutions to develop. Distance from a problem can allow you to clear your mind
and get a new perspective.
 Talk about the problem – describing the problem to someone else and talking about
it can often make a problem become more clear and defined so that a new solution
will surface.
Decision Making Strategies
Decision making is a process of identifying and evaluating choices. We make numerous
decisions every day and our decisions may range from routine, every-day types of decisions
to those decisions which will have far reaching impacts. The types of decisions we make
are routine, impulsive, and reasoned. Deciding what to eat for breakfast is a routine
decision; deciding to do or buy something at the last minute is considered an impulsive
decision; and choosing your college major is, hopefully, a reasoned decision. College
coursework often requires you to make the latter, or reasoned decisions.
Decision making has much in common with problem solving. In problem solving you
identify and evaluate solution paths; in decision making you make a similar discovery and
evaluation of alternatives. The crux of decision making, then, is the careful identification
and evaluation of alternatives. As you weigh alternatives, use the following suggestions:
 Consider the outcome each is likely to produce, in both the short term and the long
term.
 Compare alternatives based on how easily you can accomplish each.
 Evaluate possible negative side effects each may produce.
 Consider the risk involved in each.
 Be creative, original; don't eliminate alternatives because you have not heard or
used them before.
An important part of decision making is to predict both short-term and long-term outcomes
for each alternative. You may find that while an alternative seems most desirable at the
present, it may pose problems or complications over a longer time period.

TECHNIQUES OF DECISION-MAKING
Decision-making is a step-wise process. There are certain highly effective as well as
systematic approaches that can help us in taking the right decisions with great consistency.
While there is nothing that can guarantee error-free decision-making, some decision-making
methods can reduce the likelihood of making poor decisions.
Let’s go ahead and take a look at them:
1. COMMAND METHOD
In this method, decision-making is an executive power, and the decisions are taken by a
central authority. This is an authoritative or dictatorial method as it doesn’t necessarily
involve the opinion of other stakeholders. One of the major drawbacks of this method is
ignorance about alternate options or opinions.
At the same time, this is also the fastest and clearest decision-making process as it doesn’t
involve conflicts and discussions with other people. This decision-making technique is
beneficial in emergencies when there is not enough time to hold discussions or undertake
lengthy analysis or review processes.
2. CONSULTATION
Consultation is the commonest among all the decision-making techniques for taking
long-term decisions. Under this technique, the decision-maker seeks inputs from others and
considers them diligently, but the eventual power of decision remains with her.
It usually takes longer when you apply this technique compared to the time the
command decision-making methods as it involves taking the opinions of multiple people and
in-depth evaluation and discussions. This process makes others feel valuable as it takes into
account their opinions. It can do wonders for employees’ satisfaction and loyalty as they
would feel involved with the decision-making process even though the final decision is not
taken by them.
3. VOTING
Voting is considered one of the most democratic techniques of decision-making in
management. During this process the available options are brought to the notice of all group
members and each action is deliberated upon. Once the discussions are complete, the present
members vote in favor of the option they find most suitable. The option selected by the
majority of the voters is regarded as the final decision.
Voting is the preferred decision-making method among committees, boards of
directors, or senior company executives. Voting techniques of decision-making in
management are time-bound which ensures that the process does not drag for too long.
4. BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming is among the various techniques of decision-making that proves
beneficial when there are no clear options in sight. Under this technique, all group members
get together to find options through discussion and debate.
Decisions related to strategy, policy-making, laying down of rules and procedures and
operations usually involve a lot of brainstorming. This is one of the lengthier processes of
decision-making as there are usually a lot of ideas and differences of opinions that have to be
overcome before a final decision is taken.
5. MULTI-POINT ANALYSIS
This is easily among the best decision-making methods while going for an acquisition
or a major purchase. Under this technique, businesses undertake a systematic evaluation of all
options available to them. Factors such as cost, return on investment, quality, performance,
and skill required, among other relevant points, get evaluated.
Suppose a company needs to buy a fleet of vehicles for transporting its employees safely.
Various vehicle makers will submit their proposals which will then be evaluated on factors
such as comfort, mileage, safety, number of passengers, and driving ease.
6. CONSENSUS
Among all the decision-making techniques, the consensus method is the most difficult
and time-consuming. In this process, the group holds several rounds of discussions until
everyone unanimously agrees upon a decision.
Since this is one of those decision-making methods that requires everyone to
overcome their differences and decide in favor of one option, it often drags on endlessly
without any result.
Barring scenarios where the decision affects all members of the group directly and
they are all equal stakeholders in the decision, this is among the techniques of decision-
making in management that should be rarely used.
 BLOCK-3 : HUMAN BEHAVIUOR IN THE SOCIETY

UNIT-1: ATTITUDE AND INFLUENCE

Attitude
An attitude is somewhere between a belief, a stance, a mood, and a pose. If you've got
an attitude about something, it can be hard to change it because you think you're right.

Basic assumptions and attitude

By partnership-based consulting we mean that we disclose our world view, our mental
models and our attitude. Our attitude is shaped by the following basic assumptions which
influence the perception, thinking, feeling and acting of the consultants in the cogitamus
network.

Organizations are living systems

We understand organisations in their original meaning as living organisms rather than
machines. This assumption determines the nature of our work, the selection of our co-
workers and partners, and the selection of our methods.

The „as well as“ is more accurate and useful than the „either or“
Living organisms behave more in a multidimensional paradox than in a one-dimensional
linear way. This experience is expressed more strongly in the Asian approach to thinking and
interpreting „as well as“ than in the Western, linear thinking of the „rational“ sciences.
Therefore, in our work the so-called „hard“ and „soft“ factors have the same high value.

It is all a question of perception

We try, together with our clients, to use the different levels and channels of perception. In the
sense of the sentence: All we hold for true is an illusion based on a specific perspective. We
use the different perspectives (diversity), appreciate them and make them fruitful for the task.
We also use the apparent opposites of intellect and intuition.

Thinking from the outside to the inside and from the inside to the outside creates a connection
For the appropriate positioning of an organisation in its work-sharing environment, we use
both the perspective from the inside of the organisation to the environment and from the
environment inwards into the organisation. This gives us a comprehensive picture of what
role the organisation wants to play.

Structure determines behaviour

Structure is to be understood in the broadest sense. On the one hand, it refers to the
organisational structure with regard to the structure of decision-making levels and the design
of work processes and systems. In addition, the country and corporate culture as well as the
language in which people think and communicate are also taken into account. The mental
structures, our worldviews and mental models often shape our behaviour in an invisible but
very effective way.

Fragmentation can be overcome through dialogue

The division of labour in the most diverse forms (e.g. in companies and between university
faculties) has continued for centuries in our perception and experience of a holistic
understanding of ourselves and the world. The dialogue (less the discussion), as an original
form of exchange different perceptions, views and perspectives, can help us here beyond the
widely negative separation (fragmentation).

People make it happen

The acting people with their passion, qualification, experience and also their fears are
ultimately the ones who realize and implement all plans and intentions of an organisation.
This is all the more true in a knowledge society. We see people as the essential success factor
in the implementation of corporate goals. They are also the most difficult capital of
companies to copy.

Mistakes are an excellent source of learning

Real learning consists to a large extent (from childhood on) of trial and error. As people,
organisations and societies, we develop individual and collective experiences. Mistakes are a
natural result and source of knowledge. This is especially true when one goes into unknown
territory to produce innovations, for example. Mistakes are not the problem, but the
inappropriate handling of them.

Self-conception and values

cogitamus sees itself as a lateral thinker and border crosser at the interface between tradition
and innovation despite a classical career of most network partners.

Our lived values are:

professional – unconventional – individual

Professionalism and quality

By this we mean serving and performing on a high, professional level in agreed quality. This
does not mean that mistakes cannot happen. But this means that these mistakes are dealt with
professionally, openly, fairly and with a learning attitude.
This also includes that after each project, in agreement with the customer, a quality survey is
carried out in order to obtain confirmation of good work (we are particularly pleased about
this) or suggestions for continuous improvement (this is also very important to us).

Unconventionality
New paths and solutions cannot be found by following well-worn paths. Rather, one has to go
new ways that do not conform to the convention. This is entrepreneurial in the true sense of
the word and in most cases leads to sustainable change. We accompany our customers on this
not always easy, unconventional path.

Individuality
By individuality we mean tailor-made solutions and not off-the-shelf consulting products.
Quality is the result of professional work.

Types of Attitudes

1. Explicit attitudes-
 Conscious and reportable
 controllable and easy to report.
 Many of our attitudes these types
2. Implicit attitudes
 Uncontrollable and perhaps not consciously accessible to us
 Either unwilling or unable to report.
 Implicit Association Test (IAT) developed by Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwarz (1998) A
method for assessing these is implicit attitudes.

Components of Attitude Or ABCs Of Attitude in Psychology
It is also called as multidimensional or tricomponent view of attitudes in psychology.

Following 3 components represent the basic building blocks of attitudes.

ABCs of attitudes:
1. Affect (feelings),
2. Behaviour (tendency to act)
3. Cognition (thoughts)

1. Affective component of attitude

 It contains a person’s feelings / emotions about the attitude object.
 Emotions like – fear, humour, and anger empathy, hate, like, dislike, pleasure,
jealousy, disgust, indignation, etc. Feelings can vary in intensity.
 Such feelings form from our experiences (or observing experiences) and serve to
guide our future behaviour.
 Emotion works with the cognitive process.
 Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political
messages.
 It can be used in a persuasive appeal.
 Research found out that affect plays a vital role in attitude formation.
 Affect is a common component in attitude change, persuasion, social influence, and
even decision making. How we feel about an outcome may override purely cognitive
rationales.

2. Behavior component of attitude

 A tendency or a predisposition to act in a certain manner the way the attitude we have
influences on how we act or behave.
 Behavior is different from a behavioral tendency. Because such behavioral tendency
may not actually be predictive of your actual behavior. Behaviors are defined as overt
actions of an individual. It means your intention to behave in a certain way may or
may not translate into how you actually behave.
 For example, you could develop a positive attitude towards a product that you see on
television (belt ad) without developing any beliefs about it (you may lack knowledge
about it and hence don’t know if it will really work) or ever engaging in any purchase
behavior.
Exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968)- The tendency to develop more positive feelings towards
objects and individuals, the more we are exposed to them. It demonstrated that we can
develop a positive attitude towards a product simply by repeatedly being exposed to it.

3. Cognition component of attitude

 It comprises of our thoughts, beliefs, opinions, and ideas about the attitudinal object
 The term cognition literally means ‘to know’, ‘to conceptualize’, or ‘to recognize’.
Hence the cognitive component of attitude is the storage component where we
organise information about an attitude object.
  When you form your opinion on the basis of available information and choose
whether you have a favourable or unfavourable opinion on that.
 When a human being is the object of an attitude, the cognitive component is
frequently a stereotype, for e.g. ‘Punjabis are fun loving’.

Theories of attitude formation

1. Cognitive Consistency Theories:
Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency among their attitudes
and between their attitudes and their behaviour. This means that people seek to reconcile
divergent attitudes and align their attitudes and behaviour so that they appear rational and
consistent. When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the individual to an
equilibrium state where attitudes and behaviour are again consistent. This can be done by
either altering the attitude or the behaviour or by developing a rationalization for the
discrepancy.

The cognitive consistency theories are concerned with inconsistencies that arise
between related beliefs, bits of knowledge and evaluation about an object or an issue. Though
various consistency theories differ in several respects, all of them have a common object that
is reducing the inconsistency and returning the individual to the equilibrium state.

There are four important theories under this grouping:

(A) Balance Theory:
F. Heider provided the basic model of balance theory. The theory is basically concerned with
the consistency in the judgment of people and/or issues that are linked by some form of
relationship.

According to this theory there are three elements in attitude formation:

Between these three elements two generic types of relationships are considered to exist:
Sentiment relations and unit relations.

The sentiment or linking relations include all form of sentiments or effect and the unit
relations express the fact that two elements are perceived as belonging together. Both
sentiment relations and the unit relations can be positive and negative.

All these elements and relations are illustrated with the help of the following figure:
In this three elements system balance exists if all three relations are positive or two relations
are negative and one positive. There will be imbalance if all three relations are negative or if
two relations are positive and one is negative. People tend to perceive others and objects
linked to them so that the system is balanced. This theory assumes that balanced states are
stable and imbalanced states are unstable. When imbalanced state occurs, the psychological
tension which is created motivates the person to restore the balance cognitively by changing
the relations. Thus a person’s attitude towards an object depends on his attitudes towards a
source who is linked with the object.

Example:
A person consistently argued that the quality of Indian cars is not up to that of the imported
cars and that he would never own anything other than an imported car. His father gifts give
him a latest model Maruti car. In this situation there are three elements the person, his father
and the car. To bring the balance in this situation he will either change his negative relation
with the Maruti car, he can ask his father to change his attitude and give him an imported car.
Thus if that person starts saying that the Maruti car is not so bad, it means he has changed his
relation and brought the balance in the situation.

Criticism:
The basic model given by Heider has been criticised on the following grounds:
(i) The theory does not consider the degree of sentimental or unit relationships nor the
relevance to the perceiver of the elements and relations.
(ii) As a consequence, there are no degrees of balance or imbalance and it is not possible to
make quantitative predictions about the degree of attitude change.

Abelson’s Extension of Balance Model:

In an extension of balance model, Abelson has suggested four methods in which a
person can resolve imbalance in cognitive structures:
(i) Denial
(ii) Bolstering
(iii) Differentiation
(iv) Transcendence
DENIAL → Denying a relationship when imbalance occurs.

BOLSTERING → Adding elements in the structure. In other words adding another issue in
the main issue.

DIFFERENTIATION→ Splitting one of the elements into two elements that are related in
opposite ways to other elements in the system and negatively related to each other.

TRANSCENDENCE→ Combining elements into larger, more super ordinate units from a
balanced structures.

These processes occur in hierarchy so that a person’s attempts to resolve imbalance in the
ordering are discussed. The ordering is based on the assumption that the person will attempt
the least effortful resolution first. This theory helps in understanding the role of persuasive
communication and interpersonal attractiveness in changing the attitudes.

B. Congruity Theory:
C.E. Os good and P.H. Tannenbaum have proposed the congruity theory of attitudes
which is similar to the balance theory. This theory focuses on the changes in the evaluation of
a source and a concept that are linked by an associative or dissociative assertion. Congruity
exists when a source and concept that are positively associated have exactly the same
evaluations and when a source and concept that are negatively associated have exactly the
opposite evaluations attached to them.

Congruity is a stable state and incongruity is an unstable one. As a result, incongruity

leads to a change of attitude. This theory states that how much change should be there in the
attitudes towards the source and the concept so that incongruity is resolved.

C. Affective Cognitive Consistency Theory:

M.I. Rosenberg has suggested the affective-cognitive consistency theory which is
concerned with the consistency between a person’s overall attitude or effect towards an
object or issue and his beliefs about its relationship to his more general values. This theory is
concerned mainly with what happens within the individual when an attitude changes. It
assumes that the relationship between the affective and cognitive components of the attitude
change when an attitude is altered.

The theory postulates the following points:

(i) A person’s effect towards or evaluation of the attitude object tends to be consistent- with
this cognitive structural component.
(ii) When there is inconsistency beyond a certain level of tolerance, the individual is
motivated to reduce the inconsistency and thereby to change one or both components to make
them more consistent.
(iii) The theory, thus, suggests that changes in the affective component produce changes in
the cognitive component in order to bring about consistency between the two.
(iv) The theory also suggests that persuasive communication can also be used to change the
attitudes, by revaluating the goals themselves.
D. Cognitive Dissonance Theory:
Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance.
Dissonance means an inconsistency. Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that
an individual might perceive between two or more of his attitudes or between his behaviour
and attitudes. Festinger argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that
individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance and hence the discomfort.

Therefore, individuals will seek a stable state where there is a minimum of

dissonance, because an individual cannot completely avoid dissonance.

The desire to reduce dissonance is determined by three factors:

(i) Importance of the elements creating the dissonance

(ii) The degree of influence the individual believes he has over the elements.

(iii) The rewards that may be involved in dissonance.

If the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the pressure to
correct this imbalance will be low. But if the elements are important then a person will have
to correct this imbalance. He can either change his behaviour, or he can change his
dissonance, or he can change his attitude. Another choice can be to find out more consonant
elements to outweigh the dissonant ones.

The degree of influence the individuals believe they have over the elements will have
an impact on how they will react to the dissonance. If they perceive the dissonance to be an
uncontrollable result, something over which they have no choice, they are less likely to be
receptive to attitude change. While dissonance exists, it can be rationalized and justified.

Rewards also influence the degree to which individuals are motivated to reduce
dissonance. High rewards accompanying high dissonance tend to reduce the discomfort
inherent in the dissonance because it increases the consistency side of the individual’s
balance sheet.

These factors suggest that just because individual experiences dissonance, they will
not necessarily move directly toward consistency, that is, toward reduction of this dissonance.
This theory helps to predict the propensity of an individual to engage in attitude and
behavioural change, if individuals are required.

For example, by the demands of their jobs to do or say things which contradict their
personal attitude, they will tend to modify their attitude in order to make it compatible with
the cognition of what they have said or done.

Further, the greater the dissonance, after it has been moderated by the above
mentioned factors, the greater the pressures to reduce it.

2. Functional Theory:
The functional theory considers how attitudes and efforts are related to the motivational
structure of the individual.

This theory focuses on two things:

(i) The meaning of the influence situation in terms of both the kinds of motives that it arouses
and

(ii) The individual’s method of coping and achieving his goals.

An understanding of the functions served by attitudes is important for attitude change

procedures since a particular method may produce change in individuals whose attitudes
serve one particular function, but may produce no change in individuals for whom the
attitudes serve a different function.

The most prominent person who visualized functional theory is Katz and he suggested four
functions of attitudes. However, Katz functional theory has not stimulated much research
except for the work on changing ego defensive attitudes.
Kelman has given another approach about the functional approach of attitudes.

He has distinguished three processes of attitude formation and change:

(i) Compliance
(ii) Identification and
(iii) Internalisation.
This theory is directed towards the types of social relationships that occur in social influence
situations.

Compliance occurs when an attitude is formed or changed in order to gain a favourable

impression from other person or group.
Identification occurs when a person forms or changes his attitude because this adoption helps
him establish or maintain a positive self defining relationship with the influencing agent.

Internalization involves adopting an attitude because it is congruent with one’s overall value
systems.

This approach makes an important contribution towards an understanding of the conditions

that influence the maintenance and stability of attitude change.

3. Social Judgment Theory:

The social judgment theory was originally formulated by Sherif and Hoveland. This theory
attempts to explain how existing attitudes produce distortions of attitude related objects and
how these judgments mediate attitude change. Thus, a person’s initial attitude towards an
issue, serves as an anchor for the judgment of attitude related stimuli. The person’s initial
attitude on an issue provides a point of reference against which he evaluates other opinions.

These views can be considered in terms of attitudinal continuum and can be considered as
comprised of latitudes. The latitude of acceptance, which is the range of opinions the
individual finds acceptable, encompasses the opinion that best characterises his own stand.
The attitude of rejection, which is the range of opinions the individual finds objectionable,
encompasses the opinion he finds most objectionable. The attitude of non-commitment is the
range of opinions that the person finds neither acceptable nor unacceptable.

TYPES OF LIKING

The Approval Like

Your classic like. Probably what Zuckerberg originally intended, a convenient device used to
show your appreciation or affirmation of something. It could be a status, a new relationship,
or a cliché picture of a Frappucino.

The Disapproval Like

Slightly more confusing than its generic counterpart, this “Like” is actually a dislike. The
dislike button was never added to Facebook, despite constant clamoring and petition schemes
to get people’s email address.
Instead, we’re left to try to convey our disapproval through an obvious dislike like. This is
applicable in statuses like “This day could not get any worse…” or “12 hour shift tonight…”
or “My puppy just got caught underneath my lawn mower…” (Ok that was sadistic, sorry.)
The point is, everyone knows these likes are actually dislikes, unless someone out there is
really, really, really, sick.

The “I’m trying to flirt with you” Like

Riddle me this… how can you sneakily invade your crush’s every thought? Easy. Like
everything they post. Eventually, they’ll be conditioned to expect a “Like” from you
everytime they post something on Facebook. And on that day when you don’t… you have
them right where you want them: missing you. Trust me, this works. Until…
The “I’m obsessed with you” Like
This occurs when you do a little too much of #3. You start noticing that one guy from junior
high that you haven’t seen in 12 years keeps liking all your statuses and photos. The worst
part? It’s mostly statuses and photos from 2009. That means they’re timeline creepin—
hard. It’s time to change your privacy settings.

The Ambiguous like

Disapproval? Approval? Usually applicable only in response to an ended relationship on
Facebook, the ambiguous like leaves most people confused. Are you saying you’re sad their
relationship is over?… Or that you’re happy? Probably only you know. That’s the thing
about likes, they don’t come with explanations. If they did, this wouldn’t be such a problem:

The Misclick Like

The worst and deadliest of all likes… you were probably trying to scroll down on your
mobile device… when suddenly that like box comes out of nowhere and before you know
it… you liked something you shouldn’t have. And there’s a 98% chance it’s creepy. Like
maybe a girl you don’t really know said something like “Just got out of the shower.” Great.
Now she’s gonna think you’re a creep. Or maybe you unlike it really fast and hope she didn’t
notice? But then if she notices, you’re really screwed. Because nothing’s creepier than
retroactively taking back a like.

The Meet a Cute Stranger Like

You leave a witty comment on your friend’s status. Maybe your friend said:
“Just stepped in gum… -_-”
And then you said “That sounds like a sticky [#pun] situation.” And a stranger says “That
blows [#pun].” And then you say “Try taking shorter strides [#pun].” And then the stranger
says “So many puns. I’ll step [#pun] aside.” Then you said “Guess that’s a wrap [#pun].”
All the while, you like each other’s comments based on your shared sense of humor and then
you find out that they’re actually really cute and funny and they have a blog or something and
then you start dating or whatever.
(Possibly got carried away on this one.)

The “I don’t hate you anymore” Like.

You guys are currently fighting. They probably did something like punch you or stole your
boyfriend. Or maybe they are your ex boyfriend. It’s been 3 years, and you’ve pretty much
forgiven them. You don’t want to like… see them or anything though. So you like their
status about going to the zoo or something. Zoos are innocuous. Just animals and children
there. Everybody wins.

The “I saw this, but don’t feel a need to reply” Like

Especially useful on birthdays. If you’re popular, you probably got like 150 wall posts. If
you got more, FINE YOU’RE MORE POPULAR THAN ME I GET IT.
…Or, someone comments on your status. Maybe you stepped in some gum earlier, and then
your dorky blogger buddy got carried away in a pun war with a girl who’s already got a
boyfriend. Something like that.

So you let your buddy know you saw their comments and appreciated them, but don’t feel a
need to start a conversation. Like.
The Promotion Like.
Maybe your friend has a blog or something. You want to help them promote it, so you like
their post. (below.) And their facebook page. And their hot new youtube video. Because
you’re a good person like that.

Attraction:

the interest in and liking of one individual by another, or the mutual interest and liking
between two or more individuals. Interpersonal attraction may be based on shared
experiences or characteristics, physical appearance, internal motivation (e.g., for affiliation),
or some combination of these.

Types of Attraction
1. Sexual Attraction

Sexual attraction might not leave much to the imagination because it's just that: being
sexually attracted to someone and having the desire to be with them on a physical and
intimate level. But it doesn't stop there. For example, sexual attraction doesn't have to be
limited to someone you know in real life. It can spill over into a fantasy world and stay
confined there.

"If someone inspires arousal, lust, or physiological excitement in you, this is sexual
attraction," says Marie. Which, if you read between the lines, basically gives the okay and go-
ahead to experience this type of attraction for, oh, I don't know…Timothée Chalamet. (It's
kind of hard to not be inspired to arousal as long as he's out there with that wavy hair of his.)
"When we hear the word 'attraction,' we often default to sexual attraction," says Marie.
"Societally, there's a lot of emphasis on sexual attraction being the apex of all attraction, but
let's dispel that mythology. Sexual attraction is just one type of a wide breadth of
experiences." (Also read: What Is Sexual Chemistry, Exactly?)
This narrow-minded view of attraction being solely sexual is heavily influenced by the
"sex sells" attitude and "heteronormative and religious ideals that focus on reproduction being
the end-all goal for humanity," says Marie.
There are also layers to sexual attraction that are sometimes ignored. You can be sexually
attracted to someone briefly, have a one-night stand with them, then the sexual attraction
fades into another form of attraction or completely exists the equation. One's sexual attraction
can also exist for several people at once or just one person for their entire life.
2. Romantic Attraction

Although no more or less complicated, romantic attraction tends to run deeper than sexual
attraction as there's a yearning for a connection that isn't strictly about sex.
"Romantic attraction is wanting to be involved intimately with another person or develop
a relationship that focuses on mutually beneficial connections and experiences," says Marie.
"You may feel personally invested or want to be invested in another person's life, feelings,
and experiences. These feelings share similarities with friendships but extend beyond
traditional friendship in that romantic attraction tends to be concentrated on a particular
person and may register more profoundly than existing friendships."
 Of course, the different types of attraction can exist together. Romantic attractions can
include sexual attraction and emotional attraction for some, but not for everyone. For
example, someone who is asexual can experience romantic attraction to someone without
experiencing any sexual attraction, says Marie. (On the slip side, the absence of experiencing
romantic attraction is known as being aromantic.)
3. Physical Attraction

Not to be confused with sexual attraction, physical attraction is more about the longing of
wanting to be physically close to a particular person and to touch them or be touched by
them.
"Physical attraction is the desire for a sensual and tactile connection that may hold sexual,
emotional, or romantic implications, but it doesn't necessitate them," says Marie. "Some
people resonate with tactile stimuli independent of sex and romance, such as hugs, cuddles,
holding hands, or massages. For example, you may enjoy cuddling with a friend but don't
want to have sex with them. You can just enjoy sharing proximity, company, and contact
with them." (Think: the "physical touch" love language.)
Physical touch, whether it be between lovers, friends, family, or you and your pet is an
expression of love and affection — as such, it makes physical attraction a very real type of
attraction.
"Touch is a fundamental human expression we experience at a very early age," says
Marie. "As infants, we instinctively know to touch before we develop verbal communication
skills. As children, if we are held, coddled, and cared for with touch, that is how we learn to
express affection, and this can carry on into our adult relationships." (See: The Scientific
Benefits of Human Touch — and How to Get More of It No Matter Your Relationship
Status)

4. Emotional Attraction

When it comes to emotional attraction, it's more about a desire for intimacy than anything
else.

"At the heart of emotional attraction is connection," says Marie. "We are social creatures
that crave the compassion and camaraderie of our community. Emotional attraction is a
shared experience of expressing and/or receiving love, respect, support, and acceptance
because of someone's mind and personality."
What you get out of this type of attraction and this connection is the sharing of hopes,
fears, dreams, and values — that's not only what creates the attraction, but builds a
relationship, whether it's platonic or romantic. (See: What Is Intimacy, and How Do You
Built It In a Relationship?)
"Emotional attraction can exist separately but may also contribute to other types of
attraction," says Marie. "For example, a demisexual is a person who requires a deep
emotional connection to develop a sexual or romantic relationship."
5. Aesthetic Attraction

What's interesting about aesthetic attraction is that it doesn't necessarily involve being
attracted to someone, as much as appreciating how they look. It doesn't usually include the
desire for sex, touch, intimacy, or romance, as much as it's a focus on what one finds
beautiful.

"Aesthetic attraction is purely about appearance," says Marie. "For example, if you
appreciate the physique of a Calvin Klein model but don't feel sexual desire or even really
want to know them personally, that's aesthetic attraction."

Granted, this isn't to suggest that if the CK model jumped off the billboard and asked you
out, you'd say "no." But the date would likely be about being with someone extremely easy
on the eyes, someone you enjoy looking at, maybe even ogling a little too long, but that's
where it ends.

persuasion, the process by which a person’s attitudes or behaviour are, without

duress, influenced by communications from other people. One’s attitudes and
behaviour are also affected by other factors (for example, verbal threats,
physical coercion, one’s physiological states).
Theories of Persuasion
Understanding how people are persuaded is very important to the discussion of public
speaking. Thankfully, a number of researchers have created theories that help explain why
people are persuaded. While there are numerous theories that help to explain persuasion, we
are only going to examine three here: social judgment theory, cognitive dissonance theory,
and the elaboration likelihood model.
Social Judgment Theory
Muzafer Sherif and Carl Hovland (1980) created social judgment theory attempts to
determine what types of communicative messages and under what conditions communicated
messages will lead to a change in someone’s behavior by comparing it with current attitudes.
In essence, Sherif and Hovland found that people’s perceptions of attitudes, values, beliefs,
and behaviors exist on a continuum including latitude of rejection, latitude of non-
commitment, and latitude of acceptance.
Sherif and Hovland found that persuasive messages were the most likely to succeed
when they fell into an individual’s latitude of acceptance. For example, if you are giving your
speech on majoring in a foreign language, people who are in favor of majoring in a foreign
language are more likely to positively evaluate your message, assimilate your advice into
their own ideas, and engage in desired behavior. On the other hand, people who reject your
message are more likely to negatively evaluate your message, not assimilate your advice, and
not engage in desired behavior.
In an ideal world, we’d always be persuading people who agree with our opinions, but
that’s not reality. Instead, we often find ourselves in situations where we are trying to
persuade others to attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors with which they may not agree. To
help us persuade others, what we need to think about is the range of possible attitudes, values,
beliefs, and behaviors that exist. For example, in a foreign language scenario where students
are being persuaded to major in this major, we may see the following possible opinions from
our audience members:
1. Complete agreement. Let’s all major in foreign languages.
2. Strong agreement. I won’t major in a foreign language, but I will double major in a
foreign language.
3. Agreement in part. I won’t major in a foreign language, but I will minor in a foreign
language.
 4. Neutral. While I think studying a foreign language can be worthwhile, I also think a
college education can be complete without it. I really don’t feel strongly one way or the
other.
5. Disagreement in part. I will only take the foreign language classes required by my major.
6. Strong disagreement. I don’t think I should have to take any foreign language classes.
7. Complete disagreement. Majoring in a foreign language is a complete waste of a college
education.
These seven possible opinions on the subject do not represent the full spectrum of
choices but give us various degrees of agreement with the general topic. So what does this
have to do with persuasion? Well, we’re glad you asked. Sherif and Hovland theorized that
persuasion was a matter of knowing how great the discrepancy or difference was between the
speaker’s viewpoint and that of the audience. If the speaker’s point of view was similar to
that of audience members, then persuasion was more likely. If the discrepancy between the
idea proposed by the speaker and the audience’s viewpoint is too great, then the likelihood of
persuasion decreases dramatically.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
In 1957, Leon Festinger proposed another theory for understanding how persuasion
functions. Cognitive dissonance theory is an aversive motivational state that occurs when an
individual entertains two or more contradictory attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors
simultaneously. For example, maybe you know you should be working on your speech, but
you really want to go to a movie with a friend. In this case, practicing your speech and going
to the movie are two cognitions that are inconsistent with one another. The goal of persuasion
is to induce enough dissonance in listeners that they will change their attitudes, values,
beliefs, or behaviors. Frymier and Nadler (2013) noted that for cognitive dissonance to work
effectively there are three necessary conditions: aversive consequences, freedom of choice,
and insufficient external justification.
First, for cognitive dissonance to work, there needs to be a strong enough aversive
consequence, or punishment, for not changing one’s attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors.
For example, maybe you’re giving a speech on why people need to eat more apples. If your
aversive consequence for not eating apples is that your audience will not get enough fiber,
most people will simply not be persuaded, because the punishment isn’t severe enough.
Instead, for cognitive dissonance to work, the punishment associated with not eating apples
needs to be significant enough to change behaviors. If you convince your audience that
without enough fiber in their diets they are at higher risk for heart disease or colon cancer,
they might fear the aversive consequences enough to change their behaviour.
The second condition necessary for cognitive dissonance to work is that people must
have a freedom of choice. If listeners feel they are being coerced into doing something, then
dissonance will not be aroused. They may alter their behavior in the short term, but as soon as
the coercion is gone, the original behavior will reemerge. It’s like the person who drives more
slowly when a police officer is nearby but ignores speed limits once officers are no longer
present. As a speaker, if you want to increase cognitive dissonance, you need to make sure
that your audience doesn’t feel coerced or manipulated, but rather that they can clearly see
that they have a choice of whether to be persuaded
The final condition necessary for cognitive dissonance to work has to do with external
and internal justifications. External justification refers to the process of identifying reasons
outside of one’s own control to support one’s behavior, beliefs, and attitudes. Internal
justification occurs when someone voluntarily changes a behavior, belief, or attitude to
reduce cognitive dissonance. When it comes to creating change through persuasion, external
justifications are less likely to result in change than internal justifications.
 Imagine that you’re giving a speech with the specific purpose of persuading college
students to use condoms whenever they engage in sexual intercourse. Your audience analysis,
in the form of an anonymous survey, indicates that a large percentage of your listeners do not
consistently use condoms. Which would be the more persuasive argument: (a) “Failure to use
condoms inevitably results in unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections,
including AIDS”—or (b) “If you think of yourself as a responsible adult, you’ll use condoms
to protect yourself and your partner”? With the first argument, you have provided external
justification for using condoms (i.e., terrible things will happen if you don’t use condoms).
Listeners who reject this external justification (e.g., who don’t believe these dire
consequences are inevitable) are unlikely to change their behavior. With the second
argument, however, if your listeners think of themselves as responsible adults and they don’t
consistently use condoms, the conflict between their self-image and their behavior will elicit
cognitive dissonance. In order to reduce this cognitive dissonance, they are likely to seek
internal justification for the view of themselves as responsible adults by changing their
behavior (i.e., using condoms more consistently). In this case, according to cognitive
dissonance theory, the second persuasive argument would be the one more likely to lead to a
change in behavior.

Key Persuasion Techniques

The ultimate goal of persuasion is to convince the target to internalize the persuasive
argument and adopt this new attitude as a part of their core belief system.
The following are just a few of the highly effective persuasion techniques. Other
methods include the use of rewards, punishments, positive or negative expertise, and many
others.
1. Create a Need
One method of persuasion involves creating a need or appealing to a previously existing
need. This type of persuasion appeals to a person's fundamental needs for shelter, love, self-
esteem, and self-actualization.
Marketers often use this strategy to sell their products. Consider, for example, how many
advertisements suggest that people need to purchase a particular product in order to be happy,
safe, loved, or admired.
2. Appeal to Social Needs
Another very effective persuasive method appeals to the need to be popular, prestigious or
similar to others. Television commercials provide many examples of this type of persuasion,
where viewers are encouraged to purchase items so they can be like everyone else or be like a
well-known or well-respected person.
Television advertisements are a huge source of exposure to persuasion considering that the
average American watches between 4.9 to 5.7 hours per day.
3. Use Loaded Words and Images
Persuasion also often makes use of loaded words and images. Advertisers are well aware of
the power of positive words, which is why so many advertisers utilize phrases such as "New
and Improved" or "All Natural."
4. Get Your Foot in the Door
Another approach that is often effective in getting people to comply with a request is known
as the "foot-in-the-door" technique. This persuasion strategy involves getting a person to
agree to a small request, like asking them to purchase a small item, followed by making a
much larger request.
By getting the person to agree to the small initial favor, the requester already has their "foot
in the door," making the individual more likely to comply with the larger request. For
example, a neighbor asks you to babysit their two children for an hour or two. Once you
agree to the smaller request, they then ask if you can just babysit the kids for the rest of the
day.
This is a great example of what psychologists refer to as the rule of commitment, and
marketers often use this strategy to encourage consumers to buy products and services.
5. How "Getting Your Foot in the Door" Works
Once you have already agreed to a smaller request, you might feel a sense of obligation to
also agree to a larger request.
6. Go Big and Then Small
This approach is the opposite of the foot-in-the-door approach. A salesperson will begin by
making a large, often unrealistic request. The individual responds by refusing, figuratively
slamming the door on the sale.
The salesperson responds by making a much smaller request, which often comes off as
conciliatory. People often feel obligated to respond to these offers. Since they refused that
initial request, people often feel compelled to help the salesperson by accepting the smaller
request.
7. Utilize the Power of Reciprocity
When people do you a favor, you probably feel an almost overwhelming obligation to return
the favor in kind. This is known as the norm of reciprocity, a social obligation to do
something for someone else because they first did something for you.
Marketers might utilize this tendency by making it seem like they are doing you a kindness,
such as including "extras" or discounts, which then compels people to accept the offer and
make a purchase.
8. Create an Anchor Point
The anchoring bias is a subtle cognitive bias that can have a powerful influence on
negotiations and decisions. When trying to arrive at a decision, the first offer has the
tendency to become an anchoring point for all future negotiations.
So, if you are trying to negotiate a pay increase, being the first person to suggest a number,
especially if that number is a bit high, can help influence the future negotiations in your
favor. That first number will become the starting point.
While you might not get that amount, starting high might lead to a higher offer from your
employer.
9. Limit Your Availability
Psychologist Robert Cialdini is famous for the six principles of influence. One of the key
principles he identified is known as scarcity or limiting the availability of something. Cialdini
suggests that things become more attractive when they are scarce or limited. 2
People are more likely to buy something if they learn that it is the last one or that the sale will
be ending soon. An artist, for example, might only make a limited run of a particular print.
Since there are only a few prints available for sale, people might be more likely to make a
purchase before they are gone.
10. Notice Persuasive Messages
The examples above are just a few of the many persuasion techniques described by social
psychologists. Look for examples of persuasion in your daily experience. An interesting
experiment is to view a half-hour of a random television program and note every instance of
persuasive advertising. You might be surprised by the sheer amount of persuasive techniques
used in such a brief period of time.

What is Conformity?
 Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior in
order to fit in with a group.
This change is in response to real (involving the physical presence of others) or
imagined (involving the pressure of social norms / expectations) group pressure.
Conformity can also be simply defined as “yielding to group pressures” (Crutchfield,
1955). Group pressure may take different forms, for example bullying, persuasion, teasing,
criticism, etc. Conformity is also known as majority influence (or group pressure).

What Is Compliance?

In psychology, compliance refers to changing one's behavior due to the request or direction of
another person.

Compliance involves changing your behavior in some way because someone else requested
you to do so. While you may have had the option to refuse the request, you chose to comply.

There are many different kinds of situations where compliance comes into play. Some
examples include:

 Buying something because a salesperson makes a pitch and then asks you to make a
purchase
 Responding to a friend asking "Can you do me a favor?"
 Seeing an ad on a website, clicking it, and then making a purchase.

Obedience:-

Obedience is a form of social influence that involves performing an action under the orders of
an authority figure. It differs from compliance (which involves changing your behavior at the
request of another person) and conformity (which involves altering your behavior in order to
go along with the rest of the group).
 UNIT-2: SOCIAL JUDGEMENT, SOCIAL IDENTITY AND INTER-GROUP
RELATIONS

Social Judgement

Social Judgement theory states that you have a statement or message and you accept it or
reject it based on your cognitive map. You accept or reject a message based on one's own
ego-involvement and if it falls within their latitude of acceptance.

Frame of reference
in social psychology, the set of assumptions or criteria by which a person or group judges
ideas, actions, and experiences. A frame of reference can often limit or distort perception, as
in the case of prejudice and stereotypes.

stereotype
In social psychology, a stereotype is a fixed, over generalized belief about a particular group
or class of people. By stereotyping we infer that a person has a whole range of characteristics
and abilities that we assume all members of that group have. For example, a “hells angel”
biker dresses in leather.

Attribution:
In social psychology, attribution is the process of inferring the causes of events or behaviors.
In real life, attribution is something we all do every day, usually without any awareness of the
underlying processes and biases that lead to our inferences.

For example, over the course of a typical day, you probably make numerous attributions
about your own behavior as well as that of the people around you.

Attribution Theory

Jones & Davis Correspondent Inference Theory

Jones and Davis (1965) thought that people pay particular attention to intentional behavior
(as opposed to accidental or unthinking behavior).
Jones and Davis’ theory helps us understand the process of making an internal attribution.
They say that we tend to do this when we see a correspondence between motive and
behavior. For example, when we see a correspondence between someone behaving in a
friendly way and being a friendly person.
Dispositional (i.e., internal) attributions provide us with information from which we can
make predictions about a person’s future behavior. The correspondent inference theory
describes the conditions under which we make dispositional attributes to the behavior we
perceive as intentional.
Davis used the term correspondent inference to refer to an occasion when an observer infers
that a person’s behavior matches or corresponds with their personality. It is an alternative
term to dispositional attribution.
So what leads us to make a correspondent inference? Jones and Davis say we draw on five
sources of information:

1. Choice: If a behavior is freely chosen it is believed to be due to internal

(dispositional) factors.
2. Accidental vs. Intentional Behavior: Behavior that is intentional is likely to be
attributed to the person’s personality, and behavior which is accidental is likely to be
attributed to situation / external causes.
3. Social Desirability: Behaviors low in sociable desirability (non conforming) lead us
to make (internal) dispositional inferences more than socially undesirable behaviors.
For example, if you observe a person getting on a bus and sitting on the floor instead
of one of the seats. This behavior has low social desirability (non conforming) and is
likely to correspond with the personality of the individual.
4. Hedonistic Relevance: If the other person’s behavior appears to be directly intended
to benefit or harm us.
5. Personalism: If the other person’s behavior appears to be intended to have an impact
on us, we assume that it is “personal”, and not just a by-product of the situation we
are both in.

Kelley's Covariation Model

Kelley’s (1967) covariation model is the best-known attribution theory. He developed a

logical model for judging whether a particular action should be attributed to some
characteristic (dispositional) of the person or the environment (situational).
The term covariation simply means that a person has information from multiple observations,
at different times and situations, and can perceive the covariation of an observed effect and its
causes.
He argues that in trying to discover the causes of behavior people act like scientists. More
specifically they take into account three kinds of evidence.

 Consensus: the extent to which other people behave in the same way in a similar
situation. E.g., Alison smokes a cigarette when she goes out for a meal with her
friend. If her friend smokes, her behavior is high in consensus. If only Alison
smokes, it is low.
 Distinctiveness: the extent to which the person behaves in the same way in similar
situations. If Alison only smokes when she is out with friends, her behavior is high in
distinctiveness. If she smokes at any time or place, distinctiveness is low.
 Consistency: the extent to which the person behaves like this every time the situation
occurs. If Alison only smokes when she is out with friends, consistency is high. If
she only smokes on one special occasion, consistency is low.

Rational decision-making:

Rational decision-making is a process in which decision-makers go through a set of steps and

processes and choose the best solution to a problem. These decisions are based on data
analysis and logic, eliminating intuition and subjectivity.
Rational decision-making means that every variable factor, every piece of information about
all the available options, has been taken into account.

Social identity:
Social identity can be defined as an individual’s knowledge of belonging to certain social
groups, together with some emotional and valuational significance of that group membership.
Thus, while one’s personal identity refers to self-knowledge associated
with unique individual attributes, people’s social identity indicates who they are in terms of
the groups to which they belong.

Groups: In social psychology, a group can be defined as two or more humans who interact
with one another, accept expectations and obligations as members of the group, and share a
common identity. By this definition, society can be viewed as a large group, though most
social groups are considerably smaller.

Types of Group:
Groups characterised by more or less continued intimate face-to-face association and
cooperation are primary group, e.g., family; children’s play groups, adolescent group,
neighbourhood group.
1. Secondary Groups:
Secondary groups are special-interest groups, such as national, political religious, fraternal
and professional groups. They don’t depend upon face-to-face contact although there may be
direct interaction among the members.
2. Socio & Psycho Groups:
In socio groups the purpose is largely impersonal, the members associating together to work
on some common objective or problem. Labour union, editorial staff of a school year-book.
The psycho group is more personal in nature and the members come together of their own
accord primarily for the purpose of inter member association. The girls who meet regularly
under the tree in the recess.
3. Organized and Unorganized Groups:
In the organized group the members play differentiated roles in relation to common goals.
The degree of organisation may very loose, informal organization to a highly complex,
formal one. But, if the group has a leader, it is an organization.
In unorganized group each member functions more or less independently of the others. It is
highly flexible, the members being free to develop their roles as they please.
4. In Groups and Out Groups:
The groups to which an individual’s belongs and toward which he feels a loyalty are in-
groups.
The ones toward which he feels neither loyalty nor sympathy and for which he may feel
dislike, suspicion, opposition, fear, or even hatred are out-groups. A nation, race, religious
sect, or neighbourhood group that is seen as inferior to one’s and viewed with prejudice or
hostility. SES, home and regional influences play an important part in the origin and
propagation of such prejudice.

11.8 GROUP PROCESSES

How a person acts in presence of someone else may be completely different from what he
would have been doing, had he been alone. This ‘someone’ may be a co-worker of her/his
group, an audience or a mere stranger. For instance, while dining out in some restaurant, you
may refrain from doing many things which you would have done when dining at home. There
are several influences of group on an individual called as group processes. Some of them
have been mentioned in the sub headings below.

Social Facilitation

Social facilitation is defined as a tendencyof a person to perform differently in presence of an

audience or with a co-actor.Presence of audience increases our arousal which affects our
performance. Thus other’s presence will improve performance if the performer iswell learned
and his/her dominant responses are the correct ones in the situation. Furthermore, it will
impair performance if performer’s dominant responses are the incorrect ones and the less
practiced responses are correct ones. This view is known as Drive Theory of Social
Facilitation(Zajonc, Heingartner & Herman, 1969). Social facilitation fails to occur if the
performer does not pay attention to the other persons present there.

According to Distraction-Conflict Theory, a person is distracted when performing in

front of others because he or she tries to divide attention between the task and the co-
actor/audience. This produces cognitive overload on the performer and therefore, forcing the
performer to pay attention only to the essential cues/stimuli.

Social Loafing

While working in a group, often motivation is reduced resulting into reduced efforts
to achieve the group goal. This phenomenon is known as social loafing (Karau & Williams,
1993). When working in a group for a common task, a general feeling arises among the
individuals that even though they will contribute a little less, the group goal will be achieved.
Hence they have lower motivation and exert less effort to achieve the group goal. Instead, the
individuals rely more on the efforts of their co-members. This might have grim implications.
In situations, where each or most of the group members become victim of social loafing, the
group performance suffers seriously. Social loafing is observed in variety of group tasks,
such as cognitive, physical, verbal, etc. (Weldon & Mustari, 1988; Williams & Karau, 1991).

Price, Harrison and Gavin (2006) observed that there are two factors which contribute
to social loafing: feeling of being dispensable to the group and feeling of unfairness in the
group. When a member feels that the contributions made by her/him are not essential to the
group, then she/he is more likely to loaf. Conversely, if a member has skills and knowledge
relevant to the performance of group task, she/he is more likely to actively participate in the
group activities. Similarly, if a member feels that she/he may be treated unfairly, even after
making significant contribution, then she/he is more likely to loaf. Also, if a member is
dissimilar from the other members on factors such as age, sex, ethnicity, etc. she/ he is more
likely to feel unfairly treated and thus more likely to loaf.

Following techniques may be implied to reduce social loafing:

 Reduced feeling of being dispensable in the group by making individual efforts readily
identifiable (Williams, Harkins &Latane, 1981).
 Increasing individual member’s commitment to the successful task performance
(Brickner, Harkins &Ostrom, 1986).
 Increasing the importance of the task (Karau& Williams, 1993).
 Providing each member with some kind of standard performance, such as their past
performance or how others are doing (Williams & Karau, 1991).

Deindividuation

Deindividuation is a psychological state characterized by reduced self-awareness and

personal identity, brought on by external conditions such as being an anonymous member of
a large crowd. This leads the members of a crowd to perform behaviours which they would
have never performed when they were alone.Deindividuation leads to greater obedience of
the norms of the crowd (Postmes & Spears, 1998).

Previously in one of the above section, you were informed about the differences
between group and crowd, where, crowd is merely a collection of people, who happen to be
at the same place at the same time with or without any common purpose. But this does not
mean that crowd cannot have a norm. Consider a crowd gathered to watch a cricket match.
Here the crowd norm is to cheer their team. Being in a crowd makes a person anonymous and
hence they feel less responsible for their acts. Thus, they are more likely to resort to wild,
unrestrained and anti-social actions (Zimbardo, 1970). Hooliganismis a special case of
deindividuation, where the fans of English soccer team displayed extremely wild and
unsocial behaviour in the matches involving English team.

Deindividuation does not always lead to negative and anti-social behaviour. It just
increases the likelihood of obedience of crowd norms. In instances involving some mishaps
like stampede, road accident or fires in buildings, deindividuation may elicit helping
behaviour, too.