Lithium-Ion Battery Monitoring in Electric

Vehicle’s
Anusha P N Madhuchandrika V Bushra yasmeen
BE information science and BE information science and BE information science and
Engineering Engineering Engineering
Atria Institute Of Technology Atria instiute Of Technology Atria Institue Of Technology
Banglore,India Banglore,India Banglore,India
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Dr.Deepak NR Prof.Rajesh kumar sahu

HOD, Dept of ISE, Dept of ISE
Atria Institute of Technology, Atria institute of technology
Banglore,india Banglore,India

Abstract- The increasing demand for electric vehicles

(EVs) has highlighted the need for more flexible,
efficient, and manageable energy storage solutions. A emissions. These gases are major pollutants, contributing to
robust battery pack is essential for powering the driving the greenhouse effect and environmental degradation. In
motor of EVs, requiring a comprehensive contrast, EVs, being zero-emission vehicles, help mitigate the
understanding of key factors such as battery power release of harmful gases during operation, presenting a cleaner
density, lifespan, electrochemical behavior, and alternative to fossil fuel-powered transport.
temperature tolerance. Battery management systems
(BMS) play a critical role in ensuring the efficient EVs are primarily powered by stored energy (SE) in various
operation of EVs and renewable energy storage transport sectors, including road, rail, air, and sea-based
systems. This paper addresses various challenges, vehicles. The adoption of EVs has significantly increased,
concerns, and solutions related to battery performance particularly in markets like China and Europe. This shift
and management. It discusses the key functions of toward EVs is part of the global effort to reduce the
BMS, including voltage and current monitoring, environmental impact of traditional ICE vehicles, addressing
charge/discharge estimation, protection, equalization, issues like global warming and greenhouse gas emissions. EVs
thermal regulation, and data collection/storage. The are also crucial components in smart grid systems, where they
study further explores the different types of cell balance intermittent renewable energy sources like solar and
balancing circuits, highlighting their components, wind power through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and grid-to-vehicle
control reliability, voltage and current stresses, power (G2V) technologies.
loss, efficiency, size, cost, and their respective
advantages and disadvantages. Additionally, we review
Energy storage devices (ESDs) such as supercapacitors (SCs),
the current challenges faced by BMS and identify batteries, and fuel cells are central to the operation of EVs.
critical issues that require further attention to optimize Batteries, specifically lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), are widely
battery management for both EVs and renewable
used due to their high energy density and efficiency in storing
energy storage systems. The paper concludes with a
electrical energy. Supercapacitors, an electromagnetic energy
discussion on future research directions and potential
storage system, and fuel cells, which use liquid hydrogen (H2)
improvements in this field.
for energy conversion, are also utilized in EVs. ESDs are made
up of individual cells that can be connected in series, parallel,
Keywords: Battery management system, cell balancing, or a combination of both to meet the power requirements of
charge estimation, BMS challenges, renewable energy EVs.
storage.
The performance of ESDs in EVs is influenced by factors such
as internal resistance, temperature variations, self-discharge,
I . INTRODUCTION and the degradation of chemical reactions over time. Voltage
imbalances across cells during charging and discharging cycles
The Energy Storage System (ESS) has become can lead to reduced efficiency and, in extreme cases, cause
increasingly integral across various sectors, such as dangerous conditions such as explosions. Therefore, managing
electric vehicles (EVs), renewable energy storage, and the health and balance of individual cells is critical to ensure
micro/smart grid applications. Modern EVs offer a the safety, reliability, and longevity of ESDs in EVs.
reliable alternative to traditional internal combustion
engine (ICE) vehicles. ICE-based vehicles, including A crucial component in maintaining the safety and performance
trucks, ships, and aircraft, account for nearly one-third of of ESDs is the Battery Management System (BMS), which is
global fossil fuel consumption and are significant essential for managing energy storage in EVs. The BMS
contributors to carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide ensures proper cell voltage balancing, thermal management,
(SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxide (NO) charging/discharging control, and overall system health
monitoring. It plays a pivotal role in enhancing the lifespan and
 efficiency of EV batteries by addressing issues, and highlighting future directions for improvement. Specifically, this
issues such as voltage imbalance, paper will focus on BMS systems' functionalities, challenges in voltage
temperature hazards, and balancing, and strategies to improve battery lifespan,
overcharging/overdischarging.
safety, and efficiency. Additionally, the study will explore the
In addition to managing individual cell performance, the evolving role of BMS in integrating EVs with renewable energy
BMS also contributes to the overall safety and reliability storage systems and smart grids, presenting a roadmap for future
of EVs by preventing hazardous conditions, such as research in this critical area.
explosions or fire risks, caused by cell imbalances or
failures. Ongoing research into BMS technologies
focuses on improving the efficiency of charge balancing
2. Battery
systems, enhancing system reliability, and developing
better monitoring tools for EV applications A battery is an electrochemical energy storage device (ESD) that
provides electric power through the conversion of chemical
energy into electrical energy. In electric vehicles (EVs),
secondary or rechargeable batteries are commonly employed due
to their higher power and energy output, which are necessary for
vehicle propulsion and operation of onboard systems. Over the
years, advancements in battery technology have greatly
influenced the growth of the EV industry, leading to
improvements in power capacity, energy density, and overall
performance.

Researchers and engineers continually focus on developing

batteries that offer higher specific power and energy densities,
extended lifespans, and increased temperature tolerance, all of
which are essential for optimizing EV performance. Currently,
several types of rechargeable batteries are used in EVs, including
nickel-based batteries, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), and sodium-
sulfur-based batteries. Among these, LIBs have gained the most
widespread adoption due to their balance of performance
characteristics.
Motivation and Objective: The field of Battery
Management Systems (BMS) for EVs has garnered Li-ion batteries typically offer an energy density of about 0.3
significant attention in recent years due to its critical role MJ/kg, which is considerably lower than gasoline, which has an
in enhancing battery performance and ensuring vehicle energy density of approximately 48 MJ/kg. However, despite
safety. A growing body of research has focused on this significant difference, LIBs are still deemed suitable for EV
various aspects of BMS, including battery modeling, applications due to their high energy efficiency and other
state-of-charge estimation, voltage balancing, thermal advantages. Currently, lithium-ion batteries are the most
regulation, and safety management. While substantial commonly used battery technology in EVs, consumer
progress has been made, there are still unresolved issues electronics, and grid storage.
and challenges that require further attention.
In an LIB, the positive electrode is often made from lithium
metal oxides (such as LiCoO2, LiNiO2, or LiMn2O4) or lithium
iron phosphate (LiFePO4), while the negative electrode is
typically composed of graphite. The electrolyte in these batteries
is a non-aqueous lithium salt, and the separator is often made
from LiPF6, which provides electrical insulation. LIBs are
favored for their high energy density, long lifespan, high cycle
efficiency, rapid response times, and low discharge rates, making
them ideal for use in EVs.

However, the high cost and potential safety risks, especially

when overcharged, remain challenges that hinder the broader
application of LIBs, particularly in large-scale power sectors.
Despite these challenges, continued research and development
are addressing these issues, leading to innovations aimed at
reducing costs, improving safety, and enhancing the overall
efficiency of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicle systems.

Figure 2. Number of reviewed published articles on

BMSs
3. Battery Management System (BMS)
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are crucial for powering EVs,
This study aims to provide a comprehensive review of
providing a cleaner alternative to internal combustion engines
the current state of BMS technology for EVs,
(ICEs). The Battery Management System (BMS) ensures
summarizing the existing research, addressing key
efficient and safe operation by managing energy storage, power
 transmission, and system controls. It algorithms such as Kalman filters and machine learning methods.
performs charge equalization, regulates
voltage, and prevents overcharging or SOH measures overall battery health based on factors like power density,
undercharging. The BMS also extends internal resistance, and self-discharge rate, using models and techniques like
battery life through cell balancing, monitors impedance spectroscopy and particle filters. RUL, which predicts the
temperature, and implements protection battery's remaining
mechanisms against faults like short circuits
and overloads. operational lifespan, is evaluated through methods including
Bayesian approaches and neural networks. LIB cells in EV
Additionally, it tracks energy storage processes, battery packs, configured in series and parallel, supply energy
diagnoses errors, and facilitates communication and data for vehicle systems and are recharged externally. However,
storage. In an EV system, the BMS evaluates and charge-discharge cycles can cause imbalance due to aging,
monitors the energy storage distribution processes and defects, and temperature effects, reducing efficiency and
identifies defects. Its functions include monitoring the reliability. Overcharging risks explosions, while over-discharge
current and voltage of the LIB cells; estimating and degrades battery components. The BMS mitigates these issues
managing LIB charge/discharge processes; ensuring cell by halting charge/discharge during idle periods, ensuring battery
balancing; managing temperature, power, and heat; protection and extending operational life
storing and acquiring data; facilitating communication
and networking; and performing fault assessment and
3.3. Cell Equalization
diagnosis.
Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) are increasingly used
in EVs due to their advantages, including rapid response to
demand, flexibility in installation, short setup times, and
contributions to the electrical power system. BESS supports
applications like voltage and frequency regulation, black-start
capability, renewable energy integration, peak shaving, load
leveling, and power quality enhancement [49].

To meet power requirements, BESS cells are connected in

series/parallel configurations. However, SOC imbalances
between cells are common due to factors such as manufacturing
defects, variations in internal impedance, self-discharge rates,
and charge storage capacities. External factors like unequal heat
distribution during charge/discharge cycles exacerbate the
problem, reducing system efficiency and reliability [50–53].

Fig: Battery management system To address these issues, cell balancing topologies are categorized
into two main approaches: passive and active balancing.
3.1. Current and Voltage Monitoring in Li-Ion
Battery Cells 3.3.1. Passive Cell Balancing

In EV systems, LIB packs are closely interconnected, Passive balancing uses shunt resistors to dissipate excess energy
requiring continuous monitoring to ensure efficient as heat. This method reduces the energy levels of higher SOC
energy management, power delivery, and safety. cells to match lower SOC cells, ensuring balance. While cost-
Monitoring involves evaluating cells during charge and effective, compact, and simple, this approach is slow and
discharge cycles, preventing overcharging and inefficient due to energy loss through heat dissipation [54,55].
undercharging, regulating temperature and heat,
detecting faults, and maintaining data acquisition and 3.3.2. Active Cell Balancing
connectivity. LIB cells generally deliver stable voltage
and current during discharge, but fluctuations can lead to
damage or explosions. To mitigate these risks, the BMS Active balancing outperforms passive balancing by transferring
regulates voltage and current levels and provides real- excess energy between cells using components like capacitors,
time display of battery status for operational guidance. converters, transformers, or inductors. Instead of wasting energy,
it redistributes it to achieve equilibrium, regardless of the cells'
chemical properties. Active balancing offers high efficiency and
3.2. Estimation and Protection of LIB faster balancing but comes with higher costs and implementation
Charge/Discharge Control complexity [50,56,57].

The performance and durability of LIBs depend on • Capacitor-Based Balancing: Energy is shifted between
precise charge/discharge management. Optimized adjacent cells using capacitors. While simple, this approach
systems, such as CC–CV loads, DCM, and PI suffers from energy loss during capacitor charging and slow
controllers, extend battery life and improve efficiency. balancing speeds. Variants include single-tiered, double-tiered,
Critical parameters include SOC (state of charge), SOH and multiple-capacitor designs [4,58].
(state of health), and RUL (remaining useful life). SOC
• Transformer/Inductor-Based Balancing: This method uses
reflects charge/discharge levels and is assessed through
transformers or inductors to transfer energy between cells or
techniques like OCV, Coulomb counting, and advanced
 modules, achieving fast balance. However, effectively, maintaining system protection and performance.
it requires high-cost components,
• such as filter capacitors, and is frequency-dependent. Temperature management is critical for LIBs, as they function
Variations include single-winding, multi-winding optimally within 15–45°C. Below 15°C, electrochemical
transformers, and single/multi-inductors [59,60]. reactions slow, lithium dendrites form, and short circuits may
• Converter-Based Balancing: This modern approach occur. Above 40°C, chemical imbalances can lead to explosions
regulates the balancing process using DC–DC caused by the release of gases like CO and H₂S. Thermal
converters like buck, management systems, including heating and cooling
mechanisms, prevent such risks by maintaining the battery
boost, buck-boost, flyback, resonant, full-bridge, and within its functional range.
PWM converters. Despite its high efficiency, this
method is costly and complex [61,62]. 3.5 Data Storage and Acquisition: Communication and
Networking

EV systems integrate subsystems and networks requiring

efficient data acquisition and communication. The BMS gathers
data on voltage, SOC, temperature, and charge/discharge cycles
while enabling fault diagnostics, heat management, and
monitoring. This information is processed through a central
controller connected to various control units, ensuring optimized
decision-making and performance.

The data acquisition system incorporates sensors for pressure,

gas, temperature, and voltage, providing insights into the internal
status of cells. Innovations like thermistors, power line
communication (PLC), and MODBUS TCP protocols enable
real-time data transmission and analysis. These systems help
monitor battery performance, prevent rapid cell degradation, and
maintain optimal operating conditions

3.6. Fault Assessment and Diagnosis

LIB faults, such as voltage stress, temperature extremes, or

overpowering, can jeopardize system performance. The BMS
identifies and addresses issues related to maintenance errors,
power inconsistencies, and code defects through advanced
Figure 6. Cell balancing topology.
monitoring and diagnostic methods.

Comparative Analysis:
Fault diagnosis relies on signal control strategies, research
Passive balancing is suited for low-power applications models, and entropy-based methods, which simplify the
due to its simplicity and low cost, though it suffers from detection of nonlinear, time-varying issues without requiring
energy losses. In contrast, active balancing is more complex models or professional expertise. Voltage
efficient, managing greater power with minimal energy
inconsistency monitoring remains crucial for safe and reliable
waste. Active methods, particularly full-bridge
LIB operation. By collecting and analyzing battery data, the
converters, address key BESS challenges such as
BMS ensures extended ESD life, improved performance, and
DC/AC conversion and fast balancing. During
charge/discharge cycles, energy flows from higher SOC precise energy assessment
cells to lower SOC cells. More detailed discussions of
these methods are available in [63].

3.4. Temperature, Power, and Heat Management

Efficient power distribution and minimal power loss are
key challenges for EV systems. Power management
during charging and operation ensures system longevity,
safety, and reduced energy waste. By considering SOC,
SOH, and battery aging, the BMS regulates power

7: Taxonomy of Thermal management system

 4.10. Safe and Efficient Operation
4. Issues and Challenges with LIBs and Ensuring safe operation is difficult due to varying internal and
Battery Management Systems(BMS) external factors. Overcharging and undercharging reduce
battery lifespan.
LIBs possess several notable features, including high
capacity, superior power and energy density, tolerance
4.11. Aging and Memory Effects
to high temperatures, extended cyclic life, long duty
Aging degrades capacity and resistance, while the memory
cycles, rapid charging capability, and minimal memory
effect limits performance after repeated cycles. Predictive
effect. However, various challenges persist,
models often fail to capture these dynamics.
necessitating the development of appropriate solutions
to address safety concerns, recycling and environmental
4.12. Hysteresis Characteristics
impacts, custom and expensive characteristics, and the
Differences in SOC-OCV curves during charge/discharge lead
memory effect during discharging and charging cycles
to inefficiencies. Current BMS designs are not standardized,
across diverse usage scenarios. These challenges are also
complicating recycling and reuse of old batteries.
relevant to other electrochemical batteries used in EV
applications. Below is a summary of the key issues.
4.13. Capacity and Power Fading
Capacity reduction occurs over time due to internal resistance
4.1. Real-Time SOC and SOH Estimation
and temperature effects, impacting power output and SOC
SOC estimation is hindered by non-linear properties,
estimations.
measurement inaccuracies, and the need for costly
techniques like electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
4.14. Modeling Limitations
(EIS). SOH estimation struggles with accurate prediction
Current models struggle with multi-parameter interactions,
and machine learning data challenges.
resulting in incomplete or inaccurate predictions of battery
performance.
4.2. Optimal Charging Problem
Traditional charging methods are inefficient and risk
4.15. Safety Risks
overheating. Balancing efficiency, lifespan, and
External conditions, overcharging, and material breakdown can
degradation is difficult, with existing SOC estimation
cause leakage, combustion, or explosions.
models often inaccurate.
4.16. Recycling and Reuse
4.3. Battery Models
LIB recycling is critical but lacks well-defined procedures.
Accurate characterization is challenging, as testing
Reuse of batteries faces challenges due to changing
requires precise conditions. Data-driven models rely
electrochemical properties.
heavily on extensive, diverse datasets.
4.17. Charger Communication
4.4. Data Issues
Inconsistent communication protocols among manufacturers
Limited data diversity and integrity lead to inaccurate
make integration challenging.
models. Laboratory conditions often do not represent
real-world scenarios, resulting in reliability concerns.
4.18. Self-Discharge and Rate Issues
Self-discharge affects SOC estimation accuracy, and
4.5. Parameter Optimization
charging/discharging rates need careful control to prevent
Selecting hyperparameters and optimizing intelligent
damage.
algorithms is time-consuming, leading to underfitting or
overfitting issues.
4.19. Power Consumption of BMS
The BMS itself consumes power from the battery, potentially
4.6. Thermal Management
depleting it if left idle for extended periods.
Precise thermal monitoring is necessary to prevent
thermal runaway, which can result in explosions or
4.20. Disposal Concerns
chemical hazards.
LIB disposal is complex and costly, with improper disposal
posing environmental and safety hazards.
4.7. RUL Prediction
Predicting Remaining Useful Life (RUL) is challenging
due to noise, sensor limitations, and incomplete aging
models.

4.8. Battery Charging and Discharging

A lack of universal chargers creates inefficiencies.
Discharging damaged batteries is hazardous, and
improper methods increase risks of overheating.

4.9. Cell Degradation

Cell imbalance accelerates degradation, leading to early
discharge termination, reduced capacity, and safety
concerns.
5. Recommendations: 5.7. Integration with Big Data
Cloud computing, big data, and digital twins can improve
Considering the identified issues and challenges, algorithm accuracy, enable real-time training, and resolve
sustainable research and development opportunities for EV computational bottlenecks. These systems will streamline
applications are proposed and emphasized. The future data logging and predictive analysis.
direction for LIB manufacturing and technological
advancements includes the following: 5.8. Wireless and Universal BMS
Developing open-source, adaptive BMS architectures will
5.1. Enhancing Safety and Reliability enhance compatibility, reduce costs, and integrate third-party
Battery status prediction, cell balancing, and optimal functionalities. Wireless systems can reduce weight,
electric/thermal charging need improvement. Multi-scale complexity, and repair time, increasing vehicle efficiency and
co-estimation methods across spatial and temporal scales lowering operating costs.
should be developed to enhance state-of-charge (SOC),
state-of-energy (SOE), state-of-health (SOH), and 5.9. Structure and Virtualization
remaining useful life (RUL) predictions while reducing To prevent hazards in accidents, electrodes should be
battery management system (BMS) computing time. insulated with fire-retardant materials. Virtualized control
Safety risks—such as high-voltage exposure, fires, and units could replace traditional BMS master control systems,
toxic gas emissions—can be mitigated using interlock reducing costs and improving efficiency. Real-time
circuits, insulation monitoring, and digital isolator ICs. monitoring solutions, like PikeOS, can enhance safety and
Integrating gas sensors and adherence to ISO26262 reliability.
standards will enhance safety and reliability.
6.0. Installation Recommendations
5.2.Algorithm Hybridization and Advanced Prognostics Strict adherence to equipment ratings, compatibility checks,
Hybrid intelligent algorithms outperform single algorithms and third-party verifications are essential. Entire battery banks
but require further optimization to reduce complexity and should be replaced rather than individual cells to ensure safety
improve reliability. Advanced prognostic techniques and functionality. Maintaining safety logs and regular system
should monitor factors like temperature, charge rates, and inspections is critical for compliance and tamper resistance.
vibrations to improve BMS decision-making and extend The BMS must autonomously shut down or reset in response
batterylife. to abnormalities.

5.3. Advanced Thermal Management 7. Conclusions

Efficient BMS designs should leverage intelligent methods
and research into deep learning parameters to improve Battery management is a pivotal factor for widespread EV
training accuracy and speed. Temperature control adoption due to challenges associated with the battery life
improvements, such as sensor-less temperature sensing and cycle, safety, costs, and temperature regulation. Unlike prior
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, are critical. studies that often focus on one or two aspects of battery
Advanced cooling systems, including air/liquid methods, management, this work provides a comprehensive analysis of
are essential for external thermal management. all facets. It delves into various BMS topologies, features,
functions, requirements, and comparative insights. Six critical
aspects of BMS design were highlighted, with a particular
5.4. Life Cycle Assessment and Aging Effect focus on battery cell charge balancing techniques.
Research into new, recyclable, and non-toxic materials can The primary challenges for BMSs include real-time SOC and
increase battery lifespan while reducing costs and SOH estimation, optimal charging strategies, thermal
environmental impact. Aging dynamics are complex; thus, management and runaway prevention, as well as battery
improved models and simulations are needed to predict recycling and reuse. To address these challenges, this paper
aging effects on SOH and performance. outlines future trends in BMS development, including the
adoption of hybridized intelligent algorithms, universal BMS
designs, efficient prototype architectures, enhanced predictive
5.5. Enhancing LIB Capacity and Fast Charging methodologies, and the virtualization of BMS systems.
Battery degradation influenced by vibrations, ambient This review underscores that, despite the application of
factors, and operational conditions requires advanced advanced algorithms and complex models, several significant
abnormality detection and predictive technologies. A more hurdles remain for BMS development. To meet the demands
sophisticated BMS is needed for safe and efficient fast of future EVs, BMSs must execute advanced functionalities in
charging while preventing overcharging or overheating. real time, manage the complexities of battery behavior,
withstand extreme operating conditions, and address evolving
EV requirements.
5.6. Reuse and Recycling In conclusion, this study demonstrates that EV adoption will
Recycling strategies should maximize resource recovery remain constrained unless these existing challenges are
and minimize waste. Governments and industries must resolved and improved BMS solutions are implemented. By
collaborate to establish universal recycling standards and providing a thorough discussion, analysis, and actionable
encourage the reuse of valuable energy stored in spent recommendations, this research serves as a valuable resource
batteries, reducing environmental and economic impacts. for vehicle engineers and EV manufacturers aiming to
enhance the performance, safety, and sustainability of electric
vehicles.
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