KARNATAKA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

MUKTHAGANGOTRI MYSURU - 570 006

M. Sc. PSYCHOLOGY (CBCS)

FIRST SEMESTER
INTERDISCIPLINARY OPEN ELECTIVE EL- I
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

BLOCK : 1 - 2 UNITS : 1 - 8
DEPARTMENT OF STUDIES AND RESEARCH
IN PSYCHOLOGY
 Karnataka State M.Sc. Psychology
Open University First Semester
Mukthagangotri, Mysuru-6 CBCS

INTERDISCIPLINARY OPEN ELECTIVE EL- I

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Department of Studies and Research
in Psychology

Block I : Introduction to Psychology - I Page No

Unit - 1 : Introducing Psychology- Definition, Scope, and goals 1 -9

Unit - 2 : Branches of Psychology 10 - 21
Unit - 3 : Motivation 22 - 33
Unit - 4 : Emotions 34 - 44

Block II : Introduction to Psychology - II

Unit - 5 : Sensation, Attention and Perception 45 - 68
Unit - 6 : Learning, Memory and Forgetting 69 - 85
Unit - 7 : Intelligence 86 - 95
Unit - 8 : Personality 96-112
Credit Page
Programme Name : M.Sc Psychology (CBCS)

Year / Semester : 1st Semester

Blocks : 1- 2

Course Name : Interdisciplinary Open Elective EL-1 Introduction to

Psychology

Credit : 2 Credits

Units : 1 - 08 Units

Course Design Expert Committee

Prof. S. Vidyashankar Chairman

Vice - Chancellor
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangothri, Mysuru – 570 006
Prof. Kamble Ashok Member
Dean (Academic)
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangothri, Mysuru – 570 006
Dr. S. Surma Member
Course Co- Ordinator
DOS & R in Psychology
Karnataka State Open University, Mysuru
Dr. Manjunatha . P Member
BOS Chairman
DOS & R in Psychology
Karnataka State Open University, Mysuru
Dr. S. Surma Member Convener
Chairperson
DOS & R in Psychology
Karnataka State Open University, Mysuru
Editorial Committee
Dr. Manjunatha . P Chairman
BOS Chairman
DOS & R in Psychology KSOU, Mysuru
Prof. Sampathkumar Member
DOS in Psychology
University of Mysore.
Dr. S. Surma Member
Assistant Professor
DOS & R in Psychology KSOU, Mysuru

Dr. S. Surma Member Convener

Chairperson
DOS & R in Psychology,KSOU, Mysuru
Course Editor
Dr. S. Surma
Chairperson
Department of Studies and Research in Psychology
KSOU,Mukthagangothri, Mysuru – 570 006

Course Writers
Block Units
1. Prof. Sampathkumar 1 1-2
DOS in Psychology
University of Mysore, Mysuru.
2. Dr. Manjunatha. P 1 3-4
Assistant Professor, DOS in Psychology
Karnataka State Open University, Mysuru
3. Dr. S. Surma 2 5- 8
Assistant Professor, DOS in Psychology
Karnataka State Open University, Mysuru

Publisher
Registrar
Karnataka State Open University, Mukthagangothri, Mysuru - 6
Developed by Academic Section, KSOU, Mysore- 6, 2022
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or
any other means, without permission in writing from the Karnataka State Open University.
Further information may obtained from the University’s office at Muktagangotri, Mysuru - 6
Printed and Published on behalf of Karnataka State Open University, Muktagangotri,
Mysuru - 6
 INTERDISCIPLINARY OPEN ELECTIVE EL- I
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Dear Students,

We congratulate you for your choice of Psychology as your Open Elective. We welcome you to
the world of understanding yourself and the people around you. Psychology is that branch of science
which helps you to understand yourself better. It helps you to understand your own emotions, thoughts,
motivations. It also enables you to understand people around you thereby equipping you with necessary
skills. By studying Psychology you will improve your communication skills, thinking skills, analytical
skills, interpersonal relationship skills, it enables you to be better in conflict resolution. Study of Psychology
makes you become more confident in understanding the world around you, their behavior and the way
you react to it.
The first block introduces you to Psychology, its definitions and scope, the branches of Psychology,
emotions and motivations. It focusses upon the various branches and its contributions, their importance
and the scope of those branches. An understanding of emotions, its classification, its importance in the
behavior , the positive and negative consequence of emotions are being discussed. The importance of
motivation, its types, and how it affects the behavior of an individual is being discussed in detail.
The second block discusses about the basic functioning, psychology to be called as science
focusses on all the aspects which affects the behavior of an individual. The process of sensation, its types
the function are being discussed. The basic cognitive functions, attention, perception its process, its
types, and factors affecting to those are discussed. Learning, memory and forgetting, its process, stages,
types, factors affecting them are being discussed. The intelligence and its classification, personality, types,
assessment are being discussed in detail. By studying this course you will be able to understand the
behavior of oneself as well as others far better. It will help you in your personal as well as professional
life.
Wishing you All the Best,
Dr. S. Surma
Chairman
DOS & R in Psychology
KSOU, MG, Mysuru -6
 BLOCK 1 -INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

UNIT: 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Structure:

1.1 Objectives

1.2 Introduction

1.3 Meaning of Psychology

1.4 Definitions of Psychology

1.5 Need for the study of Psychology

1.6 Misconceptions about Psychology

1.7 Summary

1.8 Keywords

1.9 Check your progress

1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.11 References

1
1.1 OBJECTIVES

• To understand the meaning of psychology

• To understand the definitions

• To develop an insight about the need for studying psychology

• To understand the misconceptions about psychology

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Psychology is the science which studies the organism’s behaviour in a scientific

manner. In the beginning psychology was the part of philosophy for more than 2000 years.
Later in the view of trying to understand the human nature, his behaviour, and the reasons
and causes for these behaviours there arise a need and necessity of a new and separate subject
so that more scientific research can be done to understand the behaviour. Many a research
methods and methods of understanding behaviour were proposed to the study of Psychology.
The theories and the methods given by psychologists are being used to study the human
behaviours and in these manners the psychology stood by its own way as a separate subject.

1.3 MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY

The word psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche, meaning ‘soul’ or
‘mind.’ The word ‘psychology’ was derived from two word ‘psyche’ and ‘logos’. Psyche
means ‘soul’ and logos means ‘discourse’ or ‘science’ or ‘study of soul’.

Psychology is the science that studies behaviour and the physiological and mental
processes that underlie it, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of
the science to practical problems. Psychology is an area of scientific study, much like biology
or physics. Whereas biology focuses on life processes and physics focuses on matter and
energy, psychology focuses on behaviour and related mental and physiological processes.

Psychology looks at behaviour. Behaviour is any overt (observable) response or

activity by an organism. Psychology does not confine itself to the study of human behaviour.

Psychology is also interested in the mental processes- the thoughts, feelings and
wishes-that accompany behaviour. Mental processes are more difficult to study than
behaviour because they are private and not directly observable. However, they exert critical

2
influence over human behaviour. So psychologists have strived to improve their ability to
“look inside the mind”

In the beginning the definition that psychology studies mind created certain problems
The term mind is derived from philosophy. So it was not accepted as psychology decides to
be a science subject. The term mind if accepted does gives rise to several questions that is
what is mind? Where is the mind? Etc. hence this term was rejected.

Finally, Psychology includes the study of the physiological processes that underlie
behaviour. Thus some Psychologists try to figure out how bodily processes such as neural
impulses, hormonal secretions, and genetic coding regulate behaviour.

Hence the psychologists decide to drop this term and use behaviour. The term
behaviour was initiated by two great psychologists William Mc Dougall and John Broadus
Watson. These two psychologists expressed that the psychology should concern itself with
the actual behaviour of organisms, both human and animals, because behaviour is something
concrete, factual and observable, unlike the mind.

Psychology is not all pure science. It has a highly practical side, represented by the
many psychologists who provide a variety of professional services to the public. Although the
profession of psychology is quite prominent today, this aspect of psychology was actually
slow to develop.

Psychology is both an applied and academic field that studies the human mind and
behaviour. Research in psychology seeks to understand and explain thought, emotion and
behaviour. Applications of psychology include mental health treatment, performance
enhancement, self-help, and many other areas affecting health and daily life.

Psychology deals with behaviours, behaviour which is an extremely complex concept

and having so many perspectives or views of looking at it. Psychology is a subject which has
attained the status of a science today; it applies the most standardized methods, and ways of
conducting research to understand the behaviour, in minute detail. It explains the human
evolution, genes, hormones and their relation to behaviour. In total it talks about the
mechanisms in an individual which actually give rise to behaviour, and it’s monitoring and
controlling it. Psychology also studies the brain, its structure and functioning so that it can
find the cause and effects of it in the behaviour. It explains how the brain is responsible for
what we are, what we do, what we think, what we feel.

3
 Next, Wilhelm Wundt the founder of psychology laboratory in 1879, has defined
psychology as the science of study of conscious experience psychology does not confine its
study to only conscious mental processes but it also studies unconscious process such as
dreams, hallucinations, delusions, phobias and etc.,

Psychology was defined as the “study of objective behaviour by subjective experience”.

Mc Doug all the founder of Hormic School says that the aim of psychology is to
render our knowledge of human nature more exact and systematic, in order that we may
control ourselves more wisely and influence our fellow men more effectively.

Psychology as science of human behaviour though the term behaviour, includes not
only motor behaviour such as walking, running, eating talking etc. also it includes the
cognitive activities like perceiving, remembering, learning etc., it includes the motives which
determine and direct our overt behaviour. It covers our overt behaviour and innate experience
and more definitely psychological activities such as thinking, reasoning etc.

Munn defined psychology as the science of experience and behaviour. Experience is

internal and subjective and it can be understood only by the individual who lives through it,
whereas behaviour is overt and objective, and hence it is observable and verifiable by others.
Psychology is defined as the science of studying the cognitive, conative and affective
activities of man and animals which are conscious or unconscious.

Psychology evolved out of both philosophy and biology. Discussions of these two
subjects date as far back as the early Greek thinkers including Aristotle and Socrates.

Behaviour: The term behaviour includes not only the observable activities but also the
unobservable inner activities and processes. This includes the term like attention, perception,
intelligence, thinking, feeling, remembering reasoning, decision making Etc. It also explains
the unconscious process which is not directly observable by others and they are not known
even by the person himself or herself. Hence behaviour includes the observable, unobservable
which are conscious and unconscious, subconscious behaviour in the individual.

Characteristics of Behaviour

Behaviour is influenced by various factors: Our behaviour is a result of both

external as well as internal factors. We behave in different manner for the same stimulus in
different situations because of these internal or external factors.

4
 Behaviour is complex: When an individual is showing his cognitive activities we see
that how the higher cognitive activities are much complex. It is even more complex to
understand when the cognitive activities are influenced by emotions, depends on the
situations, etc.

1.4 DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

The word psychology was derived from two word psyche and logos. Psyche means
soul and logos mean discourse or science of study of soul. Science of soul as the concept of
was purely abstract and metaphysical in native, this definition was discarded on the ground
that it would come in the way of psychology progress. Later it was defined as the study of
mind or science of mind.

The term ‘Mind’ again is metaphysical in nature and it cannot be seen. It is only a
functional entity so this definition was also discarded. Then came the definition that
psychology is the study of conscious behaviour this definition stayed for some time , but later
as the subject matter of psychology is not limited to only the conscious behaviour of an
individual this definition was also discarded. Psychology studies not only the conscious
behaviour but also the unconscious behaviour, the phenomenon like hallucinations, delusions,
dreams; phobias are also dealt and understood in psychology for a better understanding of the
individual. So the definition was extended to “the study of conscious and unconscious
behaviour”.

William James 1890 - Psychology is the Science of Mental life, both its phenomena and of
their conditions …..The phenomena are such thing as we call feelings. Desires, cognitions,
reasoning’s, decisions, and the like.

James Angell, 1910 - All consciousness everywhere, normal or abnormal, human or

animal is the subject matter which the psychologist attempts to describe or explain, and no
definition of his science is wholly acceptable which designates more or less than just this.

John B.watson.1919 -For the behaviourist, Psychology is that division of natural

sciencewhich takes human behaviour-the doings and sayings, both learned and unlearned-as
its subject.

Kurt koffka, 1925 -As a provisional definition of Psychology, we may say that its
problem is the scientific study of the behaviour of living creatures in their contact with the
outer word.

5
 Arthur Gates, 1831-Conceived broadly Psychology, seeks to discover the general laws
which explain the behaviour of living organisms. It attempts to identify, describe, and classify
the several types of activity of which the animal. Human or other, is capable.

Edwin Boring 1939 -What is man? To this question Psychology seeks an answer.

Norman Munn.1951. - Today, Psychology is most commonly defined as “the science

of behaviour” interestingly enough, however, the meaning of “behaviour” has itself expanded
so that it now takes in a good bit of what was formerly dealt with as experience……..such
private (subjective) processes as thinking are now dealt with as “internal behaviour”

Kenneth Clark and George miller.1970- Psychology is usually defined as the

scientific study of behaviour. Its subject matter includes behavioural processes that are
observable, such as gestures, speech, and physiological changes, and processes that can only
be inferred such as thoughts and dreams.

All behaviour is caused and can be traced to certain factors which determine it.
Human beings are capable of observing, analysing classifying and measuring such cases; and
generalization. Prediction which psychology makes is the activations of individuals or
specific events in the lives of people.

Psychology is a science which seeks to understand describes, predict and control

behaviour.

A Separate Science

The field and study of psychology was truly born when Wilhelm Wundt established
the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. Wundt’s work was
focused on describing the structures that compose the mind. This perspective relied heavily
on the analysis of sensations and feelings through the use of introspection, a highly subjective
process. Wundt believed that properly trained individuals would be able to accurately identify
the mental processes that accompanied feelings, sensations and thoughts.

Psychologists prefer to use more objective scientific methods to understand, explain

and predict human behaviour. Psychological studies are highly structured. Applied
psychology focuses on the use of different psychological principles to solve real world
problems. Examples of applied areas of psychology include forensic psychology, ergonomics

6
and industrial-organizational psychology. Many other psychologists work as therapists,
helping people overcome mental, behavioral and emotional disorders.

1.5 NEED FOR THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY

The subject matter of psychology is to understand the behaviour. Behaviour of an

individual varies from one individual to another and from one situation to another. No one
can predict exactly what an individual is going to do for a given situation as the response will
be purely personnel in nature and the individuals mental, emotional, social, environmental
factors do influence the response . But still there will be some common factors ruling out all
these through which the individuals react for situations. Psychology tries to find out and form
some common rules through which it understands the behaviour. The aim of psychology is to
describe, explain, predict and control behaviour.

The first task for a psychologist is to gather information about the behaviour being
studied and to present what is known. For ex: a psychologist would not be content with
simply stating the facts, but also be interested in explaining why people behave as they do.
And these explanations often go beyond what can be observed to include ideas about why
people react in certain ways. Once the psychologist describes and explains the causes of these
behaviour the next step of a psychologist is to predict the behaviour based on the
accumulated knowledge, what people will think, feel, or do in certain situations. By studying
descriptive accounts linking certain behaviour together, psychologist can predict certain
events. Finally, psychologists seek to go beyond description, explanation and prediction to
influence or control behaviour in helpful ways.

1.6 MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY

As soon as people hear the word psychology they start thinking that this is a subject
which studies people just by looking at their faces. This idea is still prevailing in illiterate as
well as literate and educated community also. People still believe that psychologists read
faces and tell what is going to happen, what has happened etc. They also believe that
psychologists can read mind whatever we are thinking they can get to know even without
telling, and it is very difficult to hide anything from them. Talking to a psychologist means
other people looking will think that may be, he/she is mentally ill, or people are scared that
talking to them they may be branded as mentally ill. They also believe that psychologists can
make people talk whatever they want; they can hypnotize and make them do anything. They
think that psychologists are like fortune tellers, and they can predict what is going to happen.

7
Looking at the size of the head, the distance between two eyes they can tell about the type of
the person. These are all the common notions and misconceptions about psychology and
psychologists.

From the beginning people thought that the subject psychology is related to evil
spirits. The devils and evil spirits occupy human beings and that is the reason they behave in
an abnormal way .They believed devils, evil spirits and other supernatural beings to be
responsible for the abnormal behaviour . Many a archaeological discoveries have led to
many ancient skulls with small holes which support the probability that these were made to
allow the evils spirits to escape. There are findings showing that mental disorders were
attributed to demons and evil spirits. The tantras, mantras and sprinkling of holy water in all
religions were followed to cure the abnormal behaviour. The mentally ill people were tied
with chains and locked in dark rooms without giving any food and also were neglected for
their hygiene. All these kinds of unscientific and inhuman ways of treatment were used
because of ignorance.

All these misconceptions are still prevailing only because people stay away from
getting to know information about psychology and psychologist .The lack of awareness about
the subject and the subject matter, and also the profession and the contribution of a
psychologist in helping people maintain a good mental health and improve their life are the
real reasons.

In reality Psychology is a pure science as like any other science subjects and a
psychologist is a professionally trained person who makes use of scientific methods to treat.
To be very precise a psychologist is doctor who treats mental problems, suggests ways and
means to improve one’s life etc.

1.7 SUMMARY

Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour. It studies not only the overt
behaviour but also the covert behaviour. Both the external and internal behaviour out of
which some are directly observable and the remaining like the cognitive activities like
attention, perception, thinking, reasoning, etc, also it studies conscious, unconscious and
subconscious part of the mind. The meaning of behaviour, its causes are all studied through
various methods. By understanding and analysing an individual’s behaviour in different
situations the future behaviour can be predicted. The everyday activities of an individual like
learning, motivation, Intelligence, Emotions Personality can be understood by studying

8
Psychology. The main aim of Psychology is to explain, modify and improve the life of the
individuals. The modernization, westernization leads to variety of psychological problems.
To understand and overcome these problems and to lead a better life the study of Psychology
and its application in day –to- day is very necessary.

1.8 KEYWORDS

Behaviour

Consciousness

Unconsciousness

1.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What are the definitions ofpsychology which came in the beginning?

2. Explain the need to study psychology.

3. What are the misconceptions still prevailing in the mind of people about
Psychology?

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) 1.3

2) 1.4

3) 1.5

1.11 REFERENCES
P. Natraj (1996) : Psychology for beginners; Srinivasa publication , Mysore.
S. K. Mangal(2011) : General Psychology ; Sterling Publishers Pvt ,.ltd. New Delhi.
Robert. S. Feldman(2006) : Understanding Psychology;6th Edition. Tata Mc Graw Hill.
New York.
Charles. G. Morris , Albert a. Maisto(2002) : Psychology an Introduction ; Eleventh Edition,
Prentice Hall , London.
Lester M. S dorow , Cheryl A. Rickabaugh : Psychology; Fifth Edition Mc Graw Hill.
E.R.H. ilgard, R.C. Atkinson, R. L. Atkinson (1975) Introduction to Psychology Sixth
Edition Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
E.G.ParameshwariC.Beena(2007) : Invitation To Psychology;Neelkamal Publications Pvt,
Ltd, New Delhi .

9
 UNIT: 2 BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

STRUCTURE:

2.1 Objectives

2.2 Introduction

2.3 Scope of Psychology

2.4 Branches of Psychology

2.5 Pure Branches

2.6 Applied Branches

2.7 Summary

2.8 Keywords

2.9 Check Your Progress

2.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.11 References

10
2.1 OBJECTIVES

• Helps to understand the pure and applied branches of psychology

• Gives an understanding about the uses of psychology

2.2 INTRODUCTION

This unit explains the importance of psychology in different fields. The importance of
psychology and the use of the knowledge of psychology in day to day life has been realized
and hence being used in majority of all fields whether it be in society , industries, education ,
health, etc, The more effectively it be used the more human life can become easy, less
problems of psychological in nature .

2.3 SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is a science subject. The knowledge gained from the study of psychology
can be used in various fields. Today the subject has grown to such an extent that we can give
a variety of branches where this knowledge is being used. The wide scope of psychology can
be seen in the number of branches. Previously there were a few branches which were
classified into two main headings pure branches and applied branches. But now even when
the pure branches remain same there is a wide growth in applied branches this is because of
the understanding and the awareness towards psychology. Today psychology is being used in
each and every walk of life. Man has realized that the study of the subject and its application
makes his personality lot more acceptable and it gives better social adjustment, helps in
interpersonal relationship, career, to gain success etc. . And hence can be said wherever man
is there is the application of psychology.

2.4 BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is being applied in various aspects of life. The Theoretical knowledge is

called as pure branches and the application of it is called as applied branches.

2.5 PURE BRANCHES

1 General Psychology: The term general itself says that it covers all the general
principles and the basic principles underlying human behaviour. It studies the activities of
man such as attention, perception, drives and motives, emotions, intelligence, learning,
memory, and tries to evolve certain fundamental principles underlying them. Thus this branch
of psychology constitutes the basis for all other branches and generally it studies normal

11
human adult. By the study of general psychology we gain an understanding about all the
basic functions which helps to understand the complexity of the human behaviour.

2. Social Psychology: Every individual is born into a society every society has a culture,
tradition and religion of its own. Each and every culture expects its members to behave in a
certain manner , to follow certain set of rules, rituals whether the individual likes it or not it
does not matter but if he is not following them and living according to them even if a normal
well behaved man according to his society he would be considered abnormal . This shows
how the customs, traditions, culture makes a deeper impression on the individual and
determine his cognitive, conative and affective activities to a very great extent. He is not free
from the influence of the society at any stage and in every walk of life. Social psychology
studies the individual in the context of the society in which he belongs. It studies the way in
which the individual becomes a member of and functions in a social group. The problems
with which it is concerned are socialization of the individual, intergroup and intragroup
relations, propaganda, public opinion, attitude, attitude change prejudices, social motives,
juvenile delinquency, social perception, social intelligence etc,. Social psychology to study
these problems adopts methods of observation, field investigation, experimental method etc.

3. Abnormal Psychology: It studies the abnormality of the individual. Abnormality a

typical or far away from the norm, or the standard. It is neo-conformity to the cultural or
social norms to which the individual belongs. Every individual has to behave in a way that is
suited to his age and sex group to which he or she belongs. The abnormal person is not
completely different from the normal. But the normal and the abnormal have the same
characters and behaviours. But they differ in degree and not in kind. Abnormal psychology is
concerned with the theoretical aspects of abnormality and helps us to understand the nature of
abnormal behaviour, and the importance of frustration, conflicts and pressures in causing
abnormality. In abnormal psychology we study the classification of the mental disorders into
psychoses and neuroses.

4. Developmental Psychology: It is a branch which studies the growth and development

of an individual right from the moment of the birth till death. Today the modern science
considers birth from the moment of conception. Hence this branch studies from conception
till birth and from birth till death. It studies the growth and development and its
characteristics. The growth and development can be easily understood when there are the
understanding of developmental milestones which will be common for both gender and any

12
culture throughout the world. The areas like, physical development , in that the motor
development, fine motor development, mental or cognitive , social, emotional, development
which occurs through play etc., are all studied in detail . This branch of psychology describes
and explains the processes and products of the process of growth and development in relation
to the behaviour of an individual .The study of this branch of psychology would help in
understanding any human being across any age and culture.

5. Child Psychology: An individual in his life faces varieties of problems and this leads
to psychological problems. These are not only limited to adults children also face difficulties,
stress, frustration etc., unable to understand how to solve these they may result in phobias, etc
Child psychology studies the individual from birth up to puberty i,e up to 12th year. It studies
the various development and behaviour of childhood period. Childhood is very important
because it is during this period the developments process is at work. Whatever happens to the
individual will leave a long lasting impression on the individual. Normal or abnormal
behaviour of the period will have lasting impression on the individual at later periods depend
upon the childhood experience. The success or failures, and the adjustment or maladjustment
of the individual depend upon the childhood period. Child psychology studies various
developmental activities like sensory, motor, emotional, motivational, intellectual, and social
and personality developments.

6. Physiological Psychology:-Physiological psychology is a subdivision of behavioural

neuroscience (biological psychology) that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and
behaviour through direct manipulation of the brains of nonhuman animal subjects in
controlled experiments. Unlike other subdivisions within biological psychology, the main
focus of physiological psychological research is the development of theories that explain
brain-behaviour relationships. It is sometimes alternatively called psychophysiology, and in
recent years also cognitive neuroscience. The behaviour is a result of cognitive activities,
heredity, environment and the physiological activities taking place in the body. The
importance of these physiological activities, it’s functioning, and if there is anything wrong in
these functioning how it is going to affect the behaviour all these are studied in this branch of
psychology. Physiological psychology is concerned with the physiological correlates of
psychological functions. The physiological structures concerned with behaviour are nervous
system, sense organs and glands. In addition motor organs are also concerned with the
behaviour of the organism. To understand the behaviour better the structures and the
functioning and their relationship with behaviour has to be understood. The central nervous

13
system and its functioning are very necessary for proper behaviour. The stimulus from
external world stimulates our sense organs and travels through neuron and nervous system
reaches the brain and then it is interpreted with the help of past memories. And the brain
gives the signals to the motor neurons which in turn shows some reaction. The reaction is
what termed as behaviour. So if the behaviour needs to be understood all these physiological
activities should be studied completely and this is the subject matter of physiological
psychology.

7. Animal Psychology: This branch studies animal behaviour. This branch is also called
as comparative psychology the study of animal’s behaviour is useful not only to understand
the behaviour of animals but to understand, to some extent the behaviour of man. In spite of
the difference between man and animals the data collected on animal behaviour are found to
be useful to understand human behaviour. Starting from the single cell amoeba till
homosepians there are certain things which are common to all species. The process of life,
basic needs, procreation is all common in man and animals. Hence the researches which
cannot be done on human beings are done on animals to understand these processes. The
experiments on learning, emotions, thinking, reasoning etc are all studied on animals. The
results are away from the cultural factors. Animal psychology is also called as Comparative
psychology.

Comparative psychology generally refers to the scientific study of the behaviour and
mental processes of non-human animals. Comparative psychology has also been described as
a branch of psychology in which emphasis is placed on cross-species comparisons—
including human-to-animal comparisons. The object of comparative psychology is to
establish principles of generality focusing on both proximate and ultimate causation. If
looking for a precise definition, one may define comparative psychology as psychology
concerned with the evolution and development of behaviour. Comparative approach to
behaviour allows one to evaluate the target behaviour from four different, complementary
perspectives, Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study
of animal behaviour. Modern research on animal behaviour began with the work of Charles
Darwin and Georges Romanes and has continued to grow into a multidisciplinary subject.
Today, biologists, psychologists, anthropologists, ecologists, geneticists and many others
contribute to the study of animal behaviour.

14
 Comparative psychology often utilizes the comparative method to study animal
behaviour. The comparative method involves comparing the similarities and differences
among species to gain and understanding of evolutionary relationships. The comparative
method can also be used to compare modern species of animals to ancient species.

Evolution, Heredity, Adaptation and learning, Mating and parenting behaviour, are
also studied in this branch.

8. Parapsychology: Parapsychology is that branch which studies the extrasensory

perception. The five sense organs receives information through which we get to know the
external world this is the only means of acquiring knowledge but still there are cases found
where the individual gets to know something which is going to happen or which has occurred
somewhere far . These were considered fake in the beginning but when there were number of
cases reported in these manner and the people who reported were normal people. So these
things as it demanded attention psychologists thought that a separate branch is needed to
study these phenomenon and to check whether they do really occur. It studies with problems
like extrasensory perception, telepathy, clairvoyance etc., telepathy is nothing but the action
of one mind on the other at a distance through emotional influence without communication
through senses. Clairvoyance is seeing mentally what is happening or existing out of sight. It
also deals with extra cortical memory.

2.6 APPLIED BRANCHES

1. Clinical Psychology: The knowledge obtained in abnormal psychology is used in

practically in this branch. This branch involves the application of the theories of abnormal
psychology in the diagnosis and treatment of emotional and behavioural problems, such as,
mental disorders, delinquency, mental retardation, alcoholism, drug addiction. The mental
disorders can be treated with the combination of medical theraphy and psychotheraphy and in
some cases psychosurgery.

2. Industrial Psychology: Industrial psychology is concerned with human aspect in

industry. Industrial psychology is concerned with the selection of the right man to the right
job and the right job to the right man. Industrials psychology is concerned with many
industrial problems such as, accident, absenteeism, industrial unrest, industrial morale
incentive system, training programmes, market or consumer research and human relations in
industries.

15
3. Educational Psychology: It is that branch which studies the principles which can be
applied to education .The preparation of curriculum according to the age that is mental age of
an individual. It studies psychological problems related to education, measurement of
psychological achievement, improvement of teaching techniques, exceptional child, under
achievers, student-teacher relation and emotional, intellectual and adjustment problems of
students. Its primary concern is educational guidance and selection.

4. Sports Psychology

Sports psychology is a specialization within psychology that seeks to understand

psychological/mental factors that affect performance in sports, physical activity and exercise
and apply these to enhance individual and team performance. It deals with increasing
performance by managing emotions and minimizing the psychological effects of injury and
poor performance. Some of the most important skills taught are goal setting, relaxation,
visualization, self-talk awareness and control, concentration, using rituals, attribution
training, and periodization. The principles and theories may be applied to any human
movement or performance tasks (e.g., playing a musical instrument, acting in a play, public
speaking, motor skills). Usually, experts recommend that students be trained in both
kinesiology (i.e., sport and exercise sciences, physical education) and counselling.

5. Military Psychology: Psychological tests are used to selection and classification of

recruits to various ranks and grades. Psychological tests are used to spot our problem cases
which may prove to be hinder and liability at the time of danger. Military Psychology is the
research, design and application of psychological theories and experimentation data towards
understanding, predicting and countering behaviours either in friendly or enemy forces or
civilian population that may be undesirable, threatening or potentially dangerous to the
conduct of military operations.

Military psychology is applied towards counselling and treatment of stress and fatigue
of military personnel or military families as well as treatment of psychological trauma
suffered as a result of military operations. Another use of military psychology is in
interrogation of prisoners who may provide information that would enhance outcomes of
friendly military operations or reduce friendly casualties.

6. Health Psychology: is concerned with understanding how biological, psychological,

environmental, and cultural factors are involved in physical health and illness. Health
psychologists work alongside other medical professionals in clinical settings, work on

16
behaviour change in public health promotion, teach at universities, and conduct research.
Although its early beginnings can be traced to the kindred field of clinical psychology, four
different divisions within health psychology and one allied field have developed over time.

Health and illness are influenced by a wide variety of factors. While contagious and
hereditary illness are common, there are many behavioural and psychological factors that can
impact overall physical well-being and various medical conditions. Health psychology is a
specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology, behaviour and social factors
influence health and illness.

The field of health psychology is focused on promoting health as well as the

prevention and treatment of disease and illness. Health psychologists also focus on
understanding how people react, cope and recover from illness. Some health psychologists
work to improve the health care system and the government’s approach to health care policy.

Health psychologists conduct research to identify behaviours and experiences that

promote health, give rise to illness, and influence the effectiveness of health care. They also
recommend ways to improve health care and health-care policy. Health psychologists have
worked on developing ways to reduce smoking and improve daily nutrition in order to
promote health and prevent illness. They have also studied the association between illness
and individual characteristics. For example, health psychology has found a relation between
the personality characteristics of thrill seeking, impulsiveness, hostility/anger, emotional
instability, and depression, on one hand, and high-risk driving, on the other.

Health psychology is also concerned with contextual factors, including economic,

cultural, community, social, and lifestyle factors that influence health. Health psychologists
also aim to change health behaviours for the dual purpose of helping people stay healthy and
helping patients adhere to disease treatment regimens.

Health psychologists also aim at educating health professionals, including physicians

and nurses, in communicating effectively with patients in ways that overcome barriers to
understanding, remembering, and implementing effective strategies for reducing exposures to
risk factors and making health-enhancing behaviour changes.

7. Forensic psychology is the intersection between psychology and the criminal justice
system. It involves understanding criminal law in the relevant jurisdictions in order to be able
to interact appropriately with judges, attorneys and other legal professionals.

17
 Forensic psychology is the interaction of the practice or study of psychology and the
law. Psychologists interested in this line of applied work may be found working in prisons,
jails, rehabilitation centres, police departments, law firms, schools, government agencies, or
in private practice, to name a few. They may work directly with attorneys, defendants,
offenders, victims, pupils, families, or with patients within the state’s corrections or
rehabilitation centres. Other psychologists interested in forensic psychology focus on the
study of psychology and the law. They may work in colleges, universities, government
agencies, or in other settings interested in researching and examining the interaction of
human behaviour, criminology, and the legal system.

An important aspect of forensic psychology is the ability to testify in court,

reformulating psychological findings into the legal language of the courtroom, providing
information to legal personnel in a way that can be understood. A forensic psychologist can
be trained in clinical, social, organizational or any other branch of psychology.

Questions asked by the court of a forensic psychologist are generally not questions
regarding psychology but are legal questions and the response must be in language the court
understands. For example, a forensic psychologist is frequently appointed by the court to
assess a defendant’s competency to stand trial. The court also frequently appoints a forensic
psychologist to assess the state of mind of the defendant at the time of the offense. This is
referred to as an evaluation of the defendant’s sanity or insanity (which relates to criminal
responsibility) at the time of the offense. These are not primarily psychological questions but
rather legal ones. Thus, a forensic psychologist must be able to translate psychological
information into a legal framework.

Psychologists working in forensic psychology often come from a wide variety of

education, training, and work experiences. All hold a doctorate degree in a field of
psychology. Some graduate training programs now offer specializations in the field. Some of
these psychologists also have education or training in the law or even hold a Juris Doctor -
the degree earned by attorneys. Most working in applied settings such as a private practice or
prison also hold a license to practice granted from their state’s board of psychology following
the successful completion of an approved doctoral degree, pre and postdoctoral training
years, and passing scores on a series of board examinations.

18
USES OF PSYCHOLOGY

The study of psychology gives us the knowledge of human nature and helps us to
understand ourselves i.e., we can understand the process of all cognitive activities like
attention, perception, concentration, thinking, reasoning, decision making etc, and also learn
ways and means to improve these activities which in turn makes an individual more capable
to deal with his everyday activities .

It also helps us to understand our own emotions and learn to recognize, identify,
control and use our own emotions on a proper way and avoid the negative effects of emotions
on one’s health.

It helps us to understand the type of personality we are and thus makes us aware of
our drawbacks and assets in our personality which directly contributes for the social skills
and professional skills.

By studying Psychology we can learn to identify motivations and the importance of

motivations in one’s life.

It helps us to understand ours and others variety of interests and abilities, the weak
points and good points.

The knowledge and understanding of all these makes for better social relations.

By studying psychology we can solve our personal problems and difficulties and thus
achieve better mental health and efficiency.

Psychology is both an applied and a theoretical subject, it can be utilized in a number

of ways. While research studies aren’t exactly light reading material for the average person,
the results of these experiments and studies can have important applications in daily life. The
following are some of the top 10 practical uses for psychology in everyday life.

1. To Motivate oneself psychology offer tips for getting motivated. In order to increase the
motivational levels when approaching a task the suggestion and recommendations derived
from research in cognitive and educational psychology can be used .

2. Developing Leadership Skills having good leadership skills will probably be essential at
some point in the life. Not everyone is a born leader, but a few simple techniques given from
psychological research can help improve leadership skills.

19
3. To learn a Better Communication: Communication involves much more than how to
speak or write. Research suggests that nonverbal signals make up a huge portion of our
interpersonal communications. In order to communicate the message effectively, we need to
learn how to express our self nonverbally and to read the nonverbal cues of those around us.

4. To Understand Others: Much like nonverbal communication, the ability to understand

our emotions and the emotions of those around us plays an important role in our relationships
and professional life. The term emotional intelligence refers to our ability to understand both
our own emotions as well as those of other people. Our emotional intelligence quotient is a
measure of this ability.

5. Helps in improving Decision making cognitive psychology have provided a wealth of

information about decision making. By applying these strategies to our own life, we can learn
to make wiser choices.

6. Helps in Improving Memory

7. Be Healthier Psychology can also be a useful tool for improving our overall health. From
ways to encourage exercise and better nutrition to new treatments for depression, the field of
health psychology offers a wealth of beneficial strategies that can help you to be healthier and
happier.

2.7 SUMMARY

In this unit we go through how the knowledge obtained by psychology can be

effectively used in almost all areas of life and by using this lots of psychological problems
can be kept far and human life made more improved. The knowledge of psychology helps to
improve one’s personal life, social life, interpersonal relationships, able to set goals and
achieve in life etc .

2.8 KEYWORDS

Cognitive activities

Propaganda

Stereotypes

Abnormal

Phobias

20
 Physiological psychology

Extrasensory Perception

Telepathy

Clairvoyance

Mental disorders

2.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Explain any two pure branches

2. Explain the importance of psychology in education

3. Explain the role of psychology in military

4. Describe the uses of psychology

2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) 2.3

2) 2.4

3) 2.5

4) 2.6

2.11 REFERENCES

P. Natraj (1996): Psychology for beginners; Srinivasa publication , Mysore.

S.K. Mangal(2011) : General Psychology ; Sterling Publishers Pvt ,.ltd. New Delhi.

Robert. S. Feldman(2006): Understanding Psychology;6th Edition. Tata Mc Graw Hill. New

York.

Charles. G. Morris , Albert a. Maisto(2002): Psychology an Introduction ; Eleventh Edition,

Prentice Hall , London.
Lester M. S dorow , Cheryl A. Rickabaugh : Psychology; Fifth Edition Mc Graw Hill.
E.R.H. ilgard, R.C. Atkinson, R.L. Atkinson(1975) Introduction to Psychology Sixth Edition
Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

E.G. Parameshwari C. Beena(2007): Invitation To Psychology; Neelkamal Publications Pvt,

Ltd, New Delhi .

21
 UNIT : 3 MOTIVATION

STRUCTURE:

3.1 Objectives

3.2 Introduction

3.3 Meaning of Motivation

3.4 Definitions

3.5 Classification of Motives

3.6 Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory

3.7 Summary

3.8 Keywords

3.9 Check your progress

3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.11 References

22
3.1 OBJECTIVES

• It helps us to understand the terms needs, drive ,motives

• The motivation cycle.

• The importance of primary needs and secondary needs

• It helps us to understand Maslow’s theory of Hierarchy of needs

3.2 INTRODUCTION

Motivation is something which makes the individual to act, or to carry out certain
behaviour which comes from within the individual it may be because of the thoughts feeling,
emotions, reasoning or any cognitive or emotional factors which makes the individual to
carry out certain act of behaviour.

3.3 MEANING OF MOTIVATION

Motive

A motive is a force that determines the activities of an individual. It energises and

directs his behaviour along this or that channel. It is some inner force which moves him to a
certain action. When a motive is at work it creates tensions, and these tensions arouse the
individual towards an activity that will relieve the tensions. Motives, n the broad sense of the
word, include needs, basic drives, interests, likes and dislikes, desires and attitudes because
all these move us to some action or directs the activity of an organism. Activities of the man
directly or indirectly concerned with the basic needs, which are essential for his survival,
happiness and pleasure.

The term motivation did not come into use until the beginning of twentieth century.
Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution, people began viewing behaviour, as a product of
biological forces. William Mc Dougall, the strongest advocate of instinct theory maintained
that our behaviour is the result of instincts. An instinct is an “innate biological force that
predisposes the organism to act in a certain way”. Instincts are universal, common to all
members of a species and have a fixed pattern.

Motivation may be defined as a mechanism and process of inculcating and stimulating

the interest of an individual in a goal seeking behaviour growing out of the some activating
forces like needs, drives or motives.

23
 Psychologists are interested in the why of behaviour. The study of motivation tries to
explain why people do what they do. Motivation involves goal directed behaviour

Every individual has to strive for the satisfaction of his basic needs if he has to
maintain and actualize or enhance himself in this world.

Psychology as a science subject tries to find answer for various questions which arise
to explain the behaviour of an individual. The very basic of this is “why” he does anything
that is the reason behind every action. Seeking information about process not directly
observable in an individual’s overt actions .

Any set of events or phenomenon can be studied from many points of view and at
different levels. Thus human behaviour can be studied as a function of its physical, chemical,
or biological aspect.

What motivates behaviour?

There are three kinds of things

1. An environmental determinant which precipitated the behaviour in question – the

application of some irresistible force which of necessity led to this action;

2. The internal urge, wish, feeling, emotion, drive, instinct, want, desire, demand, purpose,

Interest, aspiration, plan, need, or motive which gave rise to the action, or

3. The incentive, goal, or object value which attracted or pushed the organism.

The above mentioned any may be the reason why an individual behaves the way he
behaves.

Motives are the dynamic forces which energies all behaviour. What we do, and the
manner in which we do it, is governed by the motives behind it.

Motivation thus may be regarded as “something which prompts, compels and

energizes an individual to act or behave in a particular fashion at a particular time for
attaining some specific goal or purpose,’’

The why of human behaviour can also be called motivation?

Motivation means the desire to do something for a certain reason.

24
Needs, drives and motives:

The behaviour of an individual is the consequences of the internal needs and drives.

The term “need” refers to a condition of lacking or deficiency of something that is essential
for the survival. The deficiency may be food, water and sex, etc. The need produces a
physiological state which demands fulfilment or satisfaction, there will be a state of
physiological and psychological imbalances cause “drives” such as hunger, thirst etc. They
are the physiological states, which induce the organism to action, which in turn leads to
satisfaction. Thus the need (deficiency) leads to drive (physiological state) which sets the
organism to action. The appropriate action leads to satisfaction and restoration of
physiological balance or equilibrium. This is known as “drive reduction” or “need reduction”.

Homeostasis:

Every organism is engaged continuously in something or the other, or the vital organs
the organism will be working continuously day in and day out. These activities consume the
energy stored in, and thus cause the deficiency within the organism. This deficiency is known
as need. It leads to tension and loss of homeostasis. Which are unpleasant primary motive
come into action when the physiological balance of the body is upset this balance is called
homeostasis, which are unpleasant primary motives come into action when the physiological
balance of the body is upset. This balance is called homeostasis.

This balance is very important. If the homeostasis is imbalanced it creates a drive

state that pushes a person to restore the homeostasis.

Motivation Cycle

Need is a passive state which may not induce the organism into action which leads to
satisfaction. Whereas drive is an active state which induces the organism to action which
leads to need satisfaction or drive reduction. These states are frequently experienced as
feelings of tension or restlessness and imbalance. As this state is unpleasant and painful, the
organism resorts to activity which leads to restoration of balance though drive is said to be an
urge from within. Which sets the organism into action to restore the balance lost by relieving
tension, it has no direction.

25
3.4 DEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATION

Fisher - A motive is an inclination or impulsion to action plus some degree of orientation or direction.

Shaffer - A motive may be defined as a tendency to activity indicated by a drive and concluded by an
adjustment.

Rosen, Fox and Gregory -A motive may be defined as a readiness or disposition to respond in
some ways and not others to a variety situations.

Caroll - A need gives rise to one or more motives. A motive is a rather specific process which has
been learned. It is directed towards a goal.

P.T. Young - “Motivation as a search for determinants of human and animal activity.” The
process of arousing action, sustaining the activity in progress, regulating the pattern
of activity.

Gardener Murphy - Motivation as general name for the fact that an organism’s acts are partly
determined by its own nature or internal structure.

N.R.F Maier -Motivation to characterize the process by which the expression of behaviour is
determined or its future expression is influenced by consequences to
which such behaviour leads.

The term motivation refers to the existence of an organized phase sequence, to its
direction or content, and to its persistence in a given direction, or stability of content.

Maslow “sound motivational theory should assume that motivation is constant, never
ending , fluctuating and complex that it is an almost universal of practically every organismic
state of affairs .

All the above said definitions lead us to generalize that

1. Motive is an inner state or an aroused feeling.

2. It compels an individual to respond by creating a state of tension or urge to act.

3. It is a preparation for responding in some selective way for the satisfaction of the related
need.

4. It is always goal directed activity, pursued till it reaches the goal.

5. Once the goal is obtained then only there is release in the tension.

26
 Motive is an energetic force or tendency working within the individual to compel,
persuade or inspire the individual to engage in an activity for the satisfaction of his basic
needs or drives.

Motive is defined as an urge from within which sets the organism into action in a
definite direction. So that there will be drive reduction. Motivated behaviour is always goal
oriented or goal directed. The behaviour continues till the goal is reached. In order to reach
the goal the bodily energy is mobilized and directed. Goal is the incentive which attracts the
activated organism towards it. Without the goal the motivated activity becomes meaningless.

3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF DRIVES AND MOTIVES

Human drives or motives are broadly classified into two group.

1. Physiological motives or biogenic motives or primary drives.

2. Social motives or acquired motives,

Physiological motives are primarily concerned with satisfaction of basic needs of

man, such as hunger, thirst, sex, elimination, rest and sleep, liberation of unfavourable
temperature and maternal drive belong to this group. Whereas social motives are prestige or
social recognition, need for security, mastery motive, conformity.

Physiological Drives or Biological Dries

Biological Needs:Physiological drives are physiological urges, which set the

organism into appropriate action to restore the physiological balance. Biological needs are in
born. We don’t learn to become hungry or thirsty. The Primary motives or needs are the
biological or physiological motives which ensure the preservation of life for the individual
and his race. There are certain needs called basic needs without which the organism cannot
survive these needs are present in the individual right from the moment of birth that is they
are inborn not acquired these needs include hunger, thirst, sexual and parenting, maternal
needs.

1. Hunger: Hunger is a powerful drive. Hunger is a primary, basic drive necessary for life.
The source of hunger motivation is stomach contractions. When the stomach is empty,
contractions occur and are sensed. If man is deprived of food for a certain length of time he
reports aching or gnawing experience known as hunger pang”. Deficiency of any food

27
commodity in fact causes hunger pang. This hunger pang is correlated with muscular spasms
of the stomach walls.

2. Thirst: In order to survive, organisms must regulate their water as well as food intake.
Thirst motivation is mainly triggered by two conditions of the body –loss of water from cells
and reduction of blood volume. When water is lost from body fluids, water leaves the interior
of the cells thus dehydrating them. The nerve cells in the anterior hypothalamus are called
osmoreceptors, they generate nerve impulses when they are dehydrated. These impulses act
as a signal for thirst. Thirst triggered by loss of water from osmoreceptors is called cellular
dehydration. Thirst is stronger than hunger. That is why one can stay without food for a few
days, but cannot stay without water even for a day. This drive is caused by cellular
dehydration of the throat and mouth. When the organism is deprived of water over a period of
several hours, the mouth and the throat become dry, reflecting the dehydration of body tissues
in general. If water is placed directly into the stomach it takes several minutes to remove
thirst. So, if water is to be effective to remove the dryness of the mouth and throat it must get
into body tissues sufficiently. But mere wetting the mouth will remove the experience of
thirst temporarily.

3. Sex drive and Mating: Sex is a powerful drive. But unlike food and water, sex is not vital
for the survival of the organism, but is essential for the survival of the species. Sexual
behaviour depends upon the combination of internal factors that is hormones and brain
mechanisms and external factors that is learned and unlearned external stimuli. The beauty,
glory and success of marital life and case preservation of any species entirely depend upon
this drive. The physiological basis of this drive is gonads i.e, the testes in man and ovaries in
woman. Testes produce androgen and if this is castrated androgen will not be produced. If
castration is made prior to puberty these will be no sex drive with the male. Ovaries produce
estrogen.

4. Drive for elimination of waste: The drive for elimination of waste is very basic and
necessary. When the bladder or the intestine becomes distended with waste material they
cause pressure and discomfort. This causes the person to become restless and active until the
waste materials are disposed of and the feelings of pressure are relived.

5.Respiratory drive: The drive for air and oxygen is also called the respiratory drive. Life
is not possible unless this drive is constantly satisfied. One cannot survive for a very long

28
time unless there is regular supply of air and oxygen. If oxygen is withheld even for a short
time it is possible to damage, loss of memory and control over one’s body.

6. Sleep: Sleep drive is very basic in both animals and human beings and usually occurs at
regular times for each person. When the body continues activity. Without rest or sleep for a
prolonged period of time, It is possible to experience confusion, inability to pay attention,
droopy eyelid, muscular tremors and increased sensitivity to pain.

7. Drive to regulate body temperature: The normal body temperature is 98.6 degree
Fahrenheit and the temperature usually stays around this point because of automatic
mechanisms that allow the body to heat of cool itself. If the body temperature rises too high,
perspiration and the resultant cooling by evaporation, lower the temperature. If the body
temperature falls, the person shivers causing the body to burn fuel faster and to generate extra
heat. Extreme temperature cause discomfort.

Secondary needs

Social Needs

Once the individual tries to fulfil his basic needs there arises the second set of needs
which are called as secondary needs. These needs arise because the individual lives in a
society and if he has to lead a satisfactory life in a society as a social being he needs to fulfil
the way society expects him to be so these needs are also called as social needs or the
individual perceives that society expects these for his satisfied state of mind so these can also
be called as Psychosocial Needs.

1. Aggressiveness: The term aggressiveness is used to mean the tendency to attack another
individual with the intent of causing physical or psychological harm. The physical force or
verbal accusation can be considered as the aggressive behaviour. This need arises in an
individual when there is any threat for his physical or psychological security. If the individual
does not protect himself he may be in danger so the individual shows this kind of behaviour
when there is any threat. This is usually aroused by frustration, thwarting and hindrance of
physiological or psychological needs.

2. Gregariousness: Gregariousness is the desire to associate oneself with other members of

the same group or species. This behaviour is a learnt behaviour. This need arises because man
lives in a society and society gives him safe and secures feeling. The individual when he is
surrounded by the people who are his own family or community it gives him a safe and

29
secured feeling. Man when alone faces lots of psychological problems, he always searches
for the people who can care for him who can be there for him in good and bad times .When
this is lacking there arises this need.

3. Need for Freedom: Individuals are born into this society with some amount of freedom.
So individual has an urge to remain free and independent. Each individual possesses the
craving for independence. Whatever be the riches be given no one wants to stay in
confinement, man even animals wants to come out of the prison. As freedom is the
requirement no individual can feel comfortable when under locked situations. The
individual wants to live his way of life so minimum amount of freedom is always wanted for
a satisfied life.

4. Need for Achievement: Individuals when leading their life searches for the meaning of
life through setting goals for themselves and trying to achieve something in life. Setting goals
and trying to fulfil those goals gives worth and meaning for life. Individuals who achieve
anything worthwhile are always rewarded in society through lots of ways. Achievement
brings name, fame, recognition, respect, and rewards in the means of uplifted prestige and
recognition in the society. So this motive is very strong motive.

5. Need for self-actualization: We all have the inherent craving to express ourselves and the
potentialities we possess. To express oneself and try to form one’s own identity each
individual struggles. For ex: an individual may have the ability to be an artist or a poet , ones
he finds his hidden potentialities he tries to bring it in front of the society and be recognized
for his talents and respected for it.

3.6 MASLOW’S SELF-ACTUALIZATION THEORY

Abraham Maslow proposed motives into five categories and arranged them in a
hierarchical fashion. Human needs, according to Maslow arrange themselves in hierarchies of
prepotency. Basic biological needs form the base of this hierarchy. In the ascending order, the
five needs are arranged according to their importance.

1. Physiological motives (hunger, thirst etc)

2. Safety needs (Protection from harm or injury)

3. Love need (affection, warms, belongingness)

4. Self - esteem needs (Self respect, self approval)

30
5. Self - actualization needs (achieving maximum development of one’s potentialities)

The needs at one level should be satisfied before the needs at the next level. At the
bottom of the ladder are physiological needs, necessary for survival. And at the top are
psychological need.

Starting from the satisfaction of the physiological needs, every individual strives for
the satisfaction of the other needs of higher order. This striving for one or the other level of
needs causes the motivation of his behaviour. A need it ceases to be a motivating force and
therefore, the satisfaction of one need leads an individual to try for the satisfaction of other
needs. The motivational behaviour of a person is always dominated not by his satisfaction but
by his unsatisfied wants, desires or needs. Maslow’s model considers different motivational
needs to be considered in a hierarchy and it suggests that before more sophisticated, higher –
order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied. The model can be
conceptualised as a pyramid in which the more basic needs are at the bottom and the higher-
level needs are at the top. For a particular need to be activated and thereby guide a person’s
behaviour, the more basic needs in the hierarchy must be met first.

The most basic needs are primary drives: needs for water, food, sleep, sex, and the
like. To move up the hierarchy, a person must have these basic physiological needs met.
Safety needs come next in the hierarchy; Maslow suggests that people need a safe, secure
environment in order to function effectively. Physiological and safety needs compose the
lower-order needs.

Only when the basic lower-order needs are met can a person consider fulfilling
higher-order needs, such as the need for love and a sense of belonging, esteem, and self-
actualization. Love and belongingness needs include the need to obtain and give affection and
to be a contributing member of some group or society. After these needs are fulfilled, the
person strives for esteem. In Maslow’s thinking esteem relates to the need to develop a sense
of self-worth by knowing that others are aware of one’s competence and value.

Once these four sets of need are fulfilled the person is able to strive for the highest
level need, self- actualization. Self-actualization is a state of self-fulfilment in which people
realize their highest potential in their unique way. Although at first Maslow suggested that
self-actualization occurred in only a few , famous individuals, he later expanded the concept
to encompass everyday people.

31
3.7 SUMMARY

In this unit we understand about the basic needs, the terms needs, drives motives are
being explained. There are basic needs which have to be satisfied for the survival of an
individual. Once the individual fulfils the basic needs there arises the needs which are called
as secondary needs or sociological needs which are important for the satisfied living in
society. Abraham Maslow gives the hierarchy of needs explaining how the needs can be
classified and this is also called as self-actualization theory.

3.8 KEYWORDS

Needs

Drives

Homeostasis

Drive Reduction

Aggressiveness

Gregariousness

Self- Actualization

3.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) What is Homeostasis?

2) Explain motivation cycle.

3) Explain any two basic needs.

4) Explain any two social needs.

5) Explain the Self- Actualization theory.

3.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) 3.3

2) 3.4

3) 3.5

4) 3.5

32
 5) 3.6

3.11 REFERENCES

Natraj (1996) : Psychology for beginners; Srinivasa publication , Mysore.

S.K. Mangal (2011) : General Psychology ; Sterling Publishers Pvt ,.ltd. New Delhi.

Robert. S. Feldman(2006) : Understanding Psychology;6th Edition. Tata Mc Graw Hill.

New York.

Charles. G. Morris , Albert a. Maisto(2002) : Psychology an Introduction ; Eleventh Edition,

Prentice Hall , London.

Lester M. Sdorow ,Cheryl A. Rickabaugh : Psychology; Fifth Edition Mc Graw Hill.

E.R.H.ilgard, R.C. Atkinson, R. L.Atkinson(1975) Introduction to Psychology Sixth

Edition Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

E.G. Parameshwari C. Beena(2007) : Invitation To Psychology; Neelkamal Publications Pvt,

Ltd, New Delhi .

33
 UNIT: 4 EMOTIONS

STRUCTURE:

4.1 Objectives

4.2 Introduction

4.3 Meaning and Definitions of Emotions

4.4 Characteristics of Emotions

4.5 The Functions of Emotion

4.6 Types of Emotions

4.7 Physical, Physiological and Psychological Changes during Emotion

4.8 Emotional Intelligence

4.9 Improving Emotional Intelligence

4.10 Summary

4.11 Keywords

4.12 Check Your Progress

4.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.14 References

34
4.1 OBJECTIVES

This unit helps us to understand the emotions

• It helps us to understand the physiological changes occurring during emotion

• Emotional Intelligence

• The techniques to improve emotional intelligence

4.2 INTRODUCTION

Everyday life is filled with lots and lots of experiences and each one of it is always
tinted with emotion. Man does many a thing just to satisfy these different emotions for ex. we
make friendship, we search for new relationship, just to satisfy our emotions. We hate
somebody or we show jealousy towards people this is also an emotion. We crave for new
things in turn we search our happiness in things this is to say that we always try to fulfil,
experience emotions whether it is positive or negative we always strive to fulfil these
emotions. Without emotions human being life would be like a robot. Emotions are part and
parcel of our living.

Emotions contribute to our character, conduct and achievements in our life. Our goals
a decided based on our emotions towards them. We get motivated because of our emotions.
Emotions can make life, shape life and also spoil life. So it is important to understand
emotions, control them, and express them only when needed.

Expression of our emotions in an appropriate way can create good experiences our
normal, abnormal behaviour are either directly or indirectly, knowingly or unknowingly
guided and determined by our emotions. Our attention, perception, thinking, reasoning,
judgement are all guided by and determined by our emotions.

Emotions are feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements
and that influence behaviour.

Aristotle says “anyone can become angry and it is easy, but to be angry with right
person to the right degree at the right time, right place for right purpose and in a right way is
not easy”.

35
 This statement explains the easy occurrence of emotions, but to know where to
express, how to express, how much to express depends on the capacity of the individual to
control and utilize the emotions to make life happy and meaningful.

To control express and have a good emotional balance and management a thorough
understanding of emotions and its functioning is required.

4.3 MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF EMOTIONS

The term “emotion” is derived from the Latin word ‘emovere’ which means “to stir
up” “to agitate” or “to excite” emotion is a “moved” or “stirred up” state of on organism.

R.S Woodworth has defined emotion as stirred up state of an organism. It is a stirred

up state of feeling that is the way it appears to the individual himself. It is a disturbed
muscular and glandular activity that is the way it appears to on external observer.

Crow and crow conveys that on emotion is an affective experience that accompanies
generalized inner adjustment and mental and physiological stirred up states in the individual,
and that shows itself in his overt behaviour.

Charles G. Morris defines emotion as a complex affective experience that involves

diffuse physiological changes and can be expressed overtly in characteristics behaviour
patterns.

There are a variety of definitions given by different Psychologists they all do describe
emotions as some sort of feelings or affective experiences which are characterized by some
physiological changes that generally lead them to perform some or the other types of
behavioural acts.

Feelings are simple experiences of the affective type, pleasant or unpleasant.

Emotions are more complex, affective experiences in which the whole individual is stirred
up.

4.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMOTIONS

There are some common characteristics of emotions.

1. Emotions are universal- Emotions do occur in individual from early age till old age.

2. Emotions are personal: It differs from one individual to another same stimulus need
not bring same emotion in all.

36
3. Emotions arise and stirred up bodily state. Emotions bring about many physiological
changes in the individual.

4. An emotion occurs suddenly but takes time to subside.

5. Emotions always leave an after effect which is called as mood.

6. An emotion can serve as a motivator or demotivator also.

7. A Single emotion gives rise to number of other emotions.

8. Emotions are aroused by external factors like situations and events outside generally
give rise to emotions.

9. Emotions have a strong impact on cognitive activates. As soon as individual becomes

emotional cognitive activities do not function to its maximum.

10. Every emotional, experience involves both physical and psychological changes.

4.5 THE FUNCTIONS OF EMOTION

Psychologists have identified a number of important roles that emotions play in our
daily life.

Preparing us for action: Emotions act as a link between events in our environment
and our responses. For ex: if we see a dog charging towards us, the emotional reaction (fear)
is associated with physiological arousal of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system . The role of the sympathetic division is to prepare us for emergency action, which
presumably will get us moving out of the dog’s way- quickly.

Shaping our future behaviour: Emotions help us learn information that improves
our chances of making appropriate responses in the future. For ex: the emotional response
that occurs when we experience something unpleasant – such as the threating dog –teaches us
to avoid similar circumstances in the future .Similarly , pleasant emotions act as
reinforcement for our prior behaviour and therefore are apt to lead us to seek out similar
situations in the future.

Helping us interact more effectively with others .The emotions we experience are
frequently obvious to observers, as they are communicated through our verbal and nonverbal
behaviours. These behaviours can act as a signal to observers allowing them to better

37
understand what we are experiencing and predict our future behaviour . In turn, this
promotes more effective and appropriate social interaction.

4.6 TYPES OF EMOTIONS

Emotions can be understood by classifying them into groups

1. Primary emotions

2. Secondary and blended emotion

1. Primary emotions:

Are also called as basic emotions. According to Robert Pluthick , he proposed

that there are eight emotions,: fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy
and acceptance.

Each of these emotions helps us adjust to the demands of our environment in different
ways.

Ex: Fear underlying flight, which helps protect animals from their enemies, anger
propels animals to attack or destroy.

2. Secondary and blended emotion: Certain emotions start developing from the
childhood. Those are the pure emotions as the individual keeps growing they start
expressing emotions where two or more emotion are combined together. These kinds
of emotions are called as blended emotions.

Ex : When a best friend has got a prize, friend feels both happiness and jealousy

towards him.

Classification of Emotions: Emotions are broadly classified into two groups they are
1.Positive Emotions

2. Negative Emotions

1. Positive Emotions : Under positive emotions come Love, Joy

Love is again divided into Fondness and Infatuation

Joy is divided into Bliss, Contentment, and Pride

2. Negative Emotions : Under negative emotions Anger, Sadness, Fear

38
 Anger is again divided into Annoyance, Hostility,
Contempt, and Jealousy Sadness is again divided into
Agony, Grief, Guilt, and Loneliness Fear is again
divided into Horror, Worry

4.7 PHYSICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES

DURING EMOTION

As soon as an individual undergoes under the experience of emotion, with it is

accompanied a variety of changes in the body both internal and external changes, many a
time it is difficult to say whether the changes occur first or the emotional expression.

Expression of emotion is easily understood because of these accompanied changes.

1. Blood pressure: Blood pressure and heart rate increases.

2. Respiration: changes in the rate of respiration

3. Muscular adjustments: In certain emotional expression all the muscle of body makes
autonomic muscular adjustments. for ex: Sudden loud sound like “Thunder” the
individual shows “startle reaction”. Startle reaction involves sudden movements of the head
blinking of eyes, characteristic facial expression, raising and drawing forward of shoulder
turning inward the upper arms bending of elbows, turning downward of the forearms
movement of trunk contraction of the abdomen, bending of knees etc. Though “startle
reaction is a reflex “the same reactions are found under sudden intense fear also.

4. Facial expressions: There occur a lot of changes in the face for ex: In anger eyes become
red, forehead gets stiffened, cheeks become red etc. Each emotion has definite facial
expression but the differences in the expression of two emotions are very small.

5. Gestures and movements: Gestures are non-verbal expressions of same parts or all parts of
the body. For example facial gestures, turning the head, raising the hands, stamping the legs
kicking etc.

6. Change in the voice: When in anger, voice becomes loud, pitch of the voice increases and
becomes hoarse. Under fear the voice shrinks, under love and affection it becomes warm and
pleasant.

39
7. Release of extra energy: A sudden release of extra energy occur in emotional state to meet
the emergency situation. For example while fighting with enemy in anger or running away
from danger.

8. Visceral functions: The activities like digestion and excretion are suspended under
emotional conditions and the energy of those activities is used by the body to meet the
emergency situation.

9. Circulation: In order to supply more oxygen to meet the emergency, lungs function faster,
breathing becomes shallow and faster, BP and pulse rate increases.

10. Electrical resistance of the skin: In normal conditions the skin has more resistance to
electrical current. But under emotion this resistance reduces very much.This change can be
measured by psychogalvonometer which is also called as lie detector.

11. Dilation of pupil occurs in emotional state.

12. Sweating and decreased secretion of saliva

13. Other Miscellaneous changes: Hairs standing on end, cold or warm sweating, mouth
and tongue becomes dry, restless movements, frequent urination and defecation.

14. Psychological changes: As soon as the individual becomes emotional cognitive

activities decrease in functioning. Attention, perception, concentration is affected. Memory
fails higher cognitive activities like thinking, reasoning, judgment, decision making does not
function properly.

4.8 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Individuals come across a variety of situations majority of which are emotion

provoking to the individual .As soon as any one becomes emotional cognitive activities do
get disturbed which in turn make the individual to perceive things in a wrong way, and react
emotionally resulting in the worst situations for himself created by him itself but often the
blame is put on the situation. By the time the individual understands the results of his
emotional reactions harm, he is already facing the consequence .This happens when the
individual does not know how to control his emotions, when to control , when to express,
how much to express, knows the good ways of expressing all these abilities do not come by
itself . Much of it needs careful observation of oneself, monitoring self, and trying to take

40
control of the situation by a calm and relaxed mind without letting the emotions to dominate
and spoil things. All these ability put together is what called as Emotional Intelligence.

Meaning

Emotional intelligence is the innate potential to feel, use, communicate, recognize,

remember, describe, identify, learn from, manage, understand and explain emotions.

Emotional Intelligence - EQ - is a relatively recent behavioural model, this concept

was given by Daniel Goleman’s 1995 in his Book called ‘Emotional Intelligence’. The early
Emotional Intelligence theory was originally developed during the 1970s and 80s by the work
and writings of psychologists Howard Gardner (Harvard), Peter Salovey (Yale) and John
‘Jack’ Mayer (New Hampshire). Emotional Intelligence is an important consideration in
human resources planning, job profiling, recruitment interviewing and selection, management
development, customer relations and customer service, and more.

Goleman identified the five ‘domains’ of EQ as:

1. Knowing your emotions.

2. Managing your own emotions.

3. Motivating yourself.

4. Recognising and understanding other people’s emotions.

5. Managing relationships, ie., managing the emotions of others.

The process and outcomes of Emotional Intelligence development also contain many
elements known to reduce stress for individuals and organizations, by decreasing conflict,
improving relationships and understanding, and increasing stability, continuity and harmony

4.9 IMPROVING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Most of us know that there is a world of difference between knowledge and

behaviour, or applying that knowledge to make changes in our lives. There are many things
we may know and want to do, but don’t or can’t when we’re under pressure. This is
especially true when it comes to emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence is not learned in the standard intellectual way; it must be

learned and understood on an emotional level. We can’t simply read about emotional
intelligence or master it through memorization. In order to learn about emotional intelligence
41
in a way that produces change, we need to engage the emotional parts of the brain in ways
that connect us to others. This kind of learning is based on what we see, hear, and feel.
Intellectual understanding is an important first step, but the development of emotional
intelligence depends on sensory, nonverbal learning and real-life practice.

1. Rapidly reducing stress

When we’re under high levels of stress, rational thinking and decision making go out
the window. Runaway stress overwhelms the mind and body, getting in the way of our ability
to accurately “read” a situation, hear what someone else is saying, be aware of our own
feelings and needs, and communicate clearly.

The first key skill of emotional intelligence is the ability to quickly calm yourself down when
you’re feeling overwhelmed. Being able to manage stress in the moment is the key to
resilience. This emotional intelligence skill helps you stay balanced, focused, and in control–
no matter what challenges you face.

2. Connecting to the emotions

The second key skill of emotional intelligence is having a moment-to-moment

awareness of your emotions and how they influence your thoughts and actions. Emotional
awareness is the key to understanding yourself and others.

Many people are disconnected from their emotions–especially strong core emotions
such as anger, sadness, fear, and joy. But although we can distort, deny, or numb our feelings,
we can’t eliminate them. They’re still there, whether we’re aware of them or not.
Unfortunately, without emotional awareness, we are unable to fully understand our own
motivations and needs, or to communicate effectively with others.

3. Nonverbal communication

Being a good communicator requires more than just verbal skills. Oftentimes, what
we say is less important than how we say it or the other nonverbal signals we send out. In
order to hold the attention of others and build connection and trust, we need to be aware of
and in control of our nonverbal cues. We also need to be able to accurately read and respond
to the nonverbal cues that other people send us.

42
 Nonverbal communication is the third skill of emotional intelligence. This wordless
form of communication is emotionally driven. It asks the questions: “Are you listening?” and
“Do you understand and care?” Answers to these questions are expressed in the way we
listen, look, move, and react. Our nonverbal messages will produce a sense of interest, trust,
excitement, and desire for connection–or they will generate fear, confusion, distrust, and
disinterest.

4. Use humor and play to deal with challenges

Humor, laughter, and play are natural antidotes to life’s difficulties. They lighten our
burdens and help us keep things in perspective. A good hearty laugh reduces stress, elevates
mood, and brings our nervous system back into balance.

The ability to deal with challenges using humor and play is the fourth skill of
emotional intelligence. Playful communication broadens our emotional intelligence and helps
us.

5. Resolve conflict positively

Conflict and disagreements are inevitable in relationships. Two people can’t possibly
have the same needs, opinions, and expectations at all times. However, that needn’t be a bad
thing! Resolving conflict in healthy, constructive ways can strengthen trust between people.
When conflict isn’t perceived as threatening or punishing, it fosters freedom, creativity, and
safety in relationships.

Ability to manage conflicts in a positive, trust-building way is the fifth key skill of
emotional intelligence. Successfully resolving differences is supported by the previous four
skills of emotional intelligence. Once you know how to manage stress, stay emotionally
present and aware, communicate nonverbally, and use humor and play, you’ll be better
equipped to handle emotionally-charged situations and catch and defuse many issues before
they escalate.

4.10 SUMMARY

In this unit we understand the term emotions, the physiological changes occurring
during emotions, the primary emotions and blended emotions, the positive emotions and the
negative emotions etc. The term Emotional Intelligence is being discussed. Emotional

43
Intelligence is required to manage emotions in a good manner and use emotions for one’s life
in a proper way. The techniques to improve emotional intelligence are being discussed here.

4.11 KEYWORDS

Positive Emotions

Negative Emotions

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Quotient

4.12 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Define Emotions.

2) Explain the physiological changes occurring during emotions.

3) Name the positive and negative emotions.

4) Define Emotional Intelligence.

5) Explain the techniques to improve Emotional Intelligence.

4.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) 4.3 2) 4.7

3) 4.6 4) 4.8

5) 4.9

14.14 REFERENCES

Natraj (1996) : Psychology for beginners; Srinivasa publication , Mysore.

S.K.Mangal(2011) :General Psychology ; Sterling Publishers Pvt ,.ltd. New Delhi.

Robert. S. Feldman(2006) : Understanding Psychology;6th Edition. Tata Mc Graw

Hill. New York.

Charles. G. Morris , Albert a. Maisto(2002) : Psychology an Introduction ; Eleventh

Edition, Prentice Hall , London.
Lester M. Sdorow ,Cheryl A. Rickabaugh : Psychology; Fifth Edition Mc Graw Hill.
E.R.H.ilgard,R.C. Atkinson,R.L.Atkinson(1975) Introduction to Psychology Sixth
Edition Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

44
 BLOCK-2 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY-II

UNIT-5 SENSATION, ATTENTION AND PERCEPTION

STRUCTURE:

5.1 Objectives

5.2 Introduction

5.3 Meaning and Definition of Sensation

5.4 Types of Sensation

5.5 Meaning and Definition of Attention

5.6 Characteristics of Attention

5.7 Types of Attention

5.8 Factors affecting Attention

5.9 Meaning and Definition of Perception

5.10 Perceptual Organization

5.11 Laws of Perception

5.12 Summary

5.13 Keywords

5.14 Check Your Progress

5.15 Answers to Check Your Progress

5.16 References

45
5.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to explain

 Meaning and Definition of Sensation

 Types of Sensation
 Meaning and Definition of Attention
 Characteristics of Attention
 Types of Attention
 Factors affecting Attention
 Meaning and Definition of Perception
 Perceptual Organization
 Laws of Perception

5.2 INTRODUCTION

The existence and activity of numerous living species, inanimate objects, and events
are fully charged in the world that surrounds us. Everything in our surroundings can be
defined in terms of different stimuli. These stimuli can be found both within and without our
bodies. Assume you're relaxing at a park on a warm spring evening. You've just finished a
difficult psychology exam and are lounging on the green grass, minding your own business.
The birds are chirping, the sun is setting, you can feel the warmth on your skin, smell the
flowers growing in the trees surrounding you, and the taste of your favourite snack is still on
your tongue. Your nervous system is hard at work, like an invisible workforce, even if you
find this relaxing. That is, you cannot genuinely feel the environment if your brain is unaware
of it.

Flowers in the garden, birds flying through the air, hunger sensations in our bellies,
and aches in our bodies all make a concerted effort to draw our attention to their existence
and awareness. The fundamental source of information is thus our exposure to the stimuli
present in our surroundings. But you might wonder why it is important in psychology, which
is the study of human behaviour? The origin of our conduct is what we derive from our
surroundings and how it relates to them. Behaviour is our private experience, and the reported
experiences of others would be impossible without some way of knowing about the world
around us. To appreciate the importance of the sensory processes in behaviour and
experience, imagine, if you can, what it would be like to be without one or more of your

46
senses. The sensation is the first step in the process of allowing your brain to experience the
features and characteristics of the environment around you.

The term attention is used in our day to day in various situations for ex. In the railway
station when the announcement are done it starts with “your attention please” in the
classroom the teacher uses pay attention to the students like this we come across various
situations where our attention is called. Let us try to understand what actually attention means
for a better understanding few definitions can be analysed which explains what attention
actually means.

5.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF SENSATION

The sensation is input about the physical world obtained by our sensory receptors.
Sensory receptors are specialized neurons that respond to specific types of stimuli. When
sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor, the sensation has occurred.
Specialized cells in the sensory receptors convert the incoming physical energy (e.g., light)
into neural impulses/ nervous-system energy. These neural impulses enter the cerebral cortex
of the brain, which is made up of layers of neurons with many inputs. These layers of neurons
function like mini microprocessors, and it is their job to organize the sensations and interpret
them. This process of converting physical energy into neural impulses is called transduction.
The brain then interprets those neural messages, which allow the brain to experience and
make decisions about the environment.

Is it necessary for a stimulus to constantly produce some sort of response in a person?

How much sensory input is required to induce a specific sensation or a significant change in
sensation? Absolute threshold and difference threshold are two notions that can be used to
address this question. These are the subjects of psychophysicists' research, which has greatly
aided in the understanding of feeling and perception through laboratory trials. Their goal was
to establish a quantitative relationship between external stimuli (like frequency and intensity)
and the sensory sensations (like pitch and loudness) that they produced. The absolute
threshold is the smallest amount of physical energy required by a stimulus to elicit any kind
of sensation from a person. The sense organ's receptor is constantly activated or stimulated,
but the stimulation may not be strong enough to produce a sensation. Only when a certain
degree of absolute threshold is met can sensation occur. This will assist us in distinguishing
between noises or odours that we can hear or smell and those that we can't.

47
 One of the most popular laboratory methods for determining the absolute threshold is to
employ one of the following:

i) The method of limits: This method is conducted in two rounds. In the first round, the
intensity of the sound is progressively raised from a quite low level until the subject says that
he hears the sound. This value of the intensity of sound is recorded by the experimenter. In
the second round, the intensity of sound is progressively lowered from a high level until the
subject reports that he hears no sound. This value is also recorded. The average value is
designated as the absolute threshold.

ii) The method of constant stimuli: In this method, the subject is exposed to a number
of stimuli of varying intensity involving a wide range along a given dimension. The stimuli
are presented to the subject in a random order [not in ascending or descending order as in i)]
and each time he is asked to indicate whether or not he detects the stimulus (e.g., Sound). The
responses of the subject are then recorded and a graph can be plotted to show which stimuli
have been detected and which are not.

iii) The method of forced-choice: In this method, the subject is exposed to a group of
selected stimuli. E.g., He may listen to four sounds of varying intensity and may be asked to
say ‘yes’ for any one of the four. This may be repeated with other groups of selected stimuli.
The average value of the intensity of the stimulus derived from these sounds of the
experiment will give the absolute threshold.

Difference threshold: It's the smallest variation in stimulation that one can notice or
the tiniest shift in the sensation that one can distinguish. This is also known as the 'just
noticeable difference.' This has an interesting property in that it varies depending on the
stimulus's strength or value. Ernst Weber originally showed this link in 1834 when he
proposed Weber's Law, which asserts that the larger or stronger a stimulus, the larger the
change required for an observer to detect anything has changed in order to experience a just
noticeable difference.. For example, if you put a three-kilogram package of food into an
empty backpack, the sensation of weight will be greatly increased. But if you add the same
amount to a hundred-kilogram backpack, the sensation will hardly increase at all. Thus, by
experimenting this way with variations of sounds, temperatures, pressures, colors, tastes, and
smells, psychologists are learning more about how each sense responds to stimulation. Some
senses produce huge increases in sensation for a small increase in energy itself. For example,

48
the pain of an electric shock can be increased more than eight times by doubling the voltage.
On the other hand, the intensity of light must be increased many times to double its
brightness.

Sensory adaptation: Assume you go into a room filled with the delightful scent of an
incense stick. You can smell it as soon as you walk in, and you seem to enjoy it. However,
after a few minutes, you might not notice the odour at all. What is this and why does it
happen? The virtue of adaptation is demonstrated in two ways by receptors in our sense
organs for the sake of our safety as well as our enjoyment. Firstly, the receptors can receive
sensory stimulation and operate effectively across quite a wide range. For E.g., our ears can
work with the stimuli from having the most intense sound to the least audible sound, our eyes
can function in the intensely bright light as well as in the dim light and darkness. Secondly,
with bright light as a result of continuing stimulation, the receptors in our sense organs get
accustomed to that particular stimulation resulting in a greatly diminished sensitivity to that
stimulus. For E.g.; the inhabitants of a slum area may get adapted to an extremely unpleasant
odour of a stagnant pond or a chemical fertilizer. This is the reason why though our senses
are constantly bombarded by stimulations we tend to attend to only certain stimuli. This
tendency of sensory receptors to respond to less and less unchanging stimuli is called sensory
adaptation.

5.4 TYPES OF SENSATION

Our senses are, in reality, both internal and external windows to the world. Sensations
are simple experiences that allow our brains to receive information through our five senses,
which the brain can then experience and understand. The so-called five senses that we have
covered in school are vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. The number of human senses,
on the other hand, is closer to ten than five. The skin has independent warmth, cold, pressure,
and pain sensors in addition to touch. Moreover, sense organs in the muscles, tendons, and
joints provide information about the location of our limbs and the degree of muscular tension.
They help with the perception of kinesthesis. The vestibular sense, which is the fundamental
sense in maintaining balance, informs us about the movement and stationary position of the
head.

49
 The psychology of sensation is concerned with an organism's ability to become aware
of or conscious of other stimuli in its external or internal environment. There are two
dimensions to this awareness or consciousness of stimuli. The first is concerned with the
detection problem, which is determining whether or not a stimulus is present. The second is
about the difficulty of distinguishing between stimuli.

Visual sensation

Our eyes are one of the most important sense organs and hence it is the most studied
of all the senses. Vision supplies us with the greatest amount of information about the
external world. The physical stimulus for the sense of vision is light. The visual system
transfers light energy which occurs naturally in the form of wavelengths, into neural
messages via the eyes. Light rays from external objects impinge on the human eye. The
human eye is more or less similar to a camera. Just as the camera has a lens, the human eye
also has a lens. The rays of light enter the eye through the cornea (the transparent covering
that protects our eyes) and pass through the lens. Then the light strikes the photosensitive
surface of the eye known as the retina lying well inside the wall of the eyeball. The retina is
comparable to the film in the camera. Just as in the camera, the area of exposure is controlled
by varying the aperture in the lens; the lens in the human eye can also expand or contract
through the actions of a set of muscles known as the ciliary muscles that are present in the
iris. The ciliary muscles act depending on the intensity of the light rays and thereby regulate
the functioning of the lens and the pupil (a black circle in the center of the iris- the coloured
part of the eye) controls the quantity of light that enters the eye by changing its size. The
retina contains two types of receptor cells that respond to light called rods and cones. These
cells are responsible for changing light energy into chemical and electrical impulses, which

50
then travel over the optic nerve to the brain. Cones need lighter and so work best in daylight.
Rods respond to low light and are mainly responsible for night vision, the capability of seeing
in the dark.

This process is known as visual reception. The subtle qualities of the wavelengths,
such as their height, width, and frequency, are detected by structures within our eyes. These
subtle differences result in the experience of seeing different colours, shapes, and textures. At
the spot where the optic nerve enters the eye and opens out as the retina, there are no rods or
cones. This part is known as the blind spot. Any light stimulus reaching this part is not
sensed.

Colour vision and colour blindness:

We humans cannot respond to the whole world of light. We are limited to the visible
spectrum of colours. Most of us can see between 125 and 130 separate colours irrespective of
the fact that we have only a limited number of names for colours.

Colour blindness is when a person is unable to see some or all colours as their cones
do not function properly. There are many types of colour blindness such as red-green colour
blindness, total colour blindness (also called achromatism), yellow-blue colour blindness, etc.
This defect is genetically transmitted. Colour blindness tests are available to diagnose it.

Why shouldn't one drink and drive? We use smooth pursuit movements to keep
moving objects focused in our eyes. One of the dangers of drinking and driving is that
alcohol disrupts the ocular muscles which control this smooth pursuit movement.

51
 The structure of the human eye:

Vision and brain:

The neural impulses from the eyes are transmitted into the brain through optic nerves
that travel under the frontal lobes of the brain and meet at a point called the optic chiasm
where they do a crossover and pass the information to the thalamus and visual cortex of the
occipital lobes. The retinal information about objects from the right eye is processed in the
left occipital lobe and vice versa.

Auditory sensation: The sense of hearing (auditory sensation), like the sense of
vision, helps us function by notifying us about items that are far away from us. Hearing,
second only to vision, can assist us in learning about and appreciating our surroundings.
Through hearing, we can understand speech, listen to music, hear warning automobile horns,
and hear the chiming of a clock. When an object vibrates or creates a sound, the molecules in
the air surrounding it are pushed together, creating positive pressure. They, in turn, push on
nearby molecules, resulting in a pressure wave. These are referred to as sound waves. Sound
cannot travel in a vacuum because it requires a medium to travel. The strength of the
vibrations determines the loudness sensation. The decibel scale is used to measure the
intensity of sound (dB). The sounds we hear range from zero decibels, which are the softest,
to 140 dB, which are the loudest to human hearing. Any sound that is louder than 110

52
decibels can cause hearing loss, and any sound that is uncomfortable when first heard can
cause hearing loss if heard frequently enough. The sound frequency, or rate of vibration of
the medium through which the sound is delivered, determines pitch. This might range from
very low to extremely high. The frequency of sound waves is measured in hertz (Hz). A
mixture of sound frequencies can be distinguished by human hearing. For example, when two
keys of a piano are struck at the same time, our ears can detect two distinct pitches. The
auditory system, which starts in the ear, detects and perceives sound waves. An outer ear, a
middle ear, and an inner ear make up the ear. The pinna, a strangely shaped flap of skin and
cartilage generally referred to as "the ear," is part of the outer ear. Pinna collects sound waves
that go via the external auditory canal to the eardrum. The eardrum vibrates as a result of
sound waves, and the vibrations are transmitted to the three small bones of the middle ear.
These are subsequently sent to the oval window membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear.
The auditory nerves pick up this information from the cochlea and send it to the brain's
auditory cortex for processing. As a result, humans can 'hear' and comprehend noises.

Structure of the ear:

Human beings are found to possess at least nine senses: vision, hearing, smell, taste,
pressure, temperature, pain, and the vestibular and kinesthetic sense. Each of these senses
helps us to become aware of the nature of a particular stimulus coming in contact without
senses. This awareness is termed sensation and the quality of the sense organ like the ear or
eye which helps us in feeling one or other type of sensation is known as sensitivity. We also
learned about the measurement of sensation, sense of vision, and sense of hearing briefly.

53
Nevertheless, actual experience in many instances is not determined by stimulus
characteristics alone but also by other factors. In fact, a very interesting aspect of visual
experience is its occurrence when there is no stimulus at all. Some people see visions or
ghosts when there are no stimuli. Such experiences are known as hallucinations and are
commonly found among psychologically abnormal individuals. Similarly, the intake of drugs
and alcohol has also been found to cause hallucinatory experiences. Such experiences are
explained on the basis of activation of the brain. When the concerned parts of the brain are
activated, sensory experiences occur even without actual stimulation. Similarly, under certain
conditions, like poor illumination, we mistake, for instance, a rope for a snake. Here,
however, there is a stimulus but it is seen as different from its real form. Such experiences are
called illusions. Hallucinations and illusions illustrate the complexity of sensory experience.
More of these can be well understood by learning about perception. In this topic, we learned
how we sense something (e.g., seeing an object). In the next lesson, we shall learn how we
perceive that object as something (e.g., a pen).

5.5 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF ATTENTION

Attention is a basic mental process necessary for any other cognitive functioning.

Attention serves two important functions

1. It brings certain information into conscious awareness

2. It keeps the other unnecessary information out.

Attention and perception are two psychological processes closely related. Without
attention there can be no perception. Attention bridges the gap between the sensation and
perception.

Every moment a number of stimuli around us are trying to catch our attention. They
are trying to move from the marginal area to the focus of attention. Though all of them are
trying only one can come to the focus at a given time. The one which comes to focus is
selected depending on various external as well internal factors. So it can be said that attention
is a conscious selective activity.

When attention is being focused on a particular task effective sensation is there and if
there is effective sensation effective perception takes place.

54
 Attention is a process carried out through cognitive abilities helped by emotional and
conational factors to select something out of the various stimuli in environment and to bring
it into centre of consciousness in order to perceive.

Attention is the focusing of consciousness on a particular object or idea at a particular

time.

Dunville : “Attention is the concentration of consciousness upon one object rather

than upon another”.

Morgan and Gilliland : “Attention is being keenly alive to some specific factor in our
environment. It is a preparatory adjustment for response”.

Sharma R.N : “Attention can be defined as a process which compels the individual to
select some particular stimulus according to his interest and attitude of the multiplicity of
stimuli present in the environment”.

Ross : “Attention is a process of getting an object or thought clearly before the

mind”.

Looking at these definitions it can be seen that a

a) Attention is the first step

b) Attention is a process

c) Attention is the process which helps in our awareness or consciousness of our

environment.

5.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTENTION

• It is a selective mental activity.

• It constantly shifts from one object to another or from one aspect of the situation to
another.

• Attention is a state of preparedness or alertness: Process of attention involves motor

adjustments on the part of the person who is attentive.

Effects of Attention

1. Attention helps in bringing mental alertness and preparedness. Helps to mentally alert and
tries to exercise one’s mental powers.

55
2. Attention helps in providing proper deep concentration by focusing one’s consciousness
upon one object at a time rather than two.

3. Makes us better equipped for distinguishing or discriminating the object of attention from
others.

Attention acts as a reinforcement of sensory process and helps in the better

organization of the perceptual field for clarity.

5.7 TYPES OF ATTENTION

1. Voluntary Attention: Attention is volitional or voluntary when it calls forth the

exercise of will. It demands the conscious effort on our part. It is least automatic and
spontaneous and not given wholeheartedly like volitional attention, usually in such a type of
attention, we have a clear cut goal before us and for its accomplishment we, with all our
efforts make ourselves attentive. For example, solving an assigned problem in Mathematics,
answering a question in an examination needs voluntary attention. It is further sub divided
into two categories:

a) Implicit volitional attention

b) Explicit volitional attention

a) Implicit volitional attention: A single act of will is responsible for arousing

attention. For example, a teacher assigns practice work to a child and warns of punishment if
not completed. This can make him exercise his will power, attend to the assigned task and
finish it properly.

b) Explicit volitional attention: Attention is obtained by repeated acts if will.

One has to struggle hard for keeping oneself attentive; it requires a strong will power, keen
attention and strong motives for accomplishment of the task.

Ex: The attention, paid during examination days for the required preparation against
the heavy odds and distraction.

2. Involuntary Attention: This type of attention is aroused without the play of will or
without making a conscious effort on our part. For example, we give involuntary attention to
loud sounds, bright lights and strong odours etc.

56
 a) Enforced non-volitional attention: The attention which is aroused by the instincts
is called enforced non-volitional attention. For example, giving attention out of curiosity

b) Spontaneous Non-volitional attention: The attention which is aroused by the

sentiments is called spontaneous non-volitional attention. For example, we give some-what
automatic or spontaneous attention towards some objects, idea, person around which our
sentiments are formed. Ex : Tying to listen to favourite music.

USES OF ATTENTION

It provides strength and ability to continue the task of cognitive functioning despite
the obstacles put, the distractions and other weather conditions.

• It helps in better organization of the perceptual field for maximum clarity and
understanding of the object or phenomenon.

• It helps in bringing mental alertness and preparedness.

• It helps in providing deeper concentration by focusing one, consciousness upon one

object at a time rather than two.

Certain fact induces and controls the condition of attention in a person. These factors
are classified as external (objective) - those found in one’s environment and internal
(subjective) - those within the person himself.

5.8 FACTORS AFFECTING ATTENTION

External Factors or Conditions

External factors or conditions are generally those characteristics outside the situations
or stimuli which make the strongest bid of capturing our attention

1. Nature of the Stimulus: All types of stimuli are not able to evoke the same degree
of attention. An attractive stimulus should always be chosen for capturing maximum
attention. A picture attracts attention more readily than words. Among the pictures, the
pictures of human being (especially beautiful woman or handsome men) capture more
attention than those of animals or objects. Effective stimulus should always be chosen for
capturing maximum attention.

57
 2. Intensity of the Stimulus: In comparison to a weak stimulus, an intense stimulus
attracts more attention of an individual. Our attention becomes easily directed to a loud
sound, a bright or a strong smell.

3. Size of the Stimulus: As a general rule size of the objects in the environment are
more likely to catch our attention than a small object. A small size on a very big background
also attracts attention.

4. Contrast, Change and Novelty :Contrast : Contrast is highly responsible for

capturing attention of the organism and contributes more than the intensity. Change and
variety strike attention more easily than routine. The use of maps and charts suddenly attracts
the student’s, attention when compared to the routine verbal talk, we do not notice the ticking
on the watch but it arrests our attention as soon as it stops.

Any change in the stimulation to which we have become adapted immediately

captures our attention.

Novelty means something new or different. It attracts attention very easily and is closely
related to change. It is always better to introduce the change or novelty for breaking
monotony and securing attention. A new building, a new teacher is all examples of common
novelty for breaking monotony and securing attention.

5. Location of the stimulus: The location of the stimulus also affects attention. In the
case of visual stimuli the most effective location is be just in front of the eyes. For example, it
has been found in experiments that advertisements given on the front or the upper half of any
page attract more attention.

6. Repetition of Stimulus: Repetition is a factor of great importance in securing

attention. A repeated stimulus attracts attention. We may ignore a stimulus at first instance
but when it is repeated several times, it captures our attention. Ex: Important Point repeated
again and again in a class room catches attention of a student, another example, and the
advertisements in T. V.

7. Movement of the Stimulus: A moving stimulus catches our attention more quickly
than a stimulus that does not move. We are more sensitive to objectives that move is our field
of vision, Ex: Advertisers use this fact and try to capture the attention of people through
moving electric lights. This is why the pictures on a television screen or those in a cinema
hold our attention for hours at time.

58
Internal Factors

A person’s attention to a stimulus depends not only upon the characteristics of the
stimulus or the favourable environmental conditions but also upon his interest, motives, basic
needs and urges, etc.

1. Interest and Attention: Interest is a very helpful factor in securing attention. We

attend to objects in which we are interested than those in which we are not interested.

Ex: Standing in front of a playground we select to watch football out of volleyball and
Basketball Play.

2. Motives: The basic drives and urges of the individual are very important in securing
his attention. Thirst, hunger, sex, curiosity, fear are some of the important motives
that exercise definite influence upon attention. When hungry we may attend to even
distasteful food but while our belly is full we may not attend to even tastiest one.

Ex : A hungry person is sure to notice the smell of food.

3. Mental Set-up: Mental set means the tendency or bent of the whole mind. A person
always attends to those objects towards which his mind has set.

For example, on the day of examination the slightest thing concerning the
examination easily attracts the attention of the students.

4 Affection: Affection drags our attention out of many stimulus. Ex: A mother listens to child
cry even in the middle of T.V, music.

5 Prejudice: When we have some information about the stimulus we wait to check it. Ex:
Impression about a new person.

5.9 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF PERCEPTION

We are always surrounded by the forces of our environment. The many stimuli
present in this environment constantly overwhelm our sensory receptors. As a result, we
become aware of a certain light, sound, or chemical stimuli through familiar feelings. Our
sensory transmitter then relays this knowledge or information about the stimuli to the
neurological system's centers. People aren't used to being bombarded with a kaleidoscope of
colours, sounds, warmth, and pressures. We see automobiles and buildings, hear people and
music, and touch pens, desks, and close friends instead. Our eyes, for example, only detect a

59
few light stimuli and do not see the book or pen. Our eyes, for example, only detect a few
light stimuli and do not see the book or pen. Our ears detect some auditory stimulation but are
unable to detect a whistle. For instance, I sensed (seen) something, but how did I recognize it
as a pen? How do we go about studying, identifying, classifying, interpreting, and deducing
the meaning of sensory input awareness? The notion of perception psychology can provide
answers to these concerns. We don't just have sensory experiences; we also perceive things,
sounds, and other stimuli. Perception refers to the way the world looks, sounds, tastes, feels,
or smells. In other words, perception can be defined as whatever is experienced by a person.
The previous topic dealt with sensations also called simple perceptions which are closely
linked to patterns of activity in the sensory organs themselves. But considering what we
perceive, the sensory input only provides the raw material for the experience. Attention is the
term given to the perceptual processes that select certain inputs for inclusion in our conscious
experience, or awareness, at any given time. The processes of attention divide our field of
experience into a focus and a margin. The concepts of filtering and procession capacity are
used to explain why attention has a focus and why this focus shifts from time to time.

According to Charles G. Morris, “Perception can be defined as all the processes

involved in creating meaningful patterns out of a jumble of sensory impressions.”

According to O. Desiderato and colleagues, “Perception is the experience of objects,

events or relationships obtained by extracting information from and interpreting sensations.”

Through these definitions, we can understand the following about perception:

Perception is a process rather than being an outcome of some psychological

phenomenon.

Perception is the information extractor as it extracts relevant information out of a

jumble of sensory impressions and converts them into some meaningful pattern.

Perception is preparation for a response as it is the first step toward the active
behaviour of an organism.

Perception involves sensation as it assigns meaning to sensory stimuli. Perception

provides organization as it helps in the proper arrangement of sensory impressions. What one

60
perceives, he/she perceives it as a whole in an organized pattern and not as the sum total of
various stimuli.

Perception is highly individualized as different individuals do not perceive objects,

events, or relationships in the same way. Even individual perceptions of the same event may
vary. Thus, perception is a highly individualized psychological process that helps an
organism in organizing and interpreting the complex patterns of sensory stimulation for
giving them the necessary meaning to initiate his behavioral response.

Perceptual learning:

In most cases, perception is something that people learn to accomplish. The new-born
must learn to distinguish between objects that resemble people and other objects. Several
investigations suggest that in order to acquire perception, people and animals must be
actively immersed in their surroundings. People who have been blind since birth and have
had their sight returned through surgery, experience visual sensations but they couldn't tell
the difference between a square and a circle, or a red cube and a blue cube at first.

5.10 PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

As we have seen, our senses react to patterns of stimuli present in our environment.
Perception organizes the stimulation; it interprets and gives meaning to the patterns.
Perceptual organization is the term for this type of perception. But, how does this happen?
The Gestalt psychologists, a group of German psychologists, were the first to study this
phenomenon in-depth, and their school of thinking was dubbed the Gestalt school of
psychology. Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler were among the notable
psychologists. The word 'Gestalt' implies 'configuration, wholeness, or whole' in German.
They attempted to investigate perception via the lens of Gestalts/wholes. They said that when
we think of an object, we think of it in terms of its completeness or whole, rather than a
random collection of its constituents or pieces. They wanted to figure out what principles the
brain employs to form perceptions. The Gestalt principles of organization can be used to
describe how humans organize their feelings and fill in gaps in order to make sense of the
world. Individuals also tend to organize environmental stimuli into meaningful patterns based
on particular principles, according to the researchers. They identified more than a hundred
perceptual organizing principles or laws. This is how we make sense of the complex world
we live in.

61
 Perceptual inference: We often have perceptions that aren't totally based on present
sensory information. When you're driving in a car and see the road ascend up a steep hill in
the distance before disappearing over the top, you think the road will continue over and down
the hill rather than coming to an abrupt halt. Perceptual inference is the process of filling in
the gaps between what our senses tell us. It is largely unconscious and automatic. It can also
be influenced by prior experience. According to some experiments, it was also inferred that
we are probably born with some of our ability to make perceptual inferences. For example, an
infant that is just barely able to crawl will avoid falling over what appears to be a steep cliff
thus proving that they perceive depth innately. More about this shall be dealt with further
under depth perception.

5.11 LAWS OF PERCEPTION

Though there are several laws of perception discovered by Gestalt psychologists, the
following are some of the important laws/ principles of perception.

Law of figure-ground perception:

According to this principle, a figure is perceived in a relationship to its background.

For example, a tree is a figure that appears against a background of a sky, the words are
figures that appear against a background of a page. We perceive a figure against a
background or a background against a figure depending upon the characteristics of the
perceiver as well as the relative strength of the figure or ground.

Here the pattern shown above may be perceived in two plausible ways depending on
which of the two shapes, a vase or two faces is perceived as the figure and which as the
background. It is however impossible to perceive both figure and background at the same
time.

62
Law of closure:

According to this principle, while confronting an incomplete pattern one tends to

complete or close the pattern or fill in sensory gaps and perceive it as a meaningful whole.
This type of organization is extremely helpful in making valuable interpretations of various
incomplete objects, patterns, or stimuli present in our environment.

Law of proximity:

According to this principle, on the basis of proximity, objects or stimuli that appear
close to one another are likely to be perceived as belonging to the same group.

Law of continuity:

63
 According to this principle, the objects or stimuli are perceived as a unit or group on
the basis of their continuity. This explains why our attention is being held more by
continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.

Law of similarity:

Law of simplicity/law of good figure:

According to this Gestalt principle, we tend to interpret our sensory stimulation so

that we perceive the simplest possible pattern. Thus, the characteristics like symmetry,
unbroken lines, curves, our familiarity with the figure, etc may contribute to figural simplicity
because they enable the perceiver to perceive the whole from the sum of its parts.

Law of the common region:

64
 The principle of the common region says that items within a boundary are perceived
as a group and assumed to share some common characteristic or functionality.

Law of contour:

A contour is a boundary between a figure and its ground. The degree of the quality of
this contour separating figure from ground enables us to find meaningful patterns.

Law of context: Change in context (the setting in which a perceived stimulus or

object appears) is likely to bring a great change in its perception. For example, an examiner
may award higher marks to the same answer papers in a pleasant context than in an
unpleasant one.

Law of contrast: Contrast also affects the perception. For example, the brightness of
a colour is strongly affected by the presence of a contrasting background or figure.

Law of adaptability: According to this law, the adaptability of the perceiver plays a
role in the perception of the stimuli. For example, a person who adapts himself to work in a
brightly lit area will likely perceive normal sunlight as quite dim.

Law of perceptual constancy: This refers to the tendency to perceive the stimuli
present in our environment as relatively stable and unchanging, even though the reality is
otherwise. There are a number of perceptual constancies like shape, size, color, brightness, or
loudness constancy.

Perception of space: This involves the problem of three-dimensional perception of

vision in which an object in the environment is to be perceived in terms of height (up-down),
width (left-right), and distance or depth (near-far).

65
 Depth perception is the ability to recognize distances and three-dimensionality that
develops in infancy itself. If a baby is placed on a large table, he/she will not crawl over the
edge as the baby is able to perceive that it is a long distance to the floor.

Perceptual illusions:

Illusions are perceptions that are misrepresentations of reality.

The two famous illusions in Psychology are:

Muller-Lyer illusion

Ponzo illusion

66
 A possible explanation for this type of illusion is that even though the patterns are
two-dimensional, our brain treats them as three-dimensional. This ‘perceptual compensation’
seems to be unconscious and automatic.

5.12 SUMMARY

Perception is a highly individualized psychological process that helps an organism in

organizing and interpreting complex environmental stimuli into meaningful patterns
according to Gestalt principles. This chapter also explained some of the important laws of
perception and perceptual illusions which represent gross misjudgement or false perception
of the sensory information. The concept of perception of space is also explained. People
differ in the ways that they process sensory inputs to give rise to what they experience. Thus,
there are individual differences in perception. Among the factors that influence an
individual’s perception are a) perceptual learning, b) differences in what the person expects to
perceive, c) motives and needs, and d) the person’s characteristic perceptual-cognitive style.
Psychologists have discovered over a hundred principles or laws concerning the perceptual
organization. Some important laws are explained with examples such as principles of figure-
ground relationship, similarity, simplicity, continuity, proximity, contour, context,
adaptability, contrast, etc. Perception of space involves the problem of three-dimensional
perception. Perceptual illusions represent gross misjudgement or false perception of sensory
information. Muller-Lyer and Ponzo illusions were explained too.

Perception is said to be plastic. This refers to the modifiability of perceived

experience. The plasticity of perception has been demonstrated in experiments that restricted
subjects’ visual input during their periods for perceptual development. Many of the plastic
changes in perception seem to support the scientific idea that nurturing or the environment
plays a large role in the development of perceptual processes.

5.13 KEYWORDS
Sensation Visual Sensation
Auditory Sensation Attention
Voluntary Attention Involuntary Attention
Perception Continuity
Closure Adaptability
Contrast Change

67
 Illusion Hallucination

5.14 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Explain the meaning and Definition of sensation.
2. Describe different types of Sensation.
3. Define Attention.
4. Explain the Characteristics of Attention.
5. Explain different types of Attention.
6. Define Perception.
7. Explain the laws of Perception.

5.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. 5.3 2. 5.4 3. 5.5 4. 5.6 5. 5.7 6. 5.9
7.5.11

5.16 REFERENCES

Robert. S. Feldman(2006) : Understanding Psychology;6th Edition. Tata Mc Graw Hill.

New York.
Charles. G. Morris , Albert a. Maisto(2002) : Psychology an Introduction ; Eleventh Edition,
Prentice Hall , London.
Lester M. S dorow , Cheryl A. Rickabaugh : Psychology; Fifth Edition Mc Graw Hill.
E.R.H. Hilgard, R.C. Atkinson, R. L. Atkinson (1975) Introduction to Psychology Sixth
Edition Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
E. G. ParameshwariC. Beena(2007) : Invitation To Psychology; Neelkamal Publications Pvt,
Ltd, New Delhi .

68
 UNIT -6 LEARNIG, MEMORY AND FORGETTING
6.1 Objectives

6.2 Introduction

6.3 Meaning and Definition of Learning

6.4 Types of Learning

6.5 Meaning and Definition of Memory

6.6 Types of Memory

6.7 Memory improvement Techniques

6.8 Meaning and Definition of Forgetting

6.9 Types of Forgetting

6.10 Summary

6.11 Keywords

6.12 Check Your Progress

6.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

6.14 References

69
6.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you will be able to explain:

 Learning and its types

 Memory and its types
 Memory Techniques
 Fogetting and its Types

6.2 INTRODUCTION

Learning is crucial in one's life because it is the foundation of our existence as well as
the development and progress of society. Memory refers to our mind's ability or strength to
preserve previous learning experiences and use them at a later time. Memory is thus viewed
as a specific power of our mind to conserve or store what we have previously experienced or
learned through learning, and then to make use of its reproduction or resurrection at a later
time. What would your life be like if you didn't have memorization? Even non-human
creatures must have a system in place to remember what they just did in order for their
behaviour to flow in the correct order. Memory is considerably more important for us.
Consider your casual discussions with friends. Speaking requires you to retain and recollect
your language's words in grammatical order, and you must keep track of what you have
already stated or your discussion would be meaningless. As a result, memory is critical to our
understanding of behaviour and mental processes. All of our lives depend on our ability to
remember things. We can't function in the present or plan for the future unless we have a
memory of the past. We would be unable to recall what we had done the day before, what we
had done today, or what we planned to accomplish the next day. We couldn't learn anything
if we didn't have memory. Memory is involved in processing vast amounts of information.
This information can take numerous forms, such as sights, sounds, or meaning. Performance
in terms of the quality of the revival or reproduction of what has been learned and stored up
can be used to make a judgment about the strength of this power or the quality of this talent.
In this perspective, a good memory must reflect 'an ideal revival,' in which the object of
former experiences is restored as closely as possible to its original sequence and method of
occurrence. However, the term memory or the process of memorization cannot be termed in
such a simple manner. It is a complicated process that involves aspects such as learning,
retention, recall, and recognition, as mentioned in the mechanism of the memorizing process
below. The ideas and theories in the study of memory have changed drastically in the past

70
few decades. Earlier memory was looked at in terms of stimulus and response. But now, the
study of memory is to emphasize cognitive or mental processes involved in storing
information and retrieving it from memory. Cognition refers to the processes through which
information coming from the senses is transformed, reduced, elaborated, recovered, and
used.

6.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF LEARNING

Learning is “the change in behaviour or the individual brought about by experience”.

Learning is an enrichment of experience.
According to Gardner Murphy, “Learning is a tension reduction process”.
Woodworth R. S, “Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the
individual and makes his behaviour and experiences different from what that would otherwise
have been”.
Gates and Others – “Learning is the modification of behaviour through
experiences”.
M.L. Bigge – “Learning may be considered as a change in insights, behaviour,
perception motivation or a combination of these”.
Characteristics of learning:
1. Learning is universal and continuous
2. Learning is maturation.
3. Learning is the product of environment.
4. Learning is both individual and social.
5. Learning is active.
6. Learning is intelligent.
7. Learning is purposeful.
8. Learning is organising experience.
9. Learning refers to intra and inter-adjustment of the individual with the society.
Purposes of Learning:
The purpose of learning can be broadly classified into three categories viz;
1. Acquisition of Knowledge: it includes perception, conception and associative
learning.
2. Acquisition of skills: It includes reading, writing, art, drawing, handwork, musical
performance, verbal fluency, and other skills which involve sensory – motor process.

71
 3. Acquisition of attitudes and ideals: it includes the behaviours that come under
affective domain.

6.4 TYPES OF LEARNING

1. Deliberate or conscious learning:

a. Primary learning: It includes learning of facts, principles and theories etc.
b. Associated learning: it is establishing relationship between primary learning
and core of the lesson.
2. Unconscious learning: learning of likes and dislikes, attitudes etc.
3. Development learning: learning of academic, emotional, intellectual, moral,
motor sensory and social learning.
4. Concept learning: it includes knowledge and skill learning, attitude formation
etc.
5. Hierarchical order of learning: Gagne has classified learning into eight
categories namely:
a. Signal learning
b. Stimulus response learning
c. Chain learning
d. Verbal associate learning
e. Discrimination
f. Learning of concepts
g. Learning of principles
h. Problem solving

6.5 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF MEMORY

Memory is the ability of the mind to record, retain, and generate thoughts as a result
of its own activity.
According to J.A. Adams, "Memory is the learning capacity for responding, and its
persistence over time is tested by retention test".
According to Woodworth and Marquis, "Memory is mental strength that consists in
learning, maintaining, and remembering what has already been learned,"
Memory is the ability to recreate past events even when no stimulus is present.

72
 Woodworth has suggested four elements of memory they are;
1. Learning – It is the process of establishing association of ideas in mind.
2. Retention – It is the process of recording of past experience in the sub-conscious mind of
the individual in the form of mental experience.
3. Recall – It is bringing again to mind the past experiences on the basis of “association of
ideas”.
4. Recognition – It is the capacity to recognise or express knowledge of all seeing a thing
that has been seen earlier.
Kinds of Memory
1. Habit memory and true memory: According to Bergson, habit memory depends
upon mere motor mechanism and true memory depends on independent recollections.
2. Rote memory & Logical Memory: Rote memory is a mechanical repetition of an
experience without understanding. Logical memory depends on understanding.
3. Passive & Active memory: In passive memory, the past experiences come to our
consciousness without making an effort on our part. In active memory, we make
deliberate efforts to recall some forgotten experience.
4. Personal & Impersonal memory: In personal memory, we remember our past
experiences, in impersonal memory facts are remembered without any reference to
oneself.
5. Immediate & permanent memory: when the material is learnt is called immediately
after learning is called immediate memory. After some lapse of time, if we succeed in
recalling is called permanent memory.
Signs of Good Memory:
1. Rapidity: How quickly the learner recalls his past experiences within a very short
period of time is called as the rapidity of memory.
2. Accuracy: It implies the exactness with which a past experience is recalled.
3. Length of Time: The time for which one can retain the past experience s and recalls
them accurately.
4. Promptness: it implies the ease and spontaneity with which experience is called.
5. Serviceableness: It implies the recall of right experience, at the right time, at the right
place and in the right manner.
Ways of improving the memory of the learner:
1. Will to learn: It enhances interest and motivation, which leads to better retention.
2. Interest and Attention: Pay interest and attention in learning a particular subject.

73
 3. Follow the principles of association
4. Follow the law of exercise and intelligent repetition
5. Use of modern teaching technology in learning: use of variety of aids in teaching-
learning process will also help in improving memory.
6. Use of progressive methods of teaching and learning
7. Adopting proper methods of memorization.

6.6 STAGES OF MEMORY

Imagine a digital computer that takes items of information in; processes them in steps
or stages, and then produces an output. Models of memory that are based on this idea are
called information-processing theories. This model was developed by Richard Atkinson and
Richard Shiffrin.

According to this model, three distinct stages or processes of memory have been
identified. These are encoding, storage and retrieval.

Encoding: It is the process of receiving sensory input and transforming it into a form,
or code, which can be stored. When information comes into our memory system (from
sensory input), it needs to be changed into a form that the system can cope with, so that it can
be stored. Think of this as similar to changing your money into a different currency when you
travel from one country to another. There are three main ways in which information can be
encoded (changed):

74
1. Visual (picture)
2. Acoustic (sound)
3. Semantic (meaning)

For example, say you try to remember a telephone number you have looked up in the
phone book. If you can see it then you are using visual coding, but if you are repeating it to
yourself, you are using acoustic coding (by sound).

Storage: It is the process of actually putting coded information into memory. This
concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e., where the information is stored, how long the
memory lasts (duration), how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of
information is held. The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it.

Retrieval: It is the process of gaining access to stored, coded information when it is

needed. If we can’t remember something, it may be because we are unable to retrieve it.

To illustrate these three memory processes, imagine that on the way to work, your car
was bumped by a bus and slightly dented. You encoded your visual impressions of the
accident in a form that you could store in your memory. Later, when you talk to the insurance
adjuster, you first recognize the memory and will retrieve what you stored.

For memorization, learning or experiencing is the primary condition. Without this,

there will be no remembering. Then these learnings are retained properly in the form of
mental images so that they can be revived when required. The final stages of memory are
recognition and recall. Recognition is nothing but awareness of an object or situation as
having been known to the person. The recall is the retrieval of information that has been
stored already.

This simple process also helps explain why your memory of an accident may be
inaccurate. The encoding you do may be faulty, perhaps due to the emotion and distress you
experience at the time of the accident; important encoded information may not be well fixed
in your memory, or it may be distorted by events occurring after the accident; your retrieval
of the information stored in your memory may be biased; or, since the processes of encoding,
storage, and retrieval are related all three memory processes may be faulty. Therefore,
memory is seldom an accurate record of what was experienced. In fact, forgetting
unnecessary information is essential to the proper functioning of memory as is remembering
the material.

75
6.6 TYPES OF MEMORY

We often use the terms ‘remembering’ and ‘memorization’ interchangeably as if it

means one and the same. But according to Levin, memory can be linked to a giant filing
cabinet in the brain, with data sorted, classified, and cross-filed for future reference. Whereas,
remembering depends on how the brain goes about coding its input.

Psychologists have tried to classify memory into certain types according to their
nature and purposes served. The broad classification consists of the following:

Sensory memory, also called as immediate memory, is the memory that helps an
individual to recall something a split second after having perceived it. In this the retention
time is generally from a fraction of a second to a few seconds. It is needed when we want to
remember a thing for a short time and then forget it. For example, we look up a telephone
number from the phonebook and remember it but after making the call we usually forget it. It
helps us to learn a thing immediately with speed and accuracy, remembering it for a short
time and forgetting it rapidly after use. There is iconic memory which reflects information
from our visual system; echoic memory which stores information coming from the ears and
each of the other senses have their corresponding memory systems.

76
 Short-term memory, also called the working memory, is also temporary, though
not nearly as short-lived as the immediate memory. As the information that is stored briefly
in our sensory memory consists of representations of raw sensory stimuli, it is not meaningful
to us. In order to make sense of it and to allow for the possibility of long-term retention, the
information must be transferred to this short-term memory. It is the memory in which
material first has meaning, though the maximum length of retention is relatively short. Using
certain memory techniques such as chunking, some are able to retain much more information
in their short-term memory.

Long term memory, unlike short-term memory, has a seemingly limitless capacity to
store information, undergoes little or no decay and requires little or no rehearsal. In addition
to these characteristics, long-term memory codes information according to meaning, pattern
and other characteristics. It is this memory that helps us to remember a number of things on a
relatively permanent basis. Examples: remembering our name, parents' names, date of birth,
etc. with its help, we can store, retain and remember at our ease at record notice most of the
things in our life and can thus make things in our life quite easy.

Though long-term memory initially was viewed as a single entity, most research
suggests that it is composed of several different components or memory modules such as
follows.

Declarative memory: memory for factual information. E.g.: names, faces, dates, etc.

Procedural memory/non-declarative memory: it refers to memory for skills and

habits such as riding a bike or hitting a ball.
The facts in declarative memory can be subdivided into semantic and episodic
memory.
Semantic memory: memory that stores general knowledge and facts about the world. E.g.:
mathematical and historical data.
Episodic memory: memory for information relating to the biographical details of our
individual lives.
It has also been discovered that at times people also have memories about which they
are not even consciously aware. For example, studies have found that people who are
anesthetized during surgery can sometimes recall snippets of information that they heard

77
during surgery though they have no conscious recollection of the surgery. This has led to
speculation that two forms of memory exist- explicit and implicit memory.

Explicit memory: intentional or conscious recollection of information. Eg: recall of a name

or date

Implicit memory: memories of which people are not consciously aware but which can affect
subsequent performance and behavior.
There is something called flashbulb memory which are memories of a specific event that are
so clear that they seem like snapshots of the actual event that happened.

Thus, more research in the memory arena promises to have important applications like
progress in therapy, teaching skills, learning skills, etc.

6.7 MEMORY ENHANCING TECHNIQUES:

It's debatable if memory can be improved by training or not. However, improving or

training it is something that almost everyone wishes for. Memory training, on the other hand,
is not the same as physical training. As a result, just repeating materials for the sake of
memorizing as a mental exercise does not produce long-term or useful outcomes. As
previously said, memory is made up of four components: learning, retention/storage,
recognition, and recall. It is reasonable to conclude that improving any one or more of the
parts will improve the memory as a whole. Retention cannot be enhanced by training because
it is thought to be innate and inherited. Recognition is also difficult to improve through
training because it is a highly quick and spontaneous act. The last two are learning and recall,
both of which have been shown to be increased through training, sometimes known as
memory-enhancing techniques.

1. Mnemonics (pronounced as ‘nemoniks’): A Mnemonic is a pattern that can be used

as an aid for memorizing information. Example: Use the acronym VIBGYOR to
remember the colours of the rainbow in the order- Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green,
Yellow, Orange, and Red.
2. The method of Loci: ‘Loci’ means places. It works by visualizing familiar spatial
environments to enhance the recall of information. Start by imagining a building with
a number of rooms in it and several items of furniture in each room. Rehearse this
image over and over until it is well established in your mind. Then associate the

78
 events you wish to remember with the rooms and items of furniture. The trick is to
make associations with as many rooms and items of furniture as needed and then to
take a mental tour of the rooms in order.
3. Number and letter peg systems: Each number from 1 to 10 can be given a rhyming
mnemonic keyword: one - gun, two - shoe, three - tree, four-door, five - hive, six -
sticks, seven - heaven, eight - bait (for fishing), nine - wine and ten - pen. If you have
a list of things to memorize, like a shopping list, you can associate each item of the
list with a number rhyme image. So, if your shopping list is: carrots, milk, bread,
eggs, rice, etc., make associations like this:

One is “gun” — imagine a gun shooting a pile of carrots, the first item on your shopping list.
Two is “shoe” — imagine cleaning your muddy shoe with a bottle of milk.
Three is “tree” — imagine bread growing on a tree. Etc.

Once you’ve associated each item in your shopping list with a number peg, you’ll be able
to mentally walk through the numbers, recall the rhymes (“what was the gun shooting?”), and
recall the item (“carrots”).

4. Story Technique: for example, a list of words can be remembered using a made-up
story that gives coherence and meaning to unrelated items.
5. Chunking:

Studying to remember: To remember what we need to know in our courses, we will

need to go beyond mnemonic techniques. Proper planning, rehearsal, organization, feedback,
and review will be helpful in this.

Other than memory techniques certain factors are also required for the memorization
process to happen properly such as Will to learn, interest, and attention, following the
principle of association wherein attempts can be made to connect it with one’s previous

79
learning on the one hand and with so many related things on the other, utilize as many
senses as possible while learning, manage external factors such as having a calm and quiet
atmosphere, manage internal factors such as learner’s physical and mental health, etc

6.8 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF FORGETTING

The term "forgetting" appears to be common in our everyday conversation. However,

when it comes to forgetting, we need to be more particular and scientific. Munn defines
forgetting as the loss of the ability to recall or recognize something previously learned,
whether permanent or temporary. In other words, there appears to be a loss of previously
encoded and stored information in long-term memory. Much is forgotten, yet enough remains
to provide us with a hazy chronicle of our life. Much of what we think we've forgotten was
never properly encoded and saved in the first place, so it doesn't truly count as "forgotten."
Failure is the term used to describe forgetting. "I've forgotten something" means that I was
unable to remember or recall what I had previously learned or experienced. In this regard,
forgetting is the polar opposite of remembering, and it is fundamentally a retrieval failure.
For example, we remember the gist or meaning, of what we've read or heard in a
conversation but not the exact words. We recall inferences made at the time the information
was encoded for storage, or we encode only parts of the information to be remembered.
Strictly speaking, such faulty remembering is not forgetting. In truth, we recall what was
saved; we mistakenly believe we forgot because what we recall is not an accurate portrayal of
what occurred. There's also the 'tip of the tongue phenomena,' which isn't quite forgetfulness
but rather the difficulty to recollect knowledge that one thinks they already know. This is
because recovering information from one's long-term memory is challenging. Those of us
who have had even little memory lapses, such as forgetting someone's name or a test fact, are
well aware of the devastating repercussions of memory loss. Why, therefore, do we forget?

Before we get to the answer, let's study a little more about forgetting.

In 1885, the psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus is credited with being the first to
conduct an experimental investigation of forgetfulness. He participated in his own studies as
a subject and drew a 'curve of forgetting' to describe his findings. He memorised a list of his
nonsense syllables and then tested himself on how much of the list he recalled at intervals
ranging from 20 minutes to a month. The following were the results in terms of the
percentage of material forgotten over time:

80
 He discovered that the most rapid forgetting happens in the first nine hours after
exposure to new content in his landmark work. However, even after many days have gone,
the rate of forgetting slows and declines relatively little.

Despite his crude methodology, his research had a significant impact on subsequent
studies, and his core conclusions have been confirmed.

6.9 TYPES OF FORGETTING

There are certain types of forgetting and these may be described in a number of ways
based on their nature and functioning. Forgetting in one way is classified as Normal and
Abnormal forgetting. Normal forgetting is also called natural forgetting. This occurs with
the lapse of time in a quite normal way without any intention of forgetting on the part of the
individual. Abnormal forgetting is also called morbid forgetting where one deliberately
tries to forget something. According to the renowned Psychoanalyst Freud, this type of
forgetfulness results from repression and is wishful as one happens to forget the things
which he doesn't wish to remember.

Forgetting can also be classified as general or specific. In general forgetfulness, one

suffers a total loss in one’s recalling some previous learning while in specific forgetfulness
the individual forgets only one or the other specific part of his/her earlier learning.

Forgetfulness can also be physical or psychological. In case one loses his memory on
account of the factors of age, diseases, biological malfunctioning of the brain and nervous
system, accidents, consumption of liquor or other intoxicating materials, etc., it is said to be
physical or organic forgetting. But in case, loss of memory occurs due to psychological
factors like stress, anxiety, conflicts, temper provocation, lack of interest, aversion, apathy,

81
repression or similar other emotional and psychic difficulties, the resulting forgetfulness is
termed as psychological forgetting.

In everyday speech, we use the term amnesia to refer to ‘loss of memory’. This
implies that amnesia is a kind of forgetting but it is a more general ‘disease of memory’.
Amnesia is a profound memory deficit due to either loss of what has been stored or to the
inability to form new memories. Some amnesia have a biological basis, that is the brain is
disturbed in some way and these are called biological amnesias. Examples: transient global
amnesia, alcohol-induced amnesia, and amnesia caused by certain diseases of the brain like
Alzheimer's disease, dementia, etc. Whereas the amnesias that are without any known brain
malfunction and result from major disturbances in the processes of information encoding,
storage and retrieval are called psychological amnesias. Example: emotional trauma. There
are two types of this- retrograde amnesia where the memory is lost for occurrences prior to a
certain event and anterograde amnesia where the loss of memory occurs for events following
an injury. Retrograde amnesia is very rare but usually, this type is depicted quite often in
television dramas where a character gets a blow on his/her head and forgets his/her past.

Factors affecting forgetting:

We've always questioned how we go about sorting through our massive amounts of
stored data and retrieving precise information when we need it. Using retrieval cues is one of
the most used methods. A retrieval cue is a stimulus that makes it easier for us to recall
information from long-term memory. So, returning to the original subject of why we forget,
even when retrieval cues are used, some information appears to be irretrievable due to decay
or interference. Many psychologists believe that time is the cause of much forgetfulness.
With the passage of time, what is learned or experienced is forgotten. The process of decay of
the memory trace can be used to explain the source of such natural/normal forgetting. Decay
refers to the loss of information caused by non-use as memory traces (also known as
engrams) weaken and finally fade away, whereas interference refers to the loss of material
caused by the displacement of older information by newer information. Experiments and a
better knowledge of memory, on the other hand, contradict the decay idea, as long-term
memories like how to ride a bicycle, for example, never seem to fade away even after years
of neglect. In the case of short-term memory, decay better explains forgetfulness. This
explanation also posits that as new content is learned, the brain creates a memory trace called
an engram, which is a physical change in the brain. Interference appears to be a primary

82
contributor to forgetting. There are two types of interference: proactive interference, which
occurs when previously learned information interferes with the recall of material to which
one is later exposed, and retroactive interference, which occurs when new information
interferes with the recall of previously learned information. This interference theory as a
whole has been successful in explaining natural forgetting in both short-term and long-term
memory, but it has failed to explain abnormal forgetting. An individual's defective emotional
behaviour also contributes to the disruption of one's regular memory process. When emotions
like fear, rage, or love take control, it's easy to forget all you've learned, experienced, or
thought previously. One's intellect becomes paralyzed as a result of excessive self-
consciousness. For example, exam anxiety may cause you to forget answers.

6.10 SUMMARY

Memory refers to the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Cognition

concerns the internal processing of information received from the senses and memory is one
such aspect of cognition. In one of the theories of memory, it has been proposed that memory
is said to consist of the four cognitive processes mentioned in its definition- encoding,
storage, recognition, and retrieval. Encoding is the process of receiving sensory input and
transforming it into a code that can be stored; storage is the process of actually putting the
coded information into memory; and retrieval is the process of gaining access to the encoded,
stored information when it is to be used. We also learned about the information processing
theory and types of human memory such as sensory memory, and short-term and long-term
memory. Training in memory aims to achieve a good memory. We can bring improvement in
our encoding and recall process through certain memory-enhancing techniques that are
explained in brief. Psychologists have developed a number of specific techniques to improve
memory. These include mnemonics, method of loci, chunking, peg systems, managing
internal and external factors, repetition and practice, etc. Eyewitnesses of crimes are apt to
make substantial errors when they try to recall details of criminal activity. The problem of
memory reliability becomes even more acute in cases when children are witnesses and in
cases of repressed memories, recollections of events that initially are so shocking that the
mind responds by pushing them into the unconscious. Hence more research on memory
processes will open several areas of application.

Forgetting is the temporary or long-term loss of our ability to reproduce the things
that have been previously learned. Depending upon its nature and intensity, it may be

83
classified as normal and abnormal, general and specific, physical and psychological. Natural
forgetting can be properly explained through the theory of decay which holds that we forget
on account of the decay of the memory traces with the lapse of time. According to repression,
we forget the things we don’t want to remember by pressing them in our unconscious mind.
Interference however is able to explain all types of forgetting. We forget things because of
the interference of other things. Proactive inhibition occurs when earlier learning interferes
with later learning. Retro-active inhibition is the result of later learning coming in the way of
earlier learning. Amnesia is a profound memory deficit due to either loss of what has been
stored or the inability to form new memories. It can be biological or psychological. An
impaired emotional behavior of an individual also plays its part in disrupting one’s normal
memory process.

6.11 KEYWORDS

Learning Memory

Sensory Memory Short term Memory

Long Term Memory Forgetting

Normal Forgetting Abnormal Forgetting

6.12 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Define Learning.
2. Explain types of Learning.
3. Define Memory.
4. Explain different types of Memory.
5. Define Forgetting.
6. Explain the types of Forgetting.

6.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. 6.3 2. 6.4 3. 6.5 4. 6.6 5. 6.8 6. 6.9

84
 6.14 REFERENCES

1. J.C. Aggarwal, “Essentials of Educational Psychology”, Vikas Publishing House

Private Limited, New Delhi, 2002
2. Bhatia and Bhatia, “A Text book of Educational Psychology” Doaba House, New
Delhi, 2001.
3. C.L.Kundu and D.N.Tutoo, Educational Psychology” Sterling Publishers Private
Limited New Delhi 1991
4. S. Dandapani, “Advanced Educational Psychology” Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi 2000.

85
 UNIT-7 INTELLIGENCE

STRUCTURE:

7.1 Objectives

7.2 Introduction

7.3 Meaning and Definition of Intelligence

7.4 Types of Intelligence

7.5 Classification of Intelligence

7.6 Uses of Intelligence Test

7.7 Summary

7.8 Keywords

7.9 Check Your Progress

7.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

7.11 References

86
7.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you will be able to explain

 Meaning and Definition of Intelligence

 Types of Intelligence
 Classification of Intelligence
 Intelligence Tests

7.2 INTRODUCTION

In simple words intelligence is one in which you are capable of or more

knowledgeable you might be good in maths, I might be good in art so each person in this
world is intelligent in one aspect. Now let’s know about how to identify and improve that
intelligence in detail

We’re not all naturally skilled at the same things. Some are more athletic and have
better coordination. Some pick up on language and words faster at a young age, while others
are good with numbers and visualizing patterns. But most people don’t fully understand their
range of abilities, and as a result, may end up in the wrong careers. Or, they might enjoy their
jobs, but struggle to identify effective learning techniques that will help them excel further

7.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think rationally and use resources
efficiently when faced with challenges.

Robert Steinberg defined intelligence as the mental abilities necessary for adaptation
to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context

Intelligence is the ability to think to learn from experience, to solve problems, and to
adapt to a new situation. Intelligence is important because it has an impact on much human
behaviour.

The idea of multiple intelligence has been influential in the field of education and
teachers. Teachers have used these ideas to try to teach a differently to different students for
example to teach Math problem to students who have particularly good kinaesthetic
intelligence, your teacher might encourage the student to move their bodies or ants according

87
to the numbers. On the other hand, some have argued that these intelligence sometimes seems
more likely a like abilities or talents rather than real

7.4 CLASSIFICATION OF INTELLIGENCE

Based on many factors’ intelligence is classified some of them are explained below

1. Based on skill: Linguistically Intelligence or Word smart: It is the ability to

speak and write well. or linguistic intelligence: Some of the characteristics of word smart
intelligence are creative writing, deep enjoys debates, word games, a reading ability, good
speller, good at speaking in front of others.

Math Smart or Numerical or Reasoning or Logical Intelligence: People who are

intelligent in Max will show some of the characteristics as displays numerical aptitude, likes
problems, like to understand how things works, likes puzzle and manipulatives, abstract ideas
computers, word scrambles, mind mapping stories, quantify and conceptualise things, use
reason and logic, predict patterns.

Physically Smart or Kinaesthetic Intelligence:Physical smart or kinaesthetic

intelligence people excel said sports likes to move, dance, vehicle, good fine motor skills, as
excellent control over his body, good sense of timing, likes to touch things, good that craft,
kinaesthetic way of expressing writing.

Musical Intelligence: Musically the intelligence is the ability to perform and enjoy
music

2. Interpersonally Intelligence: Is the ability to understand and interact effectively

with others. Interpersonal intelligence people are good communicator, Diplomatic,
empathetic, Good negotiator, has lots of friends, good at reading social situation and clues,
brainstorming.

3. Self-smart or Intrapersonal intelligence: According to theory, intelligence has

three aspects analytical, creative, and practical Steinberg in 1985.

4. Analytical intelligence: Also referred to a component shall intelligence refers to

intelligence that is applied to analyse or evaluate problem and arrive a solution. This is what a
traditional IQ test measure

88
 5. Creative intelligence: Creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond what is
given to create novel an interesting idea. This type of intelligence involves imaginations,
innovation and problem solving for install

6. Practical intelligence: Is the ability that individuals use it to solve problems faced
in a daily life, when a person finds the best fit between themselves and the demands of the
environment. Adapting to the demands environment involves either utilising knowledge
gained from experience to purposefully change oneself to suit the environment, changing the
environment to suit oneself or finding a new environment in which to work.

There are many other Types of intelligence. Some of them are emotional intelligence,
fluid intelligence, and crystallised intelligence.

7. Spatial Intelligence: The ability to think abstractly and in multiple dimensions.

Scoring a five means you have a large capacity for spatial reasoning and conceptualization —
something required for fields such as architecture, graphic design, photography, interior
design and aviation.

8. Based on Intelligent Intelligence is classified as follows:

Mental retardation: Mental retardation is a significantly sub average level of

intellectual functioning which occurs with a related limitation in two or more skill areas

Another controversial issue regarding intelligence is the classification and education

offer people who fall at either extreme of the range of intelligence, 95% of the population
score between 70 and 130 on IQ test. The reaming 5% scored below 70 considered have
mental retardation, those who scored 130 is the mentally gifted. Classification of person as
having mental retardation or being mentally gifted is not based on IQ score alone. Mental
retardation is an intellectual deficiency marked by an IQ below 70 and difficulties performing
in daily everyday life American Psychiatric Association 1994 categorised mental retardation
as mild mental retardation

Mild mental retardation in which this IQ score is 50 to70

Moderate mental retardation the IQ score 35 to 49

Severe mental retardation the IQ score 21 to 34

Profound mental retardation IQ score below 20

89
 The IQ test can tell you more about how you compare to others in your peer group
with the regards two things such as language skill, mathematical abilities, memory,
processing speed, a reasoning abilities, wishful spatial processing.

Intelligent quotient (IQ) measure the range of cognitive abilities and provides a score
that is intended to serve as a measure of an individual’s intellectual abilities UN potential
stuff in order to understand what these course really mean it is essential to look at exactly
how this test codes are calculated full stuff today many tests are standardised and scores are
derived by comparing individual performance against the norms for the individual age group
full stuff while many tests utilise similar methods to derive their scores it is also important to
note that each test is different and scoring method may not be the same From one test to
another.

7.5 CLASSIFICATION OF INTELLIGENCE TEST

The most common used IQ tests are:

Stanford Binet intelligence scale

Universal nonverbal intelligence

Differential ability scale

Peabody individual achievement test

Wechsler individual achievements test

Intelligent test is broadly classified into two categories

Individual test

Group test

Individual Test:

Individual intelligence test or administer to individuals one by one. They are meant to
test the intelligence of an individual at a time. Individual test of intelligence is of two types
verbal individual intelligent test and non-verbal individual intelligence test

Verbal individual intelligent test needs individual interest in adequate use of reading
writing and arithmetical skills are required. Here the instructions are given in boards.

90
Individuals are required to use language as well as paper and pencil for giving the response.
Some of the examples of verbal intelligent test are Binet Simon test

Stanford-Binet
This test was developed to identify children who had serious intellectual difficulties --
such that they would not succeed in the public school system and who should not be placed in
the same classes with other students. This test measured things that were necessary for
school success such as understanding and using language, computational skills, memory, and
the ability to follow instructions.

Individual responses in four content areas - Verbal reasoning, Quantitative reasoning,

Abstract/visual reasoning, Short-term memory

Nonverbal intelligence individual Test: Ravens promises mattress is also known as

culture fair test

Poor close miss test

Wechsler Intelligence scale (mixed test verbal and nonverbal)

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III): Used with people 17years and
older

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III): Used with children
6years to 16yrs

Group Test of Intelligence:

Group test are designed to test the intelligence of all the students in in the group or
class. They are given the same directions and have to perform the same activities within the
set time limit. Group test of intelligence can be verbal and non verbal.

A verbal group test: Example army alpha test. The 1st and the most famous verbal
group test which was applied on a large scale was the army or for test. Army general
classification test. This test was developed during the Second World War come out to serve
the same purpose as the army alpha

Nonverbal group test:

The nonverbal group test consist of pictures diagrams and Geometrical figures.
Example of nonverbal group test is the army beta test is the most famous pencil and paper

91
test it will include tracing a mazes, counting of blogs in a pile, substituting symbols for
numbers, completing pictures with supplying parts permitted, and solving Raven’s
progressive mattresses, Cattle’s culture free test

Raven’s progressive mattresses:

It is a very popular nonverbal group test of intelligence. It was developed in Great

Britain psychologist by Raven. It consists of mattresses or designs from each of which apart
has been removed. The subject is asked to form the mattresses

Based on the intelligent quotient the intelligence test is classified as follows

Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Measure of intelligence that takes into account a child’s mental
and chronological age

IQ Score = MA / CA x 100

Mental age (MA): the typical intelligence level found for people at a given chronological
age.
Chronological age (CA): the actual age of the child taking the intelligence test.

People whose mental age is equal to their chronological age will always have an IQ of
100. If the chronological age exceeds mental age – below-average intelligence (below 100).
If the mental age exceeds the chronological age – above-average intelligence (above 100).

Very Superior Intelligence (gifted) - Above 130

Borderline Intellectual Functioning - 71 to 79
Superior Intelligence - 120 to 129
Mild Mental Retardation - 55 to 70
High Average Intelligence - 110 to 119
Moderate Retardation - 40 to 54
Average Intelligence - 90 to 109
Severe Mental Retardation - 25 to 39
Low Average Intelligence - 80 to 89
Profound Mental Retardation - Below 25

92
 Infant IQ Tests: Infant IQ tests are much less verbal than IQ tests for older children

Developmental Quotient (DQ): An overall developmental score that combines sub

scores on motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social domains in the Gesell assessment of
infants

Bayley Scales of Infant Development: Scales that assesses infant development –

current version has three parts: a mental scale, a motor scale, and the infant behaviour profile

Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence: A test that focuses on the infant’s ability to process
information in such ways as encoding the attributes of objects, detecting similarities and
differences between objects, forming mental representations, and retrieving these mental
representations

The scores on the Gesell and Bayley tests DO NOT correlate highly with other IQ
tests. The components of an infant IQ test are not the same as the components of other IQ
tests. Unlike the other tests, the Fagan test is correlated with measures of IQ in older children
(habituation and dishabituation in infancy predicts intelligence in childhood and adolescence
- quicker habituation and greater amounts of looking in dishabituation reflect more efficient
processing).

Intelligence through adolescence:

There is a strong relationship between IQ scores obtained at ages 6, 8, and 9 and IQ

scores obtained at 10. There is still a strong relationship between IQ scores obtained in
preadolescent years and those obtained at age 18. However, individual intelligence scores can
fluctuate dramatically over childhood and adolescence

7.6 USES OF INTELLIGENCE TEST

Intelligent test can be used for a wide range of purpose including

1. Educational assessment and placement: Using classification intelligent test helps

in classifying individuals according to their mental makeup, example in school’s its teacher
responsibility is to classify the student in which in his class or us backward, average come up
bright or gifted on thus average for homogeneous grouping to provide proper educational
opportunities.

93
 2. Assessment and diagnosis of intellectual disability: Using assessment for
promotion the results of intelligent tests along with the achievement test can be successfully
used for promotion of students

3. Use for improving the learning process results of the intelligence testing may
provide helpful to two teachers to plan further teaching learning skills

4. Job candidate evaluation: Uses of intelligence test it is used in the selection

process results of intelligent tests can be used for selection of suitable candidate for training
in education and professional skill such as admission to special school courses, selection of
trainees etc.

5. Cognitive Research: The intelligence test is used in the field of research to come
to conclusion or to validate and reliability of already developed test.

7.7 SUMMARY

The present unit has discussed about Intelligence, the definitions, classification of
Intelligence, different types of Intelligence. Intelligence cannot be measured only considering
one aspect of the individual. The ability of intelligence differs from individual to individual.
There are a wide variety of tests available to test the various aspects or areas of intelligence in
an individual. This unit has focussed upon all these aspects. Intelligence tests are very much
important in educational sector, vocational sector and various areas. The uses of intelligence
tests are being discussed in detail.

7.8 KEYWORDS
Intelligence
Educational Assessment
Vocational Assessment
Culture Fair Test
Verbal Intelligence Test
Non Verbal Intelligence Test
7.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Define Intelligence.
2. Explain the Classification of Intelligence.
3. Explain the Classification of Intelligence Test.
4. Explain the uses of Intelligence Test.

94
 7.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. 7.3 2. 7.4 3.7.5 4.7.6

7.11 REFERENCES

Robert. S. Feldman(2006): Understanding Psychology;6th Edition. Tata Mc Graw Hill. New

York.

Charles. G. Morris , Albert a. Maisto(2002) : Psychology an Introduction ; Eleventh

Edition, Prentice Hall , London.

Lester M. Sdorow ,Cheryl A. Rickabaugh : Psychology; Fifth Edition Mc Graw Hill.

E.R.H.ilgard,R.C. Atkinson,R.L.Atkinson(1975) Introduction to Psychology Sixth

Edition Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

E.G.ParameshwariC.Beena(2007) : Invitation To Psychology;Neelkamal Publications Pvt,

Ltd, New Delhi .

95
 UNIT 8: PERSONALITY

Structure

8.1 Objectives

8.2 Introduction

8.3 Meaning and Definition of Personality

8.4 Determinants of Personality

8.5 Sigmund Freud’ Personality Theory

8.6 Carl Jung’s Personality Theory

8.7 Summary

8.8 Keywords

8.9 Check your progress

8.10 References

96
8.1 OBJECTIVES

• To understand the term personality from Psychological point of view

• To understand the meaning and definition of personality

• To Learn about various theories of personality

8.2 INTRODUCTION

As soon as we listen to the word personality we think of a well dressed person with
good body built, a person who has good tolerance and friendly in nature, a person who is
famous in his own field etc. Which one of this is true, these above mentioned examples are
given by a laymen. Talking in terms of psychology they do not explain the real personality.

In terms of psychology the personality includes the physical qualities like height,
weight, colour, etc the mental abilities or the cognitive activities like attention, perception,
concentration, thinking, reasoning and other, emotions is the one component which gives an
individual a different way , mode of adjustment makes an individual to make himself adjust
to oneself and to the environment, and the morals and values which are inculcated in the
person which is learnt during the growing years from the parents all these put together makes
the individual a unique person. So in short it can be said that the sum total qualities of an
individual is the personality.

People act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations. The sum total
of all the behavioural and mental characteristics by means of which an individual is
recognized as being unique can be said as the personality which includes the quality or
condition of being a person. The totality of qualities and traits, as of character or behavior,
that is peculiar to a specific person. The pattern of collective character, behavioral,
temperamental, emotional, and mental traits of a person. Distinctive qualities of a person,
especially those personal characteristics that make one socially appealing.

Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment; it
also causes us to act in certain ways

8.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY

The word “personality” originates from the Latin persona, which means mask. The
mask which was used by the Greek actors while staging a play in olden days. The mask was
used for the purpose that the players should not be recognized by the audience and only the

97
best acting could be recognized not the actor . That is the real person is always hidden behind
the mask. Personality includes the behaviour patterns a person shows across situations or the
psychological characteristics of the person that lead to those behaviour patterns.

Personality is the total quality of an individual behaviour as it is shown in his habits,

thinking aptitudes, interests, and his manner of acting and his personal philosophy of life. It is
the totality of his being. It is physical, mental, emotional and temperamental make-up and
how it shows itself in behaviour.

This fact is very much true in real life wherein the individual keeps acting from day
to night i.e., a person behaves like an adult when given responsibility, enjoys himself like a
free bird during happiness, behaves like a obedient student inside a classroom to make it
simple as the situation changes the role changes as the role changes the acting changes .Each
individual acts according to the given role in the given situation

The totality of this acting is personality.

Every individual wears a mask and performs in this world. The mask keeps changing
as his role changes and situation changes. To be socially accepted and appreciated the
individual tries to control his emotions and his urges and keeps on trying to be best to be
accepted and be respected in the social network.

There are a variety of definitions given by different psychologists some of it are

mentioned below and a brief explanation about them are also given for a better
understanding,

Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed

by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in
various situations.

Personality is the supreme realization of the innate idiosyncrasy of a living being. It is

an act of courage flung in the face of life, the absolute affirmation of all that constitutes the
individual, the most successful adaptation to the universal conditions of existence, coupled
with the greatest possible freedom of self-determination.” -C.G. Jung,

Gordon Allport (1937) defined personality as the dynamic organization within, the
individual of those psychosocial systems that determine the unique adjustment to his
environment.

98
 May’s “Personality is the individuals social stimulus value.”. According to this , how
an individual impresses upon others by his behaviour refers to his Personality .

Morton Prince “Personality is the sum total of all the biological innate disposition ,
impulses, tendencies, appeptites and instincts of the individual and the acquired dispositions
and tendencies .

Kempf defined “Personality has the habitual mode of adjustment which the organism
effects between its own egocentric drives and exigencies of the environment.”

Floyed Personality is the individuals characteristic reactions to social stimuli and the
quality of his adaptation to the social feature of his environment.

In this definition the emphasis is on the interaction between the psychological activities and
the social influence.

Personality is the total qualities of an individual . The qualities include intelligence,

emotions , thinking , reasoning, learning, memory etc. They all integrate into a unit to
constitute one’s personality.

Psychologists observe that personality includes the typical behaviour a person shows in
various situations or the psychological characteristics of the person that lead to those
behaviours.

8.4 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

Personality consists of the distinctive patterns of behaviour including thoughts and

emotions that characterize each individual’s adaptation to the situations of his or her life.

One of the most important characteristics of personality is that it is a product of

heredity and environment. A child though not born with a personality develops the same in
course of continuous interaction with his environment. The social and cultural factors as well
as the various experiences influence the development of personality.

Personality includes the cognitive, affective and psychomotor behaviours and covers
all the conscious, sub-conscious and unconscious also.

It is specific and unique for each and every individual. It is not static but dynamic in
nature. Personality of an individual keeps adjusting itself to the environment on a continuous
basis. A fine balance is maintained between the environmental and the inner forces.

99
Physical appearance: It refers to the physique of an individual.

Character: It refers to the ethical or moral aspect of a personality which one possesses. The
character of an individual is judged by the level of consistency exhibited in his behavior.

Temperament: It refers to the deep rooted emotional terms present in an individual. It is a

result of secretion of endocrine glands as well as habit formation. Temperament plays an
important role in ones ability to adjust to his environment.

Interests: It refers to a felt need. It is connected to three aspects, the need to know, feel and
perform.

Ability: It refers to a special natural power to do something well, physical or mental.

Sociability: It refers to an ability of the individual to socialize himself in a social

environment and how others perceive his presence in the group.

Emotionality: It refers to the ability of an individual to show mature emotional behaviour in

suitable situations.

There are various factors which contribute to the development of personality they
can be broadly classified into Biological, sociological, Psychological factors.

Biological factors: Here we can see heredity, functioning of brain

Heredity refers to physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament muscle

composition and reflexes, energy levels. Biological functions like brain wave patterns,
hormonal secretions that are considered to be inherent.

Social factors: Individuals acquire a variety of traits through observation in the

society .In the process of socialization individual learns to focus on good relationships,
cooperation, coordination and interaction within the family members and also in the society.
Parents, Education levels of the parents, socio economic level, and order of the birth are all
going to influence the development of personality.

Cultural factors: Each individual is born into a family where different culture
practices are practiced customs, traditions norms rules and regulations of the culture
influences the individual. Cultural factors determine attitudes towards independence,
aggression, competition, cooperation, positive thinking, team spirit, and duties towards
valuable responsibilities to society.

100
Environmental factors: The environment surrounding the individual both physical and
social environment influences the individual .The place of living, the neighbors ,religion the
school they study, teachers, the recreation they engage , the media they watch, the
newspapers, magazines they read , all do contribute in the development of personality.

8.5 SIGMUND FREUD’S PERSONALITY THEORY

Psychodynamic theories see behaviour as the product of Psychological forces that

interact within the individual, often outside conscious awareness. Freud drew on the physics
of his day to coin the term Psychodynamic: As thermodynamics is the study of heat and
mechanical energy and how one may be transformed into the other, Psychodynamics is the
study of psychic energy and how it is transformed and expressed in behaviour.
Psychodynamic theorists disagreed among themselves about the exact nature of this psychic
energy. Some, like Freud traced it to sexual and aggressive urges. Others, like Karen Honey,
saw it as rooted in the individual’s struggle to deal with dependency. But all Psychodynamic
theorists share the sense that unconscious processes primarily determine personality and can
best be understood within the context of life span development.

Some parts of Psychodynamic theory, especially Freud’s views of female

sexuality, are out of date. But as Weston (1998) points out, the following five propositions
are central to all Psychodynamic theories and have withstood the tests of time.

1. Much of mental life is unconscious, and as a result, people may behave in ways that
they themselves do not understand.

2. Mental processes such as emotions, and thoughts operate in parallel, which may lead
to conflicting feelings.

3. Not only do stable personality patterns begin to form in childhood, but early
experiences strongly affect personality development.

4. Our mental representations of ourselves ,of others, and of our relationships tend to
guide our interactions with other people.

5. The development of personality involves learning to regulate sexual and aggressive

feelings as well as becoming socially interdependent rather than dependent.

101
Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud’s the best known and most influential of the psychodynamic theorists.
Sigmund Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who
founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. Freud’s family and ancestry were Jewish, and
Freud always considered himself a Jew, although he rejected Judaism and had a critical view
of religion. Interested in philosophy as a student, Freud later turned away from it and became
a neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy. Freud
went on to develop theories about the unconscious mind and the mechanism of repression,
and established the field of verbal psychotherapy by creating psychoanalysis, a clinical
method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient (referred to as an
“analysand”) and a psychoanalyst. Though psychoanalysis has declined as a therapeutic
practice, it has helped inspire the development of many other forms of psychotherapy, some
diverging from Freud’s original ideas and approach.

Freud postulated the existence of libido (an energy with which mental process and
structures are invested), developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association
(in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and make no attempt to
concentrate while doing so), discovered the transference (the process by which patients
displace on to their analysts feelings based on their experience of earlier figures in their lives)
and established its central role in the analytic process, and proposed that dreams help to
preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would otherwise awake the dreamer.
He was also a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the history,
interpretation and critique of culture.

Psychoanalysis the theory of personality Freud developed as well as the form of

therapy he invented. Freud created an entirely new perspective on the study of human
behaviour. Up to his time, psychology had focused on consciousness- that is, on those
thoughts and feeling of which we are aware. Freud however, stressed the unconscious – all
the ideas, thoughts, and feeling of which we are not normally aware. Freud’s ideas form the
basis of psychoanalysis, a term that refers to both his theory of personality and to the form of
therapy that be invented.

According to Freud, human behaviour is based on unconscious instincts, or drives.

Some instincts are aggressive and destructive; others, such as hunger, thirst, self-preservation,
and sex, are necessary to the survival of the individual and the species. Freud used the term

102
sexual instincts to refer not erotic sexuality but also to the desire for virtually any from of
pleasure. In this broad sense, Freud regarded the sexual instinct as the most critical factor in
the development of personality.

How personality is structured: Freud theorized that personality is formed around three
structures: the id, the ego and the superego. The id is only structure present at birth and is
completely unconscious In Freud’s view, the id consists of unconscious urges and desires that
continually seek expression. It operates according to the Pleasure Principle - that is, it tries to
obtain immediate pleasure and to avoid pain. As soon as an instinct arises, the id seeks to
gratify it. Because the id is not in contact with the real world, however, it has only two ways
of obtaining gratification. One is by reflex actions, such as coughing, which relieve
unpleasant sensations at once. Another is through fantasy, or what Freud referred to as wish
fulfilment: A person forms a mental image of an object or situation that partially satisfies the
instinct and relieves the uncomfortable feeling. This kind of thought occurs most often in
dreams daydreams, but it may take other forms.

The Structure of Personality

Freud distinguished three Structures of Personality: the id, the ego, and the superego.
The id (Latin for “it”) is unconscious and consists of our inborn biological drives. In
demanding immediate gratification of drives, most notably sex and aggression, the id obeys
the pleasure principle.

Through life experiences we learn that acting on every sexual or aggressive impulse is
socially maladaptive. As a consequence, each of us develops an ego, Latin for “I”. The ego
obeys the reality principle, directing us to express sexual and aggressive impulses in socially
acceptable ways. Suppose a teacher refuses to change your grade on an exam that was graded
with an incorrect answer key. Your ego would encourage you to argue with the teacher
instead of punching him or her.

The superego (Latin for “over the I”) counteracts the id, which is concerned only with
immediate gratification, and the ego, which is concerned only with adapting to reality. The
superego acts our moral gruel guide. To personality is the outcome of the continual battle for
dominance among the id, the ego, and the superego

Id : Id contains all biological drives . Id operates on pleasure principle .It strives for
immediate satisfaction of its wishes and desires . It does not think of the consequences That is

103
it tries to satisfy its urges immediately, without any delay and without regard to rules,
realities of life or morals of any kind. If its demands are not appeased quickly , tension is
produced which it tries to eliminate as quickly as possible .

Ego : Ego functions on the basis of Reality Principle . It comprises of all psychical
equipment like sensory, perceptual , memory and muscular and motor systems that direct the
expression of pleasure principle based on cathetic drives of id in terms of their fulfillment in
reality . Certain id contents cannot be expressed inreality and others need to be postponed
until appropriate opportunities for their expression are found in reality .Ego works on reality
principle by planning , deliberating the course of id expressions in terms of reality. Ego
derives all its energies from id and directs the id itself. The ego experiences the reality of the
external world , adapts to it and responds to it. It delays satisfying id and channels our
behaviour into a socially acceptable way. The basic function of ego is to maintain harmony
between the external world, the id and the superego.

Superego: The superego is based on morality principle. It carries social and moral values of
the individual. It is the moral component of personality and acts according to perfection
principle. The superego internalizes the values and morals set forth by primary caregivers.
The superego is important in the socialization of the individual as it assists the ego in the
control of id impulses. There are two aspects of superego i.e conscience and ego ideal. The
conscience consists of all internalized set of restricted activities absorbed by the individual in
the society. They originate mostly out of punishments received by him. The superego has the
ability to rule over psyche either by punishing or rewarding particular behaviors.

An individual’s behavior is a result of all these three parts of the mind and its
functioning. A perfect balance and harmony between these and with the understanding of the
situation if proper directions given by these there would be a perfect balance in the
personality of the individual.

Freud theorized that the people have three levels of awareness : the conscious, the
preconscious, and the unconscious. He compares it to the portion of an iceberg that lies
beneath the water’s surface. Freud also divided personality structure into three components –
id, ego and superego-that operate according to different principles and exhibit different
modes of thinking. In Freud’s model, the id is entirely unconscious, but the ego and superego
operate at all three levels of awareness.

Conscious: The conscious consists of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time.

104
Preconscious : The preconscious contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that
can be easily retrieved.

Unconscious: The unconscious contains thoughts , memories, and desires that are well below
the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on one’s
behaviour.

The structural relationship formed by the id, ego, and superego.

Freud’s conception of personality is often depicted as an iceberg to illustrate how the

vast workings of the mind occur beneath its surface. Notice that the ego is partly conscious,
partly unconscious, and partly preconscious; it derives knowledge of the external word
through the senses. The superego also works at three levels. But the id is an entirely
unconscious structure.

Psycho-Analytic Method :- According to this method the psychologist tries to probe into
unconscious part of the mind of the subject. He want to locate the repressed wishes and
impulses of the individual’s mind which stay at the unconscious level. After locating them
the psychologist tries to re-educate the subject and bring him to his normal life.

In past the psychologist used to examine the conscious part of our mind to locate
mental problem. Sigmund Freud emphasized the role of the unconscious in our mental
process. It is the unconscious which is the main spring of our mental problems. It is nearly 90
percent of our mind and the store house of all our primitive impulses tabooed wishes, and
forgotten memories. Sometime we cannot apply others methods to know about unconscious.
This new method of psychoanalysis is used ; some of the important aspects of this method
are.

(1) Hypnotism :- This method emphasizes that the patient is induced to an artificial
sleep. He is given a comfortable place to sit. He is given suggestion that he is going to sleep.
The subject after sometimes feels comfortable and forgets the present. We call it the process
of hypnotism. At this stage the psycho-analysis asks some simple questions about him
emotional life. This has a favourable reaction and the patient discloses some unfulfilled
desires at his unconscious level.

(2) Free Association Method :- The great psychologist, Sigmund Freud gives this
method. In this method the patient sits on a comfortable chair. He shuts his eyes or a piece of
cloth is tied around his eyes. Thus he is kept away from other objects of the world, which

105
may distract his attention. The patient is now asked to talk about his emotional problems. The
psychoanalyst speaks out facts which are related to the life of the patient and have a high
emotional value. He asks the patient to react to them in quick succession. He is not allowed to
think. All responses are noted down and later on analysed. This analysis reveal the hidden
events connected with the emotional life of the patient and responsible for the mental disease.
After the location of the mental disorder the patient is gradually cured.

(3) Dream-Analysis :- Some of our desires which we are not able to fulfill at the
conscious level of our mind go to the unconscious. They go to our sleep and find fulfillment
there. These desires do appear in their disguised form in our dreams and it is there that the
individual tries to fulfill them. The dreams are recorded, analysed, interpreted and the cause
of mental disorder located. The patient is treated by the psycloanalyst.

Psychosexual stages of Development

Freud’s theory of personality development focuses on the way in which we satisfy the
sexual instinct during the course of life. Freud thought of the sexual instinct broadly, as a
craving for sensual pleasure of all kinds. He called the energy generated by the sexual instinct
libido. As infants mature, their libido becomes focused on different sensitive parts of the
body. The development is explained as follows:

Oral stage (birth to 18 months). Infants, who depend completely on other people to
satisfy their needs, relieve sexual tension by sucking and swallowing; when their baby teeth
come in, they obtain oral pleasure from chewing and biting. According to Freud, infants who
receive too much oral gratification at this stage grow into overly optimistic and dependent
adults; those who receive too little may turn into pessimistic and hostile people later in life.
Fixation at this stage is linking to such personality characteristics as lack of confidence,
gullibility sarcasm, and argumentativeness.

Anal stage (roughly 18 months to 3 1/2 years) the primary source of sexual pleasure
shifts from the month to anus. Just about the time children begin to derive pleasure from
holding in and excreting feces, toilet training takes place, and they must learn to regulate this
new pleasure. In Freud’s view, if parents are too strict in toilet training, some children throw
temper tantrums and may live in self – destructive ways as adults. Others become obstinate,
stingy, and excessively orderly.

106
 Phallic stage (after age 3). They discover genitals and develop a marked attachment
to the parent of the opposite sex while becoming jealous of the same – sex parent. Freud
called this the Oedipus complex, after the character in Greek mythology who killed his father
and married his mother. Girls go through a corresponding Electra complex, involving
possessive love for their fathers and jealousy toward their mothers. Most children eventually
resolve these conflicts by identifying with the parent of the same sex. However,. Phallic
fixation may also prompt feelings of low self – esteem, shyness, and worthlessness.

Latency stage: At the end of the phallic period, Freud believed, children lose
interest in sexual behavior and enter a latency period. During this period, which begins
around the age of 5 or 6 and lasts until age 12 or 13, boys play with girls, and neither sex
takes much interest in the other.

Genital Stage: At puberty, the individual enters the last psychosexual stage, which
Freud called the genital stage. At this time, sexual impulses reawaken. In lovemaking the
adolescent and the adult are able to satisfy unfulfilled desires from infancy and childhood.
Ideally, immediate gratification of these desires yields to mature sexuality, in which
postponed gratification, a sense of responsibility, and caring for others all play a part.

In Freud’s theory, the stage, between age 5 and puberty, during which there is little
psychoanalysts development.

Defense mechanism

Freud in 1904, used the term “defense mechanism” to refer to the unconscious process
that defends a person against anxiety. Defence mechanism enable a person to “resolve the
conflict” reduce the “stress and anxiety”. Mental mechanisms a means of compromising with
forbidden desires, feelings of guilt or an admission that one is inadequate in facing certain
problems. They salvage the individual self respect, avoid an open admission of failure and
save psychic energy

Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanism is the one way in which we protect ourselves from the anxieties
caused by conflict and stress. A Defense mechanism is any method used by a person to give
relief from stress and anxiety or to improve one’s self image.

107
Defense mechanism were described by Sigmund Freud. He believed that defense mechanism
were unconscious behaviours.

Compensation :- Compensation means something given to replace a loss or to make up for a

defect. When a person compensates in human behavior he will work very bad to excel in
something to make up for a weakness. He may excel in the area of his weakness or in another
area of life. Compensation is a defense against feeling inferior.

Repression :- Repression is a process of unconsciously forgetting unpleasant and conflicting

emotions, feelings and experiences. We protect our self and our self-image by repressing
painful or unpleasant things.

Rationalization :- A simple definition of rationalization is making excuses for questionable

behavior. A person is said to rationalize when he unconsciously offers reasons that are not
true or not the real reason for his behavior.

A common form of rationalization is called “sour grapes”. This is when you really do want
something which you cannot have so we make it appear less desirable. All of these are ways
in which you soften the disappointment in life and protect self image.

Regression :- The regression in human behavior means to behave in a less mature way. The
word means “to go backwards”. People practice regression most often when they are faced
with a serious problem in life.

Denial :- Denial is refuse to accept or believe the existence of something that is very
unpleasant. We use denial most often when faced with serious illness or something painful
and threatening.

Withdrawal :- Withdrawal, when a situation is too difficult and too frustrating we may
physically withdraw in order to protect oneself and self image. Withdrawal avoid the
possibility of a failure which would hurt self image.

Another form of withdrawal is fantasy or day-dreaming. When faced with serious problems
which cannot be solved. Fantassing or day dreaming help to relax, get new ideas about the
real world.

Identification :- Identification is the process of finding satisfaction through the behavior and
successes of another person or group. It helps to make feel good about self and the
accomplishment of another person of group.

108
Projection :- Projection is when we pretend that other people have undesirable characteristics,
motives and desires. By pretending that every body has these characteristic we reduce our
own failing and feel better about ourselves.

Sublimation :- Sublimation is a process of redirecting the energy produced by unacceptable

desires or activities so that become acceptable. These unacceptable desires may not be
unacceptable in and of themselves but are made unacceptable by the laws of the society in
which you live most obvious of these are sexual desires, aggressive feelings, greed and even
lying.

Displacement :- Displacement means to substitute the real object of one’s feelings which are
often aggressive, with another object. An outlet for negative feelings.

Defensemechanisms helps us to protect ourselves from extreme anxiety and stress and
frustration. They help us to solve in mediate problems & with a better self-image which
makes us happier in life.

8.6 CARL JUNG’S PERSONALITY THEORY

Carl Jung (1875-1961) was a Swiss Psychiatrist and the founder of the school of
Analytical Psychology. He was the Freuds favorite disciple. He was inspired to become a
Psychoanalyst after reading Freud’s . “The Interpretation of Dreams” Freud gaped Jung
would become his succession but in 1914 they parted when Jung did not agree with few of
the Freuds major concepts. Jung developed his own version of Psychoanalysis called
Analytical Psychology.

Jung proposed the Introvert Extrovert personality theory. He classified all human
beings in two distinct types- Introvert and Extrovert.

He classifies people into types based on social participation and the interest they take
in social activities . Jung considers the four Psychological functions thinking, feeling
sensation and intuition, in relation to his previous extravert and introvert types

Introvert: Intro means inside vert meaning to turn. A person who is more occupied into his
one self is called as Introvert. The individuall who are more towards within themselves
centered their thought feeling etc towards self can be termed as introvert

The qualities of introvert are:Introverts are people who prefer their internal world of
thoughts, Feelings fantasies, dreams and so on they are shy in nature, reserved, talks very

109
less, have very few number of friends, loves to read books, like to watch T.V. more, activities
where they can be lonely does not want to participate in social gatherings, day dreamers,
strong feeling, they have strong likes and dislikes, does not share their feelings with others,
more good in writing they speaking, afraid of external realities, observing in there own
intellectual pursuit, moody in natures, does not like change, more comfortable with
sameness.

Extroverts: The word Extrovert was devised by Jung Extra meaning out side and verte
meaning to turn. A person who is more occupied towards the external world is termed as
Extrovert. Extrovert are people who prefer the external world of things and people and
activities The qualities of Extrovert are.they are very talkative, social in nature, enjoy talking
to people, have more number of friends, enjoy social gathering, prefers talking to people then
reading books, more practical, optimistic in nature, risk taker and change seeker, have good
taste and enjoyment seeker, fluent in speech, interested in athletics, helpful nature, feel for
others and admire other.

8.7 SUMMARY

This Unit explains the term personality. Its meaning and definition given by different
psychologists . It explains the determinate of personality. The psychodynamic theory given
by Sigmund Freud, the structure of personality and the psychosexual stages through which
an individual goes through in the development. The use of defense mechanism in the daily
life is also being explained. In this unit we understand about the personality its definition , the
theories given by Sigmund Freud , which explains the Id, Ego, Superego . The conscious,
unconscious and the subconscious its functioning , the defense mechanisms and its
functioning , and the use of it by the individual to protect one’s ego is being explained . The
theory given by Sigmund Freud is called as psychodynamic theory . The theory given by
Carl Jung in which he explains the introvert, extrovert and it’s the qualities which make a
man an introvert or extrovert are being explained. The classification of personality given by
Carl Jung helps us to differentiate individuals into introvert and extrovert.

110
8.8 KEY WORDS

Id

Ego

Superego

Defense Mechanism

Conscious

Subconscious

Unconscious

Introvert

Extrovert

8.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Define personality

2. Explain the determinants of personality

3. Explain the Structure of personality

4. Describe ———— Personality classeficals

8.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOU PROGRESS

1 21.4

2 21.5

3 21.6.1

4. 21.7

8.11 REFERENCES

P. Natraj (1996) : Psychology for beginners; Srinivasa publication , Mysore.

S.K.Mangal(2011) :General Psychology ; Sterling Publishers Pvt ,.ltd. New Delhi.

Robert. S. Feldman(2006) : Understanding Psychology;6th Edition. Tata Mc Graw

Hill. New York.

111
Charles. G. Morris , Albert a. Maisto(2002) : Psychology an Introduction ; Eleventh
Edition, Prentice Hall , London.

Lester M. Sdorow ,Cheryl A. Rickabaugh : Psychology; Fifth Edition Mc Graw Hill.

E.R.H.ilgard,R.C. Atkinson,R.L.Atkinson(1975) Introduction to Psychology Sixth

Edition Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

E.G.ParameshwariC.Beena(2007) : Invitation To Psychology;Neelkamal Publications Pvt,

Ltd, New Delhi .

112