ABSTRACT

The aim of this study is among others to find out whether radio stations in Rivers State
carried out political campaigns during the 2023 election, examine the extent of exposure
of residents of Rivers State to radio political broadcasts during the 2023 general election.
The theory used in this research work was the Agenda Setting theory and survey research
design was adopted as its methodology which makes use of questionnaire to gather
information. Philip Meyer’s sampling size determination table was used to get the sampling
size of 384. Findings in the study includes that radio stations in Rivers State carried out
political campaigns during the 2023 election, the extent to which residents of Rivers State
were exposed to radio political broadcasts during the 2023 general election posses a
negative value to the society, that the extent that radio political broadcasts mobilized
electorates in Rivers State towards their civic responsibilities during the 2023 election was
basically on the negative influence. With regards to the findings made from this study, it
was therefore recommended that radio stations in Rivers State carrying out political
campaigns during elections should do well to campaign every electorates, so that residents
can always have a choice after being aware of all the candidates. Since residents of Rivers
State are exposed to radio political broadcasts general elections, radio programs should
advocate forums where residents can express their minds too That the extent that radio
political broadcasts mobilized electorates in Rivers State towards their civic responsibilities
during the 2023 election was basically on the negative influence, because it only ended
during the election, so it should always be carried out till date as reminders that it shouldn’t
only be accounted during the elections but all times.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS TITLE PAGE

TITLE PAGE i

DECLARATION ii

CERTIFICATION iii

DEDICATION iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMETS v

ABSTRACTS vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF APPENDICES

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

1.4 Research Questions

1.5 Significance of the Study

1.6 Scope of the Study

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Theoretical Framework

2.1..1 Multi-Step Flow of Communication Theory

2.1.2 The Sociological Model (Columbia School of Voting Behaviour)

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 Brief History of Radio Development in Rivers State

2.2.2 Mass Media and Elections in Nigeria

2.2.3 The Radio and Voters’ Electoral Choice in Nigeria’s Election

2.2.4 Overview of the 2023 General Election in Nigeria 2.2.5 Concept of Political Broadcast

2.2.6 Radio as a Tool of Mobilization

2.2.7 Electorates and Political Awareness

2.2.8 Communication Civic Engagement

2.3 Empirical Review

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

3.2 Population of the Study

3.3 Sampling and Sampling Techniques

3.4 Nature/Source of Data

3.5 Method of Data Collection/Instrumentation

3.6 Validity of Instrument

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Data Presentation

4.2 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.2.1 Evaluate the effect of a political radio broadcast on awareness of Rivers state
electorates towards Nigeria 2023 general election

4.2.2 The extent to which political radio broadcasts educate and mobilise electorates in
Rivers state on their civic responsibilities

4.2.3 Radio political broadcasts influence the voting habit of the electorate in Rivers
state.

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION AND SUGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDIES

5.1 CONCLUSION

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

A. LETTER OF INTRODUCTION

B. RADIO AND VOTER’S BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE (RAVBQ)

 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The impact of the mass media, particularly radio, in contemporary times on the

political and socio-economic evolution of society cannot be over-emphasised. This is so

that the same message can be communicated to audiences speaking various languages

using the mass media, namely radio. It is capacity to concurrently reach millions of

individuals aids in enlightening people about social developments. Soumi (2016) asserts

that the media serves various purposes in every community. It enlightens, educates,

amuses, and even brings society’s members together to advance a specific objective. A

major communication tool in any given civilisation is the mainstream media. It broadcasts

messages to the public, informing them of what is proper or wrong.

The dissemination of information is one of the primary purposes of mass media. In

other words, the purpose of the mass media is to inform society’s citizens. It also serves

the purpose of establishing the news that the general public hears and sees (Sanchez,

2002), emphasising a particular aspect of the news to make that aspect of the news of the

utmost importance, and forcing the audience to take a particular action in response to the

issue raised in the news.

The radio, the least expensive and most portable medium, would be a valuable instrument

to reach out even to the plebs of society since the mass media could be utilised to set

agendas.

According to Adekoya, Akintoye & Adegoke (2015), radio is a very effective tool in rural

areas because it is not constrained by barriers like time, space, illiteracy, and electricity

supply, and it is simple to use. Radio also creates programs that inform and educate the
audience on new social trends, like political, business, current affairs, and religious issues ,

which are intended to raise awareness. Radio could be used to mobilise the population,

particularly in rural areas, to work toward a common social, political, economic, or cultural

objective. Therefore, because to the signal’s accessibility in all nooks and crannies of

society, it is particularly rich in educating, illuminating, and mobilising the electorates for

political engagement.

Information is shared with the electorate through political broadcasts so they know

what is going on in politics. Before supporting a candidate or party to gain an elective post,

the electorate can use this broadcast to get informed. Political broadcasts inform the public

about current events and, to some extent, affect voting turnout and the electorate’s choice

of candidate.

According to Chudi-Oji (2013), to begin this task of electing leaders, people must be

mobilised to become informed through education campaigns, sensitisation, information

sharing, and advocacy programs targeted at community leaders, age groups, development

associations, opinion leaders, artisans, and other grassroots movements. This is to increase

their awareness and foster attitudinal change towards active involvement and participation

in politics. All of these broadcasts are classified as political communication, and the mass

media, especially radio, an all-age medium, enhances them all.

Particularly in nations where a large portion of the population works in business, many

people still exhibit apathy, alienation, and indifference toward political participation in

most communities. As a result, the more people are informed, educated, and inspired

about the significance of politics, the more interest, apathy, and determination they will

have to engage in it. Radio, in particular, as part of the mass media, is essential in

promoting political knowledge and a culture of good government. Due to this, this study
looks into how well-informed Rivers state voters are about Nigeria’s general election in

2023

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The purpose of radio, a technological tool of mass communication, is to inform, amuse,

and educate. Whether in a homogenous or pluralistic culture, these three fundamental

roles are essential to each nation’s democratic development (Nwali & Nwogbaga, 2019). As

a result, it has evolved into an actual weapon for disseminating political messages. A study

by Utor (2000) to determine why individuals in Nigeria did not participate in the 2011

general elections revealed that Nigerian voters have little political education and

information. Using radio to target your audience while disseminating political campaign

messaging is advised. Ajayi (2021) adds to this by emphasising the significance of

concentrating on the impact of radio-based political campaign communications. He

discovered that radio could assist Nigerian voters in becoming more informed about

politics. To educate and persuade voters to participate in the elections, political campaign

messages are created, broadcast, or published (Adibe, 2015). This is supported by Orji

(2015), who observed that Nigerians engaged in political communication through diverse

campaign messages during the 2015 general elections. According to him, “Radio, one of the

media that campaign organisers and political parties utilise most frequently, witnessed the

prevalence of such political campaign messaging even higher.” As a result, it becomes

necessary to investigate the effect of radio political broadcast on awareness of Rivers state

electorate toward Nigeria 2023 general election

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of the study were to:

1. find out whether radio stations in Rivers State carried out political campaigns during

the 2023 election.

2. examine the extent of exposure of residents of Rivers State to radio political

broadcasts during the 2023 general election.

3. ascertain the extent that radio political broadcasts mobilized electorates in Rivers

State towards their civic responsibilities during the 2023 election.

4. examine the extent that radio political broadcast media influenced the voting habit

of the electorates in River state during the 2023 general elections.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions were raised for the study;

1. Were residents of rivers state exposed to radio political broadcasts during the 2023

general elections?

2. What was the extent of exposure of residents of Rivers State to radio political campaigns

during the 2023 presidential election?

3. What was the extent of mobilization of electorates in Rivers state during the 2023 general

election through radio political campaign?

4. What was the extent of influence of radio political campaigns on the voting habits of the

electorates in Rivers State?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The result of this study will be useful to policy formulators and implementers for

devising viable political campaign policies that will be in line with the socio-cultural and

political orientation of the River state urban rural residents or electorates.

This study will also help the government and its agencies in making policy decisions

on the best way to channel political education to the rural electorates or votes for effective

participation in the electoral process.

Besides, the study will immensely enhance media organizations to understand the

appropriate way of structuring information for its rural audience and assist them in knowing

the most effective medium of political information dissemination available to rural and less

priviledged residents.

It will also be useful to Nigerian media practitioners, communication experts, politicians,

political science students, as well as other members of the public, to improve their

knowledge and skills in the area of utilizing the mass media for the execution of political

campaign or mobilization of residents.

Finally, it will serve as a veritable reference material for scholars and students of political

communication.

1.6 Scope of the Study

This study is delimited to the relationship between radio political campaign and

voting behaviour of River State residents in the of 2023 elections. Different strategies were

employed by the different gubbernitorial candidates during the just concluded elections in

River State, but for the study, only radio broadcast is selected for investigation. This studies
is delimited to River State residence whether urban or rural as it concerns the 2023

elections.

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

Campaign

A race between candidates for elective office.

Electorates

Those qualified to vote

Political

Relating to your views about social relationships involving authority or power

Political Campaign

The campaign of a candidate to be elected

Politics

Social relations involving intrigue to gain authority or power

Radio

An electronic receiver that detects and demodulates and amplifies transmitted signals

Residents

Someone who lives at a particular place for a prolonged period or who was born there

Vote

A choice that is made by counting the number of people in favor of each alternative.

Voter

A citizen who has a legal right to vote

Voting Behaviour
A citizens perceived attitude towards a voting process
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, related literatures are reviewed under the following sub-headings;

Theoretical framework, conceptual framework and empirical studies

2.1 Theoretical Framework

2.1..1 Multi-Step Flow of Communication Theory

Based on problematic of research, the problem has several angles and each angle

need to be addressed theoretically. This study, therefore, used multi-step flow of

communication theory as its theoretical basis. Lazarsfeld (1944) originated this idea when

he said that ideas flow from mass media to opinion leaders before being disseminated to a

wider population. Katz and Lazersfeld (1955) further elaborated it by adding that “the multi-

step flow of communication theory assumes that opinion leaders are affected more by “elite

media” than run-of-the-mill, mass media”.

According to the multi-step flow theory, opinion leaders intervene between the

“media’s direct message and the audience’s reaction to that message.” Opinion leaders tend

to have the great effect on those they are most similar to be based on personality, interests,

demographics, or socio-economic factors. These leaders tend to influence others to change

their attitudes and behaviour s more quickly than conventional media because the audience

is able to better identify or relate to an opinion leader than an article in a newspaper or a

news program.

Similarly, Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport (2013, p. 415) observes that this media

influence theory shows that information dissemination is a social occurrence, which may

explain why certain media campaigns do not alter audiences’ attitudes. An important factor
of the multi-step flow theory is how the social influence is modified. Information is affected

by the social norms of each new community group that it enters. It is also shaped by

conflicting views surrounding it. Many studies testing to earlier two-step flow theory have

suggested that information actually tends to travel in multi-step flow processes with many

different flow directions and iterations, (Burt, 1999; Harik, 1971; Robinson, 1979; Weiman,

1982) in Stransberry (2012, p. 16). The multi-step flow model has dominated research in

information for the last four and half decades (Bunnett & Manheim, 2006). As an example,

US former Vice President, Al Gore applied the multi-step flow theory to garner support for

his nonprofit, The Climate Project. Gore recruited individuals who were educated on

environmental issues and had the ability to be influential in their community and amongst

their friends and family. He then trained his opinion leaders on the information he wanted

them to disseminate. This ultimately enabled them to educate many Americans about The

Climate Project and Gore’s overall ideas about climate change. The multi-step flow theory is

used very often in politics especially during conduct of elections. Researches show that with

so much mudslinging, a trusted opinion leader is often sought after for candidate or issue

information. Since the amendment of the two-step flow of communication theory into a

multi-step flow theory, even advertisers often use opinion leaders in their advertisements to

give a stronger effect. For many, studies have shown that opinion leaders have a larger

influence on individuals than would the media. The media reaches everyone and the multi-

step flow theory can be reshaped to fit any scenario.

As mentioned earlier, Rivers state people are attached to their ethnic or tribal

affiliations. They often believe in what their community leaders inform them or advise them

to do. For example, when government announced the vaccination campaign against polio,

they refused their children to be vaccinated for fear of inconsistency in the vaccine.
However, when the various leaders in the community accepted to be vaccinated they

equally agreed. These people attach importance to the community leaders, and refer to

them for any societal activity. This development justified this research’s application of multi-

step flow of communication theory.

2.1.2 The Sociological Model (Columbia School of Voting Behaviour)

In 1939, the discipline of psychology entered the field of election studies when Paul

Lazarsfeld along with other colleagues at Columbia University planned a systematic study of

presidential elections of 1940 in Erie County (Visser, 1994) of New York State. This

pioneering study explaining factors influencing individuals' voting decisions was the first to

be based on survey methods and compiled in the form of a book titled: "The People’s

Choice: How the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign." This study

conducted by scholars at Columbia University's Applied Bureau of Social Research ultimately

led to the emergence of the sociological model of voting behaviour also known as the

Columbia Model of voting behaviour (Antunes, 2010; Hutchings & Jefferson, 2018). The

basic assumptions of this model are explained in three major works: "The People’s Choice:

How the Voter Makes up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign," Voting: A Study of Opinion

Formation in a Presidential Campaign," and "Personal Influence: The Part Played by People

in the Flow of Mass Communications," published in 1944, 1954, and 1955, respectively

(Antunes, 2010).

This theory of voting behaviour focuses on the individual and the social structure

surrounding the individual. Thus, it places votes in social context and then studies the

effects of variables such as social class, religion, nationalism, language, and rural-urban

divisions (Scott & Marshall, 2009;Hutchings & Jefferson, 2018; Antwi, 2018). According to
this theory, individuals learn their partisan predilections corresponding to the political

orientations of the group to which they belong. (Aiba, 2003).

The Columbia team of researchers selected a panel of 600 respondents whom they

interviewed seven times before the elections (Bartels, 2010). One of the goals of this study

was to ascertain the impact of mass media on voters' decision-making process. The results

shocked the researchers as 546 out of 600 respondents had already made their voting

decisions even before the campaign could be started. Thus the research team in its analysis

puts more emphasis on external factors, especially the influence of voters' primary groups.

According to the findings of this study, voting decisions are determined by social forces. The

researchers found that social groups' active members (opinion-makers) interposed between

the media content and the members of the social groups, thus disseminating the media

messages in the less involved (less active) group members in a way congenial to the political

standards of the group members (Visser, 1994). Furthermore, the research team found that

voters selectively viewed media messages to filter propaganda which contradicted their own

opinions, so there was little room for political parties to attract voters toward themselves

through election campaigns (Visser, 1998).

Contrary to the hypothesis that voting decisions were influenced by voters'

personality and media, the research team discovered that social groups to which voters

belonged played a decisive role in voters' decision-making process. The investigators argued

that the relationship between voting behaviour and voters' social groups was so strong that

voters' choices could be explained by just focusing on three elements: religion, socio-

economic class or status, and place of residence. The

combination of these three was termed as "Index of Political Predisposition" (IPP). It argued

that instead of election campaigns and debates on issues by the candidates, the undecided
voters or those who changed their mind during the campaign were pressurized by their

fellow social group members to vote for a particular candidate (Antunes, 2010).

The Columbia team found that the media content played an insignificant role in

changing voters' choices as most of these choices were rooted in strong loyalties of social

class and religion reinforced by interactions with like-minded acquaintances (Bartels, 2010).

It argued that the two effects of the election campaign were the reinforcement of choices

made by earlier deciders and the motivation of latent predispositions of uncommitted

voters. The researchers claimed that these predispositions activated by the electoral

campaigns were linked with social characteristics called IPP (Hutchings & Jefferson, 2018).

Also, this study is theoretically grounded on Agenda-setting. According to Maxwell

Mc Comb and Donald Shaw’s 1968 agenda-setting hypothesis, the media may not always

influence what we think but rather what we think about. This theorist also asserts that the

media influences how news stories present events and subjects on the public’s attention.

Without a doubt, this notion is still relevant today. The significance is that how a topic or

person is presented in broadcast media dramatically affects how the general public views

that topic or person. The media is crucial for informing and educating the electorates that

this study is focused on. Hence it is related to the agenda-setting theory of communication.

It is impossible to overstate the importance of the mass media, specifically the radio, in this

situation. People need information; without media communication, important information

cannot be quickly spread. The aforementioned points out that there would be an increase

in electorate awareness and a favourable response to the general election if the agenda-

setting theory were applied through political radio broadcasts. This is a result of the radio

emphasising a particular message component.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 Brief History of Radio Development in Rivers State

An article titled “History of Radio Rivers” by Baridom Sika chronicled the birth of

Rivers State Broadcasting Corporation (RSBC) through Edict 78 of 1973 following which the

implementation process of procurement and staff training commenced. Subsequently, on

June 1, 1978, Mambo Tumbowei signed on the station as Radio Rivers; that was the

beginning. This article presents a background to that beginning.

Reflexively reacting to the earthy percussion that introduced Se Acabo by Santana

Band, a DJ on Radio Nigeria, Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC), William Jumbo

Street, GRA, Port Harcourt identified the African roots of the pulsating and compulsive

multi-conga rhythmic patterns of the song. In a moment of music-induced madness, he

leaned in on the microphone, crooned “Ubleke! Ubleke!! Ubleke!!!” and hailed his invisible

multilingual audience in the call-response greeting that is peculiar to his community. That

was in 1972 when Radio Nigeria was the only radio station in old Rivers State. The program,

“Ship Ahoy”, was a mixed-music morning magazine presented in English Language.

As the DJ stepped out of the studio, his producer, the guitar-strumming and

broadminded piper, Seniboye Itiye, roared an oral query: “You spoke your language in my

program!!! You think we all understand your endless iyeiye greeting?” “I’m sorry sir; I got

carried away by the music”, apologised the DJ. “Calm down; this is radio, not night club or

afternoon jump”, said Itiye, reassuringly. Incidentally, the DJ was cofounder and bassist of
Blackstones Band, which was the first rock band in the history of old Rivers State; the band’s

imitative repertoire was heavily laden with the then evolving earthy and heavily percussive

songs that characterized the dissident departure from the Mersey beat of the sixties.

Following two and a half years of basking in flashlights and the youthful escapades of rock

musicianship, the DJ and two other members of the band opted to return to school; he

chanced in and sojourned on radio as a stopgap measure. The language glitch that morning

was, therefore, a residue of his immediate past profession.

Mixed reactions came at the heels of that professional indiscretion: while he

received raving reviews from his community, his colleagues at the station and the wider

Rivers society frowned at what was considered a projection, propagation and promotion of

parochialism. Unbeknownst to everyone, the Governor of Rivers State, Navy Commander

Alfred Diete-Spiff was listening attentively.

One afternoon, the DJ and his Duty Continuity Announcer (DTA), the beautiful and

brilliant Stella Amachree, left the studio in the care of a trainee DTA called Chima Okor and

went to Catering Rest House within the vicinity for lunch. Returning through the street now

known as Cookey-Gam Drive, they chanced on Governor Diete-Spiff strolling outside the

confines of Government House. Expectedly, they stood still on the side of the street in

deference to the Governor who, surprisingly, stopped astride them and inquired after their

names. To their great delight, the Governor knew them and their radio shows. He

commended them, spoke glowingly about their program “Shaft Corner” (a foursome that

attracted national attention) and casually said “We should establish a radio station for Rivers

State”; thereafter, he walked on.

 Stella and the DJ practically flew back to NBC studios and narrated every detail of the

encounter to their colleagues. The station, which was manned by Rivers State indigenes,

went agog. Matthew Miesiegha, Bernard Graham-Douglas, Mike Oku, Steve Bubagha, Peter

O.C. Adiukwu-Brown, Pat Ketebu, Ifiemi Ombu, Florence Olali, Cornelia Omoniabipi, Bobby

Bikefe, Monima Kelly-Briggs, Emmanuel Dokubo, Chituru Wachuku, Boma Erekosima, Sunny

Meshack-Hart, Tony Alabraba etc. were in high spirits. Given the antecedents of the

governor in the sphere of human development, the news held the potent promise of a radio

station to call their own. Ernest Ogbanga and others in the engineering department shared

the excitement; even Florence Olali, who was feverishly preparing to join her betrothed in

Germany, was not left out of it. And it came to pass that that spontaneous statement by a

young man who was yet to turn thirty years morphed into public policy and Rivers State

Broadcasting Corporation was created on August 24, 1973 through Edict No. 8. The rest is

history.

While the following divergence belongs in another narrative, it is pertinent to

mention that Radio Nigeria, Port Harcourt was a beehive of crazy but highly creative and

fiercely focused fellows. Most of the DTAs, news writers and radio personalities keyed into

the generational thinking educational policy of the Diete-Spiff administration and developed

themselves. Bernard Graham-Douglas, Ifiemi Ombu, Emmanuel Dokubo and Tony Alabraba

studied Broadcasting in the US; Mike Oku did same in Scotland. Stella Amachree studied Law

in Oxford University, Peter Adiukwu-Brown read Metallurgy at Manchester University and

Pat Ketebu read Accountancy in Scotland. And by the way, our dramatis persona also

studied Broadcasting in the U.S. and, having graduated in 1975, became the first person in

old Rivers State to take a degree in that discipline. Furthermore, as Senior Special Assistant
to Secretary to the State Government, he accompanied his boss, Professor William

Ogionwo, who represented Governor Melford Okilo at RSBC Headquarters on May 2, 1981

where and when Dafini Gogo-Abbey signed on the newly added FM Station, Radio Rivers 2.

The above episode lends itself to robust intellectual interrogation within the themes

of leadership and human development. Without venturing into the academics of these two

concepts, it is necessary to state that it took the visionary leadership of Diete-Spiff to

conceive and establish a radio station for the State and create opportunities for people to

be trained in the relevant fields. On the other hand, it took the desire for individual

development on the part of our dramatis persona and his colleagues in NBC to tap into the

opportunities presented by the policy to produce the workforce that eventually manned

Radio Rivers. That is the constructive collectivism that births personal, group and national

development.

Dr Osai is an Associate Professor in the Rivers State University, Port Harcourt.

2.2.2 Mass Media and Elections in Nigeria

Over the years, mass media have proven to be veritable sources of information

during elections in Nigeria. The mass media have been used to propagate political ideas

often known as propaganda, and also used an instrument of political mobilization by

different political parties in the country. The Nigerian mass media is always alive to its duty

before, during and after election given its prime position as the vital source of information

about elections in democracies and societies in transition around the world. In the view of
Graber (2001, p. 278) media coverage is the very lifeblood of politics because it shapes the

perception that form the reality on which political action is based. Media do more than

depict the political environment they are the political environment. Media are the prime

source of information we have about political activities. This is due to the media’s

commitment in fulfilling their obligation as spelt out in section 22 of the 1999 Nigeria’s

Constitutions. According to the section, the “press, radio, television and other agencies of

the mass media shall at all times, be free to uphold the fundamental objectives contained in

this Chapter and uphold the responsibility and accountability of the government to the

people”.

Essentially, the media’s contribution to the electoral process is anchored on the

“Agenda setting” function that is integral to the informing, educating, mobilizing and

crusading roles of the media. Also, the media’s participation in the electoral process find

reasonable explanation and justification in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which

stipulates in Articles 21 (3) that “the will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of

government; thus shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be held

by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.” The declaration gives a filling to the

public service responsibility of the media which include mobilizing the people for political

action. In Nigeria, the media and election coverage are like Siamese twins. The media much

more than any institution in society are one of the best instruments for mobilizing the

people during election as well as informing them on the latest development as regards

electoral activities in the country. Mass media and elections in Nigeria can be clearly seen

under the following aspect; uses of propaganda during elections, the press and political

mobilization during elections, the press at the scene of elections, and the press after
elections. It was through the mass media that the electorates got to know the mind of

candidates and also narrow down the voters’ wide range of choice before the voting. The

mass media, according to Opene (2012, p. 19) therefore, “provides avenue for letting the

people know what trends are, in terms of election periods, and what it means to exercise

their franchise, civic rights, to vote and voted for.” The mass media during the 2015 general

elections were able to let the electorates know that their votes will count.

Also, during the 2015 elections, the mass media served as an institution through

which the politicians attempted to reach the electorates in order to win elections.

Therefore, the connection between the politician and mass media can be seen from the

perspective of the politician who wants to win an election. In the process, they (political

actors) through the publication, disseminating and/or airing of their prepared political

campaign messages work hard to capture the attention and interest of the voters that the

mass media controls. The medium of the radio among other forms of media is believed to

be more influential on the electorates’ voting behaviour in Kano has been deliberated in the

following subsection.

2.2.3 The Radio and Voters’ Electoral Choice in Nigeria’s Election

Most of the studies carried out in Nigeria have come to term that political campaign

messages have some bearings in deciding who a voter should vote for or against, (Opeibi,

2005, p. 72). He found that “both political actors and their supporters deploy different

persuasive strategies to elicit support and woo voters in order to gain and control power.” It

is significant to note that radio political campaign messages are instrumental in influencing

the way a particular voter think, decide and make choice in his quest to participate in

election in Nigeria (Abagen, 2009, p. 220). One sure means of achieving this aim is through
the use of medium of the radio. Through coverage and presentation of news, information,

facts, figures, editorials, and other analytical pieces about an issue, radio exert considerable

influence on the creation of awareness on that issue (Enahoro, 2010, p. 300). There is no

doubt that political campaign messages sponsored and aired on radio serve as means of

raising political consciousness in Nigeria. Tejumaiye (2008, p. 85) further revealed that even

the elections’ regulatory body, that is, the Independent National Electoral Commission

(INEC) uses radio to air its political information in order to educate the electorates on the

election processes and as well persuade them on the need to vote, though not on whom to

vote.

Buttressing this, Oriavwote (2000, p. 51) found that voting behaviour is dependent

on the consideration of a significant number of political campaign messages, and that radio

was the best medium used among others. He went further to reveal that influence of

political campaign messages strategy on voting behaviour is not significantly different

between rural and urban voters in Nigeria. He also suggest that the implications of his

research findings for campaign managers, party workers, candidates and political parties are

that a flexible approach has to be adopted in preparing and planning their various political

campaign messages. To conclude, it is arguable to say that voters rely on some stimuli with

which they already had contact to make their decisions (Pechmann, 2001). Thus, it is

understood that while the political campaign messages are being planned, radio widely

distribute those political campaign messages, and in the end, voters are primed to then

recall the framing or construction of such messages that have salience with them while they

are voting.
2.2.4 Overview of the 2023 General Election in Nigeria

Nigerians trooped to the polls on February 25 and March 18, 2023, to elect a new

President, National Assembly Members as well as 28 State Governors and members of 36

State Houses of Assembly. It was the seventh consecutive general election since the return

of the country to democracy in 1999. This represents 23 years of unbroken democracy, the

longest in the history of Nigeria.

The Presidential election was contested by eighteen political parties and conducted

under a new electoral framework. The new electoral framework known as the Electoral Act

2022, allows the country’s electoral body, the Independent National Electoral Commission

(INEC) the use of Technology for the conduct of elections using Bimodal Voter Accreditation

System, BVAS for fingerprint and facial biometric identification and authentication of the

voters.

The new Act also allows the commission to transmit election results electronically from the

collation centres into the INEC servers and results viewing portal immediately after the

counting of the [Link], the new technological innovation introduced by INEC,

paved the way for online pre-registration system of voters and new INEC enrolment device

which helped to reduce the long queues witnessed in previous voter registration and voting

exercises in the past. The new Electoral Act as amended by the Nigerian National Assembly

also extended the time for political campaigns from 90 to 150 days which has equally

created the opportunity for politicians to visit the nooks and crannies of the country if they

so desire.
 However, instead of reducing how money is used in Nigerian politics, the Act jacked

up campaign finance funds from an initial N1billion to N5 billion for presidential candidates.

The ceiling for other elected positions were also increased significantly in the new electoral

Act. There were 93.4 million registered Nigerian voters eligible to go to the polls. However,

only a little above 30 million people turned out for the February 25 Presidential and National

Assembly elections a far cry from those registered.

Prior to the elections, the electoral umpire adopted some strategic action plans to

ensure a successful and smooth conduct of the elections. To achieve that, the commission

activated 2,673 additional permanent voter card registration centers nationwide,

introduced simultaneous accreditation and voting system and created additional polling

units nearer to the electorates. It also embarked on continuous engagements with election

stakeholders such as security agencies, political party leaders, civil society groups and the

media towards improving the electoral processes.

In a bid to ensure that no eligible voter was disfranchised in the General Election, the

commission made special provision for persons with disabilities, adequate provision for

voters in Internally Displaced Camps to exercise their franchisee during the elections. The

commission was equally engaged in continuous sensitization programs on the processes and

preparations for the elections by galvanizing the citizenry by ensuring that they understand

and participate fully in the electoral proceedings for the peaceful conduct of the elections.

Despite the mechanisms and measures put in place by the commission ahead of the

elections, there were still some challenges encountered by the commission. Some of these

challenges include attacks on INEC facilities and personnel in some parts of the country, vote
buying and selling during elections, the malfunctioning of the BVAS in the transmission

election results during the presidential election amongst other things.

Despite all the challenges faced, the elections were generally peaceful and winners

announced without rancor. The losers have taken the right path by resorting to laws of the

land which allows them to challenge the outcome in Special Elections Tribunals set up by

the government. Kudos should therefore, not only be given to the electoral umpire but also

to the Nigerian government for supporting the commission adequately by ensuring early

release of fund to INEC to enable it carry out its electoral activities successful.

Nigerian voters on the other hand should also be commended for their resilience by

participating in the electoral processes despite all odds. Both Foreign and local observers,

the media and of course security agencies should equally share the glory of the success of

the 2023 elections. Going forward, INEC needs to improve on its planning process to avoid

the challenges it encountered on its inability to transmit the presidential election results

electronically and create strong barriers against vote buying and selling. By so doing, the

electorates would have more confidence in the commission.

The commission must avoid any act that could create doubt in the mind of voters

that their votes will not count. Also, the personnel used during the elections should be only

those who have been tested, trusted and persons with integrity to engender believe in the

system. The politicians on the other hand, should not always see elections as a do or die

affair and avoid the act of desperation. Security agents on the other hand should eschew

any corrupt practices and follow strictly, the rules of engagements on election security while

the media should play their noble role of the watch Dog and act professionally during

elections.
2.2.5 Concept of Political Broadcast

A political broadcast is any television or radio program intended to support or impact

the popularity of a political party or candidate. It could also be referred to as a direct

speech created by a political party spokesperson on behalf of a political party and freely

broadcast on a sound broadcasting service. Political broadcast is used to educate through

programs for enlightenment, sensitisation, information sharing, and advocacy. This is

frequently aimed at grassroots movements like artisan guides, age grades, development

associations, opinion leaders, and community leaders to raise their understanding and

encourage an attitude shift toward political engagement and participation (Ikelegbe, 2005).

Orji (2015) further noted that political communication in the form of diverse campaign

messages was observed as Nigerians had their general elections in 2015; and that Radio

was one of the mediums that campaign organisers and political parties utilise most

frequently, witnessed the presence of political campaign messaging even higher.

2.2.6 Radio as a Tool of Mobilization

Radio has taken the lead among the mass media as the least expensive (Transistor

Radio) and portable medium, being the most effective in relaying people’s concerns to the

government for problem-solving/solutions to societal needs. This is especially true in

developing countries (Third World Countries). Additionally, it promotes and draws

development through mobilization , enlightenment, and education by persuading or

compelling participants to comply. Due to its ability to cross traditional boundaries like

geographic, linguistic, and others, radio broadcasting is the most efficient mass

communication medium for reaching people in both urban and rural locations. It was the
first broadcasting media in Nigeria after newspapers, and as such, it significantly

contributed to the country’s political scene. Politicians utilise a variety of channels to

communicate their message to the public during election campaigns, stirring up interest in

politics and encouraging people to support the party they choose. In Nigeria, politics have

had a significant role in radio history.

The first radio broadcast in Nigeria was made in the year 1933. Anthony Gramsci (1891–

1937), a political activist, asserted that “the governing class or party brainwashed others,

their belief systems, and their attitudes toward politics through an agent of socialisation

(e.g., radio).” This focuses more on the importance and benefits of radio in educating the

public about the benefits of entering politics and persuading them to get involved in

creating well-organised, healthy, and peaceful communities, states, countries, and the

entire world.

Additionally, it is well recognised that the influence of radio may be seen in the creation

of political movements by the instant group to accomplish goals. This indicates that radio

strives to participate in reaching a diverse and heterogeneous population in their various

destinations concurrently and in their varied languages. This is because rural areas in

Nigeria tend to have more significant populations. Old and young women are more

prevalent in these rural areas than educated women, and their votes are often used to win

elections.

Radio is a platform for projecting personality via which it draws and retains an audience,

according to Rasheed (2016), Radio is a valuable tool for simultaneously reaching many

people with a message. Radio is an effective tool for educating the general people. Radio is

one of the best ways of mass communication since it is simple to start, own, operate, and

maintain, does not need much intellectual effort from listeners, and is not limited by time-
 space, illiteracy, or electrical supply constraints. It may provide tutorial assistance and

materials to encourage debates, reflections, and hands-on learning about a community or

nation’s socioeconomic, socio-political, and cultural activities. The radio serves many

purposes, including the following:

• Providing information: The radio provides information to the electorate. It has a crucial role

in supplying the general public with political information.

• Influencing Role: While the media may not always be successful in influencing people’s

opinions, they frequently succeed in influencing their thoughts. (Theory of Agenda-Setting)

• Motivating listeners: Through remarks and programs, the radio serves as a secondary

motivator. The way that people participate in group decision-making is facilitated and

improved by radio. Radio plays this function in energising the electorate to participate

through political programming.

Due to its advantages over print media, radio can reach larger viewers through its news

and other programs. Some of these benefits include its ability to reach a larger audience

concurrently and its low mental demand, which appeals to all audience segments (Ojomo,

2009). As a result, these natural qualities give it a larger obligation to advance the

development agenda at home and, very crucially, to watch over and protect the populace

from the excesses and abuse of public authority.

2.2.7 Electorates and Political Awareness

Educating voters on the value of participating in the democratic process is crucial to

empower them to make informed choices. It is not enough to tell voters about election

dates. Igwebuike (2019) asserts that elections continue to be the most suitable and widely

used mechanism for choosing representatives who would rule on behalf of and for the
people in any democratic context. To enable people to make an “informed” decision, they

must be informed about the electoral process and aware of the political parties, their

platforms, and the candidates’ backgrounds. The media owes it to its sizable audiences to

keep them up to date on political happenings. Voters must know their votes’ importance

and how each vote can advance democracy. They must be informed about the election

dates, the location of the polling place in their district, their registration on the electoral

roll, how to operate an electronic voting machine (EVM), how to obtain a voter’s photo

identification card, and voting ethics. Increased voter turnout will result from the impact of

electorates’ awareness.

Adebiyi (2021) contends that voters must be vigilant and educated about the political

parties’ platforms before casting their ballots. By being informed of and familiar with the

manifestos of the candidate’s political party, electorates should be aware of the

advantages that will accrue to them and their communities if they support a particular

candidate. Every political party has a manifesto serving the organisation’s core values.

According to Aririguzoh (2014), most Nigerian electorates are illiterate; therefore, they are

unaware of the major political parties’ manifestos, and those aware of them fail to

interpret them in a way that reveals which party is the best. Njoku (2009) asserted that

70% of Nigerian voters are unaware of the platforms of the country’s major political

parties. He attributed this to ignorance stemming from a dearth of programs for political

awareness-raising and education regarding the platforms of the major political parties.

Therefore, Unduru (2013) said that it is wise to make political party manifestos available to

voters to choose which party to support. He claims that in more developed regions, there is

sufficient political awareness about the election-day political manifestos of each party,

enabling voters to choose the best candidate.

 According to Babayo, Mohd & Bakri (2018), it is overwhelmingly surprising that out of

the 91 registered political parties and 73 participating parties, the vast majority of

Nigerians only know about 26 of them. This is according to a fact-finding survey to

determine the level of awareness of Nigerians concerning the registered political parties

participating in the 2019 general elections. This suggests that political parties other than

the PDP and APC have a low level of knowledge. Therefore, these political parties must

launch a campaign to raise awareness by setting up town hall meetings, rallies, and even

live appearances on radio and television around the nation. These political parties must

remain in the political landscape even after the elections are over since doing so will

afterwards raise voter knowledge of each party.

2.2.8 Communication and Civic Engagement

Civic accountability is the state of being accountable for the obligations, burdens, or

responsibilities of our community, nation, or country. It alludes to the duties we have as

citizens. It consists of behaviours and viewpoints related to social engagement and

democratic governance. Participation in government, church, volunteer work, and

affiliation with nonprofit organisations are all examples of civic responsibility. One can

show civic responsibility by lobbying for several causes, such as political, economic, civil,

environmental, or quality of life issues. Democracy and philanthropy can only succeed

when citizens take civic responsibility seriously. By exercising civic responsibility, citizens

support particular democratic norms in the Constitution and the Bill of Rights. These values

or obligations are justice, freedom, equality, diversity, authority, privacy, due process,

property, participation, truth, patriotism, human rights, the rule of law, tolerance, mutual

aid, self-control, and respect for others. Students are taught civic duty in schools to
develop into responsible citizens and involved members of their communities and

governments. The primary duties of a citizen include exercising their right to vote, abiding

by the law, paying taxes, etc. The following details these duties as well as others.
2.3 Empirical Review

Ojomo (2009) conducted research on the role of the electronic media in a nation’s

political development. Using the agenda-setting and two-step flow theories as supports,

the study examines the constitutionally prescribed roles of two electronic media namely:

radio and television in relation to the extent of performance of those roles. Citing

instances in the nation’s political history, the author attempts an examination of the

positive and negative impacts of radio and television on Nigeria’s political development.

The study concludes with recommendations on how the media could be more relevant in

the performance of those duties which society expects of them.

Abdollahyan and Machika (2017) in a study to ascertain the extent that the electorates

in Kano Nigeria were exposed to radio political campaign messages, as well as the extent to

which such messages influenced their voting decisions. The study determined whether or

not there is relationship between radio political campaign messages; interference of the

opinion leaders on the voters’ behaviour leading to turn out into participating during the

elections; and the outcome of the elections result. To achieve this, the study used the

survey method with the questionnaire as research instrument. Through multi-stage

sampling, 435 respondents were selected in the nine (9) local government areas, three (3)

each from the three senatorial districts in Kano and administered the questionnaire. This

research was launched on the premise of multi-step flow of communication theory. The

findings indicate, among other things, that the majority (90.0%) of electorates in Kano were

exposed to political campaign messages on radio. Explaining further, respondents (58.3%)

said they listen to political party related campaigns and were influenced by them while

casting their ballot. The findings further revealed that respondents (65.5%) were influenced

by opinion leaders in their choice of political parties or candidates during elections as they
perceived their advice/instruction as credible. In light of the findings, it was concluded that

political campaign messages aired by local radio stations were an essential factor in the

political decisions of the electorates in Kano. Similarly, it was recommended that producers

of political campaign messages should make optimum use of their right sense of judgment

in packaging their messages to avoid deception on voters. And, that opinion leaders while

interpreting the messages to opinion followers should always check the reality or

otherwise of the messages produced by parties and candidates to avoid misleading their

followers.

In another study titled ‘an assessment of the level of awareness of the electorate of the

manifestos of major political parties in Nigeria’, Santos (2011) examined the political

awareness of the electorate in Nigerian politics in Kosofe Local Government Area of Lagos

State. The study applied the descriptive research survey design for the assessment of the

opinions of the respondents with the use of the questionnaire and the sampling technique.

A total of 200 (two hundred) respondents made up of (100 males and 100 females) were

selected and used in this study to represent the entire population of the study. Five

research questions and five null hypotheses were, raised, formulated and tested with the

application of Pearson product moment correlational coefficient tool and the independent

t-test statistics at 0.05 level of significance. At the end of the exercise, the following results

emerged that: there is a relationship between voters’ awareness of party manifestoes and

voters’ voting patterns in Nigeria, there is a significant relationship between awareness of

party manifestoes and voters’ attitudes in an election, there is no significant gender

difference in the voting pattern of the electorate due to awareness of party manifestoes in

Nigeria, there is a significant relationship between voters’ awareness of party manifestoes

and pattern of voting in Nigeria, and there is a significance difference between the
attitudes of educated voters and that of their uneducated counterparts towards voting in

Nigeria. It was recommended among others that all elective parties should ensure that they

keep the electorate aware of what their parties’ manifestoes are before the elections so

that these electorate would know the best part that has the best manifestoes to vote for

and that parties seeking elections from the voters should always create awareness with the

electorate.

Harrison (2019) examined factors such as medium, interpersonal communication

exposure, objectivity and sycophancy so as to clearly determine the effectiveness of radio

political news in mobilizing people for election. Useful theories which are the agenda

setting theory, the social responsibility theory and the literature that constitute the basic

framework of the study were examined. An empirical survey was carried out in four

selected zones in Uyo metropolis. Data collected were analysed in order to determine the

effects of these factors on the efficiency of the radio political massages in mobilizing

people for elections. The urban areas of Akwa Ibom were clustered into four zones; Uyo,

Ibiono Ibom, Ikot Ekpene and Ikot Abasi. The total number of 200 sample was drawn and

strictly studied. Empirical evidence from findings revealed that the radio political

information has been the engineering mechanism in mobilizing people for election. It

makes up their political opinion and attitude, and leads them to political opinion formation.

The flexibility of radio and television especially in this political mediated era makes

broadcast media a unique tool in reaching diverse electorates and it is on this notion that

this study examines political communication and the broadcast media coverage of the 2019

general election. The survey research method was adopted coupled with questionnaire to

collect responses from respondents within Auchi Township in which 45 copies were

returned. The data were analyzed using frequency and percentage method. The research
findings showed that mass media especially broadcast media provides an avenue for the

citizens to get information about political activities, it did educate and sensitize masses on

various activities such as voter card registration, how to handle voter’s card, what to wear

during an election, how to participate in political rally and campaign, to the activities on

election day, coverage of election results, coverage of post-election activities like violence

and tribunal. The study, therefore, recommended that broadcast media should be free

from few influential politicians to avoid turning the media into tools of propaganda.

A democratic society without a mass media e.g., radio is referred to as deaf and blind

man that can neither hear or see what goes on in the society. That is to say, any man

without a radio in his house to enlighten him about the happenings in the society is deaf

while hearing and blind while seeing. The study asserted that without massive medium

(radio) in a democratic state, that democracy is doom.

In a study carried out by Adekoya, Akintoye & Adegoke (2015) on the role of radio in

mobilizing women for political participation in Nigeria, they examined the importance

of women’s participation in politics and how the radio has been used to facilitate or

improve participation. The survey research design was adopted and questionnaire was

used as data collection instrument. Data collected from the field were analysed, using

simple frequency percentage table and charts. Results from the collected data revealed

that radio indeed has positive impact in mobilising women to participate in politics and

with the right contents it can indeed become a potent medium in fostering development

for women in politics in Nigeria. A lot of improvement beyond what presently obtained can

still be achieved using the radio medium. All hands must be on deck irrespective of gender

differences to propel the nation to a desirable political state. Based on this premise and the
outcome of the analysed data, the study recommended ways through which more female

participation can be stimulated in the Nigerian political terrains.

 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research design

This refers to the way the researcher carries out the research in other to provide

answers to the research questions. This research adopted the descriptive survey design.

The researcher used survey method to assess the effect of radio political campaign

and voting behaviour of Rivers state residents; a case study of 2023 elections. According to

Ihejirika and Omego (2013), survey is one of the most popular methods used today to gain

knowledge of things people and events in the natural world.

3.2 Population of the Study

The population for the research was drawn from the population of residents in Rivers state

there are approximately seven million, four hundred and seventy-six thousand, eight

hundred people, (7,476,800) (2022 population census, Wikipedia).

3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure

Sampling involves selecting a subset of people to be studied from the larger universe

to which they belong, the sample procedure is an important feature of any study in which

the goal is to make inferences about a population from a sample. The sample size of this

study was determined using the Meyer’s Sample Size Determination Template as follows;

S/N POPULATION SIZE SAMPLE SIZE

1. Infinity 384

2. 500,000 384

3. 100,000 381

4. 50,000 381
 5. 10,000 370

Therefore, the sample size for this study was 384. The techniques used for this

research were the purposive and accidental sampling techniques. The purposive sampling

also called the judgmental sampling is so called because the researcher uses his or her own

judgement about which elements to choose for the sample. This means that the researcher

chooses those who best meet the purpose of the study, hence only a few registered voters

were selected for this study. Whereas, the accidental sampling technique was used to elicit

response from voters who were on ground and available at the field.

3.4 Research instrument

The research instrument used for this study was questionnaire. Questionnaire was

designed for the students to the effect of radio political campaign and voting behaviour of

Rivers state residents during the 2023 elections. The questionnaire had two sections- A and

B. Section A was concerned with demographic data of the respondents, while section B was

psychographic information on the respondents. The questions were straight to the point

and very easy to comprehend. The questions were constructed in such a simple way to

ensure a better understanding and clearer feedback.

3.5 Validity of research instrument

To authenticate the instrument, a copy was given to the supervisor for vetting before

it was administered to the respondents. The reason for this was to ensure the relevance of

questions to the subject under study.

3.6 Method of data collection

The data for the study were collected through the questionnaire. 381 copies of the

questionnaire were personally administered to the respondents by the researcher. The

questionnaire administered to the respondents with a help of research assistance that was

trained on how to administer questionnaire.

3.7 Method of data analysis

The data for the study, which were collected from the respondents, were presented

and analyzed with the aid of frequencies and percentages tables.

 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Data Presentation

Table 1 Exposure to Radio political Broadcasts

S/N Items Very Often Rarely Neve

often r

1 How frequently did you Freq 2 86 184 8 3.19

listen to radio broadcasts (%) (0.7) (29.5) (63.0) (2.7)

during the election

period?

2 How often did you Freq 42 66 174 4 3.45

encounter political (%) (14.4) 22.6) (59.6) (1.4)

campaign messages on

the radio?

Average Weighted Mean 3.07

Decision Rule: 1.5 to 2.49=Never; 2.5 to 3.49= Rarely; 3.5 to 4.49= Often; 4.5 to 5= Very

Often

Table 4.1 indicates that respondents averagely Chose rarely that political radio

broadcast gives prominence to the 2023 general election. Of all the parameters used in

measuring whether there are adequate radio political broadcasts, none shows that the
respondents Often listened to them. For instance, the respondents Chose rarely that

( =3.19) they listen to Citizen forum only. The participants Chose rarely that they listened to

Today 95.1 FM only ( =3.45). In the same vein, other indicators from the table show that

respondents averagely Chose rarely that listen to both programs ( =2.90); or listen to the

Citizen forum regularly ( =2.53); neither do they listen to Citizen forum occasionally ( =3.48)

and listening to Today 95.1 FM forum regularly or occasionally also stood averagely at

=3.34 and 2.98, respectively. The table also show a mean average of =2.90 for listening to

both programs regularly or occasionally.

On the whole, with a mean weighted average of =3.07 and standard deviation of 0.85 the

participants Chose rarely that radio political broadcast gives prominence to the 2023

general election.

Table 2: Mobilization and civic responsibilities

S/N Items Very Large Little Very

Large extent Extent little

Extent extent

3 To what extent did Freq 106 178 0 0 4.28

listening to radio political (%) (36.3) (61.0) (0.0) (0.0)

broadcasts during the

2023 election enhance

your understanding of

your civic
 responsibilities?

4 To what extent did the Freq 88 196 0 0 4.21

radio political broadcasts (%) (30.1) (67.1) (0.0) (0.0)

shape your political

views during the 2023

general election?

5 What extent did the Freq 98 174 20 0 4.26

radio political broadcasts (%) (33.6) (59.6) (6.8) (0.0)

have in mobilizing the

electorate in Rivers

State?

6 To what extent did you Freq 86 100 26 24 3.46

feel that the political (%) (29.5) (34.2) (8.9) (8.2)

broadcasts on the radio

provided adequate

information about your

civic responsibilities?

7 To what extent were you Freq 32 156 52 6 3.41

prompted to engage in (%) (11.0) (53.4) (17.8) (2.1)

political activities, like

registering to vote or

attending campaign

events, as a result of

listening to political
 broadcasts on the radio?

8 To what extent did the Freq 22 132 122 4 2.53

radio political broadcasts (%) (7.5) (45.2) (41.8) (1.4)

influence your choice of

candidates in the

2023general election?

9 What degree of impact Freq 30 200 36 4 3.48

did radio political (%) (10.3) (68.5) (12.3) (1.4)

broadcasts have on your

final decision at the

polls?

10 To what extent was the Freq 68 116 94 2 3.34

bias or impartiality in the (%) (23.3) (39.7) (32.2) (0.7)

political broadcasts on

radio stations in Rivers

State perceived?

11 To what extent did you Freq 62 178 28 10 2.98

trust the information (%) (21.2) (61.2) (9.6) (3.4)

presented in the political

broadcasts on the radio?

12 To what extent did the Freq 46 120 114 4 2.90

tone and style of the (%) (15.8) (41.1) (39.0) (1.4)

radio political broadcasts

influence your view of

 the candidates?

13 What level of balance did Freq 78 178 16 2 2.90

you think the radio (%) (26.7) (61.1) (5.5) (0.7)

political broadcasts

achieved in their

coverage of all

candidates and parties?

Average Weighted Mean 3.92

Decision 1.5 to 2.49=Very little extent; 2.5 to 3.49= Little Extent; 3.5 to 4.49= Large extent;

4.5 to 5= Very Large Extent

Table 4.2 shows that participants Agreed only at large extent that political radio

broadcast educates and mobilise electorates ( = 3.92) and Very little extent = 0.93).

Specifically, participants Agreed only at large extent that political radio broadcast enhances

their political information awareness positively ( = 4.28). Other indicators that proved the

participant’s Large extent include: being educated on the personalities and programs of

potential office holders ( = 4.21) and being allowed to make an informed choice ( = 4.26).

However, participants Little Extent Agreed only at large extent on political radio broadcasts

creating opportunities for them to ask important questions ( = 3.46) and enhancing the

quality of democratic governance ( = 3.41). Overall, the result indicated that the

participants posit that political radio broadcasts educate and mobilise electorates but do

not enhance the quality of democratic governance.

4.2 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The findings of this study are, at this moment, discussed in line with the specific objectives

and hypotheses set for the study.

4.2.1 Research Question One: Were residents of Rivers State exposed to radio political

broadcasts during the 2023 general elections?

The thrust of this study was to examine the exposure of the River state residents to

broadcasts by radio political forums during the2023 Nigeria’s general election. The political

broadcast determinants, according to this study, were the political programs (Citizen forum

and Today 95.1 FM and the frequency of listening to the programs.

The results in Table 1 reveal that the average weighted mean stood at x =3.07, which

indicates that respondents agreed that the selected radio political broadcasts do not give

adequate prominence to the 2023 general election. This implies that these programs do

not engage the public enough in political activities to infuse a decisional ability to stimulate

individualistic opinion. Furthermore, this study showed that most of the respondents only

listen to both programs occasionally and that the political messages of these programs are

inefficient in giving prominence to the 2023 general election. In contrast, the findings of

Harrison (2019) revealed that mass media, primarily broadcast media provide an avenue

for the citizens to get information about political activities; it educates and sensitises the

masses on various political activities such as voter card registration, how to handle voter’s

card, what to wear during an election, how to participate in political rally and campaign, to
the activities on election day, coverage of election results, coverage of post-election

activities like violence and tribunal.

This result follows that where the audience is not listening to both programs regularly

or occasionally (x=2.90), there will be apathy, alienation, and indifference to political

participation, especially in countries populated by business people; hence, the more

information, education, and enlightenment on the importance of politics, the more

interest, less apathy and determination in participating in it. Mass media, particularly radio,

play a crucial role in fostering an environment of good governance and political awareness.

Chudi-Oji (2013) posits that to embark on this task of electing leaders; people must be

mobilised to get enlightened via enlightenment campaigns, sensitisation, information

dissemination, and advocacy programs directed at community leaders, age grades,

development associations, opinion leaders, artisans, and other grassroots movements to

increase their awareness and foster attitudinal change towards active involvement and

participation in politics.

Overall, with a mean weighted average of x=3.07 and a standard deviation of 0.85, the

study concludes that Citizen Forum and Today 95.1 FM do not give prominence to the 2023

general election.

4.2.2 Research Question Two: What was the extent of exposure of residents of Rivers

State to radio political campaigns during the 2023 presidential election?

Findings from the survey show that participants agreed that political radio broadcasts

educate and mobilise electorates in Rivers state on their civic responsibilities (x= 3.92 and

SD = 0.93). This study reveals that political radio broadcasts enhance the electorate’s
political information awareness, educate them on the personalities and programs of

potential office holders, and help them make informed decisions. This finding implies that

political radio broadcast has become an instrument of political transformation of the entire

masses and, because of its effectiveness, has made those who were politically averse to be

politically conscious. This study, however, shows that political radio broadcasts do not

create an opportunity for the electorates to ask essential questions (x= 3.46) and enhance

the quality of democratic governance (x= 3.41). In other words, these programs are not

offering enough tutorial support and resources to stimulate discussions, reflections and

practical learning to the electorates on democratic governance.

The outcome of this study was in line with the position of Adibe (2015) when he

stressed that the electorate’s mobilization s are done through the production and airing or

publishing of political campaign messages that aim to educate and influence voters to act

during the elections. Buttressing this, Orji (2015) observed that political communication in

the form of various campaign messages was witnessed as Nigerians conducted their 2015

general elections. He asserts, “Radio, which is one of the most frequent media used by

campaign organisers and political parties, witnessed the presence of political campaign

messages even higher.” The result of the linear regression shows that political radio

broadcasts and electorates’ civic responsibilities had no significant influence on the

mobilization of electorates for voting responsibility with p. value of (β=. 108, t= 10.656,

p>0.05).

4.2.3 Research Question Three: What was the extent of mobilization of electorates in

Rivers state during the 2023 general election through radio political campaign?
 The third objective intended to find out how political radio broadcasts influence the

voting habit of the electorate in Rivers state. The findings of Table 3 of this study with an

average weighted mean (x=3.16) show that participants disagreed that political radio

broadcasts influence the voting habit of the electorate in Rivers state. This implies that if

the radio keeps the electorates informed by providing adequate political information,

voters will be influenced to act during the election. However, with (x= 4.38), respondents

agreed that political radio broadcasts inspire them to vote for any party of their choice.

This study outcome corroborated Perloff (2013) that electorates need to be

conscientious and sensitised towards the awareness of the manifestos of the political

parties seeking their votes. Electorates should know the benefits accruable to them and

their communities if they vote for a particular candidate through the awareness and

knowledge of the manifestos of the candidate’s political party. Olaniru et al. (2020) also

opined that 70% of the electorates are not aware of the manifestos of the major political

parties in Nigeria. He hinged this on ignorance due to a lack of education and

enlightenment programs designed to create political awareness about the political

manifestos of the main political parties. Rasheed (2016), therefore, suggested that it is

good to let the electorates be aware of the manifestos of the political parties as this will

enable them to decide which party to vote for. According to him, in advanced climes, there

is enough political awareness of the political manifestos of each party going into the

election so that the electorates would know the best party to be voted for.
4.2.4 Research Question Four: What was the extent of influence of radio political

campaigns on the voting habits of the electorates in Rivers State?

The fourth objective intended examine the extent that radio political broadcast

media influenced the voting habit of the electorates in River state during the 2023 general

elections. participants disagreed on political radio broadcasts creating opportunities for

them to ask important questions ( = 3.46) and enhancing the quality of democratic

governance ( = 3.41). Overall, the result indicated that the participants posit that political

radio broadcasts educate and mobilise electorates but do not enhance the quality of

democratic governance.

This study outcome agreed to Olaniru et al. (2020) who opined that 70% of the

electorates are not aware of the manifestos of the major political parties in Nigeria. He

hinged this on ignorance due to a lack of education and enlightenment programs designed

to create political awareness about the political manifestos of the main political parties.

Rasheed (2016), therefore, suggested that it is good to let the electorates be aware of the

manifestos of the political parties as this will enable them to decide which party to vote for.

According to him, in advanced climes, there is enough political awareness of the political

manifestos of each party going into the election so that the electorates would know the

best party to be voted for.

 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION AND SUGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDIES

5.1 Summary of Findings

The dissemination of information is one of the primary purposes of mass media. In

other words, the purpose of the mass media is to inform society’s citizens. It also serves

the purpose of establishing the news that the general public hears and sees (Sanchez,

2002), emphasising a particular aspect of the news to make that aspect of the news of the

utmost importance, and forcing the audience to take a particular action in response to the

issue raised in the news.

The radio, the least expensive and most portable medium, would be a valuable instrument

to reach out even to the plebs of society since the mass media could be utilised to set

agendas.

According to Adekoya, Akintoye & Adegoke (2015), radio is a very effective tool in rural

areas because it is not constrained by barriers like time, space, illiteracy, and electricity

supply, and it is simple to use. Radio also creates programs that inform and educate the

audience on new social trends, like political, business, current affairs, and religious issues ,

which are intended to raise awareness. Radio could be used to mobilise the population,

particularly in rural areas, to work toward a common social, political, economic, or cultural

objective. Therefore, because to the signal’s accessibility in all nooks and crannies of

society, it is particularly rich in educating, illuminating, and mobilising the electorates for

political engagement.
 The impact of the mass media, particularly radio, in contemporary times on the

political and socio-economic evolution of society cannot be over-emphasised. This is so

that the same message can be communicated to audiences speaking various languages

using the mass media, namely radio. It is capacity to concurrently reach millions of

individuals aids in enlightening people about social developments. Soumi (2016) asserts

that the media serves various purposes in every community. It enlightens, educates,

amuses, and even brings society’s members together to advance a specific objective. A

major communication tool in any given civilisation is the mainstream media. It broadcasts

messages to the public, informing them of what is proper or wrong.

The purpose of carrying out this research was to examine the effect of radio political

campaign and voting behaviours of Rivers state residents as a case study of 2023 elections.

The concept of radio political campaign and voting behaviours were reviewed along with

the histories, content and popularity of the shows among residents in Rivers State. An

extensive and comprehensive research was carried out to determine the effect of radio

political campaign and voting behaviour of Rivers state residents during the 2023 general

elections. Selected respondents were asked questions pertaining to the subject matter

through the use of a research instrument – a questionnaire. Based on the detailed research

carried out in the course of investigation, the following can be proven that;

1. That radio stations in Rivers State carried out political campaigns during

the 2023 election.

2. The extent to which residents of Rivers State were exposed to radio political broadcasts

during the 2023 general election posses a negative value to the society.

3. That the extent that radio political broadcasts mobilized electorates in Rivers State

towards their civic responsibilities during the 2023 election was basically on the negative
influence.

4. That the extent of influence of radio political campaigns on the voting habits of the

electorates in Rivers State were not negatively influenced.

5.2 CONCLUSION

In line with the result of the survey conducted, this study concludes that radio political

broadcast and electorates’ civic responsibilities had no significant influence on the

mobilization of electorates for voting responsibility and hence do not give prominence to

the 2023 general election. This suggests that if radio political broadcast does not provide

political information that facilitates and enhances the process by which individuals partake

in collective decision-making, mobilising electorates for voting responsibility will be

difficult.

The result also indicated that the participants posit that political radio broadcasts

enhance the electorate’s political information awareness, educate them on the

personalities and programs of potential office holders and hence help them to make

informed decisions educate and mobilise electorates but do not create opportunities for

them to ask essential questions neither enhance the quality of democratic governance.

The findings of this study further show that political radio broadcast does not influence

the voting habit of the Rivers state electorate but inspires them to vote for any party of

their choice. Without the radio keeping the electorates informed by providing adequate

political information, voters will not be influenced to act during an election.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

From the findings, it is absolute that the political radio broadcasts are not providing

adequate information to the electorates. Thus;

1. That radio stations in Rivers State carrying out political campaigns during elections

should do well to campaign every electorates, so that residents can always have a choice

after being aware of all the candidates.

2. Since residents of Rivers State are exposed to radio political broadcasts general elections,

radio programs should advocate forums where residents can express their minds too

3. That the extent that radio political broadcasts mobilized electorates in Rivers State

towards their civic responsibilities during the 2023 election was basically on the negative

influence, because it only ended during the election, so it should always be carried out till

date as reminders that it shouldn’t only be accounted during the elections but all times.

4. That the extent of influence of radio political campaigns on the voting habits of the

electorates in Rivers State should be aborted.

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 APPENDIX A

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION

University of Port Harcourt,

Port Harcourt,
Rivers state,
24th February, 2024.
Dear Respondent,
I am a student of the above named Institute conducting a post graduate research
work on topic: Radio political campaign and voting behavior of Rivers state residents; a case
study of 2023 elections. I wish to solicit for your cooperation in this regards. Kindly respond
appropriately to all items on the questionnaire. Your responses shall be kept in strict
confidence and use for research purpose only.

Thanks for your co-operation and understanding.

Yours faithfully,

Wilson Mbuot-idem Wilson

U2019/1825118
 QUESTIONNAIRE

Instruction: Please tick your response in the appropriate space provided below.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

i. Age Range: 18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55 and

above

ii. Gender: Male Female

iii. Educational level: Primary school Secondary school Tertiary education

Post graduate

Section B

Exposure to Radio political Broadcasts

1. How frequently did you listen to radio broadcasts during the election period?

Never [ ] Rarely[ ] Often[ ] Very often[ ]

2. How often did you encounter political campaign messages on the radio? Never [ ]

Rarely [ ] Often [ ] Very often[ ]

Mobilization and civic responsibilities

3. To what extent did listening to radio political broadcasts during the 2023 election

enhance your understanding of your civic responsibilities? Very little extent [ ]

Little Extent [ ] Large extent[ ] Very Large Extent [ ]

4. To what extent did the radio political broadcasts shape your political views during

the 2023 general election? Very little extent [ ] Somewhat [ ] Little Extent[ ]

Large extent [ ] Very Large Extent [ ]

5. What extent did the radio political broadcasts have in mobilizing the electorate in

Rivers State ? Very little extent [ ] Little Extent[ ] Large extent [ ]Very Large

Extent [ ]

6. To what extent did you feel that the political broadcasts on the radio provided

adequate information about your civic responsibilities? Very little extent[ ] Little

Extent [ ] Large extent[ ] Very Large Extent [ ]

7. To what extent were you prompted to engage in political activities, like registering to

vote or attending campaign events, as a result of listening to political broadcasts on

the radio? Very little extent[ ] Little Extent[ ] Large extent[ ]

Very Large Extent [ ]

8. To what extent did the radio political broadcasts influence your choice of candidates

in the 2023general election? Very little extent[ ] Little Extent [ ] Large

extent[ ] Very Large Extent [ ]

9. What degree of impact did radio political broadcasts have on your final decision at

the polls? Very little extent [ ] Little Extent[ ] Large extent [ ]

Very Large Extent [ ]

10. To what extent was the bias or impartiality in the political broadcasts on radio

stations in Rivers State perceived? Very little extent [ ] Little Extent [ ]

Large extent [ ] Very Large Extent [ ]

11. To what extent did you trust the information presented in the political broadcasts

on the radio? Very little extent [ ] Little Extent [ ]Large extent Very Large Extent

[ ]
 12. To what extent did the tone and style of the radio political broadcasts influence your

view of the candidates? Very little extent [ ] Little Extent [ ] Large

extent [ ] Very Large Extent [ ]

13. What level of balance did you think the radio political broadcasts achieved in their

coverage of all candidates and parties? Very little extent [ ] Little Extent [ ]

Large extent[ ] Very Large Extent [ ]