WARNING SIGNS

Warning signs are indications, which appear on containers of modern chemicals or in any other
places where the nature of the chemical are stored. These indications give prior information to
the user about the nature of the chemical he is going to use. Warning signs may show that a
chemical is toxic, flammable, oxidizing, corrosive or harmful (irritant).

1. Explosive
For explosive to explode they must be detonated. Some
explosives can react without external detonation while others
can’t. Those which react without external detonation are much
more dangerous. Although explosives are dangerous they never
explode if handled with carelessly or when instruction for its
handling are deviated. Explosives should not be stored in glass
containers because in case of explosion grass particles will fly
around and will cause injuries to people.

2. Oxidizing

This is a chemical, which speed up the rate of burning of a substance.

When oxidizing agent is mixed and burned together with other substance,
the rate burning of that substance will be increased. Explosion may result
when oxidizing agent is burned together with organic material. For
example saw dust burn explosively when mixed with oxidizing agent.

3. Flammable

This group includes all chemicals, which catch fire easily. They
should always be put away from the open flame. When a need arises,
it is advisable to use elastic heater for their heating. Make sure that all
burners are put off before working with flammable chemicals. Always
make sure that the containers of these chemicals are stoppered
immediately after use because they are very volatile.

4. Toxic

Toxic substances are potential poisons. They cause death when they
inter into the body through the skin mouth, nose, ears or eyes. When
working with them make sure that they never touch your skin. In
case they touch wash the part touched with large amount of water.
This sign provides the warning to anyone who intends to use a toxic
substance about what will happen in case it is handled carelessly

5. Corrosive

These are substances, which cause corrosion. They have ability of

corroding various substances wherever they contact them. For
example they have ability of corroding floors. Desktops and metals.
They can burn even people’s skin. This group includes concentrated
mineral acids such as H2SO4, HCl, HNO3 and concentrated alkalis
 such as NaOH, KOH, NH3.

6. Harmful or irritant

Harmful or irritant substances affect people’s health after they have

been exposed to them for long periods. Many people prefer to ignore
them because of their tendency of exerting ill effects slowly. Generally
it is advised to handle them according to safety instruction provided.
You may become sick or your health may be endangered if they come in
contact with your skin or eyes for too long.

7. Laser light

 Laser Beam
 Laser ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation’ is usually a direct beam of light in one
colour.
 Laser is very powerful enabling it to cut metal, seal
objects and is used in surgical procedures. That is
why you will find laser beams in factories, hospitals
and surgical theatres. Letting your skin to come in
direct contact with laser beam can be very dangerous
and can have some disastrous consequences.
 The eye is the most susceptible and can be damaged
the easiest. If you wear no eye protection, looking at a
laser beam can cause retinal damage, leading to
damage to damage to the eye, which can cause
blindness or partial blindness. Always wear
appropriate eye wear; always check with the owner of
the equipment which eye wear is the best.
 Laser beams can also cause fire so do not direct at
any flammable substances.

8. Biohazards
  Biological hazards such as microbes, animals, plants and
genetically modified agents(vectors and virus). It occurs when
there is potential exposure to allergies, microbes and
experimental agents such as viral vectors and genomes. Some
of the human diseases emanates from biological hazard after
infection by these exposures in the laboratory.

9. Ionizing radiation hazards

 Radioactive hazards; ionizing radiation. It occurs naturally from

solar radiation and other types of radiations which are utilized by
humans for medical purposes; e.g. X-rays, Gamma and beta
rays. However overexposure to radiations can cause cancer, skin
burns and tissue damage.

10. High voltage hazards

 High voltage
 This sign ‘high voltage’ means that voltage is at high level that if
any living organism comes into contact with the electricity, the
electricity will cause harm or even death. This sign is found in
industrial sites and in perhaps laboratories.
 Always stay clear of areas marked with this sign as coming into
contact with the electricity will mean serious injury or death.
 Many people ask how many volts ‘high voltage’ is considered to
be. The answer to this question remains debated but in electric
power transmission, it is said to be 35,000 volts. The IET say that
high voltage is over 1000 volts. In industries workers protect
themselves by wearing plastic gloves and other clothing.
Fig 9.3: Hot surface

 Hot Surface
 This sign warns you that the equipment and apparatus besides you may be extremely hot
and can severely burn you.
 This sign can be found in laboratories with hot plates to industrial areas with hot
machines and steam pipes.
 Placing this sign on a piece of apparatus implies that do not touch as you will get severely
burnt.

Fig 9.4: low temperature

Figure 1: Low Temperature

  Low Temperature
 This sign indicates very low temperature, much lower than freezing point.
 You may find this sign in chemical storage areas, for storing liquid nitrogen and other
chemicals.
 Do not enter these areas without the supervision of a scientist and without appropriate
protection.

Fig 9.5: Eye wash station

 Eye Wash Station

 This sign indicates the location of an eye wash station. If you accidentally place foreign
chemicals or substances into your eyes, always try to locate an eye wash station
immediately! Although some wash station signs may look different, always try to locate
the station if there is no sign.
 A typical eye wash station looks like the picture of the right, and contains two bottles of
the eye wash. Eye wash is a fluid which contains saline. Saline aids the rinsing of the eye
and provides relief.
  However, if you do get foreign chemicals in your eyes, always go to your hospital
immediately! The chemicals that entered your eye could be corrosive and could cause
permanent blindness.

Fig 9.8: Dangerous to the environment

Dangerous to the Environment

 This sign indicates a substance which may harm or kill natural species in the environment
including aquatic species, trees and plants.
 Throwing a substance with this sign into a lake or drainage system is not recommended;
it could harm or even kill fish in lakes, trees and plants or other animals.
 A substance which is dangerous to the environment is white spirit, which is used to clean
paint from objects.
Fig 9.1: Gloves required

 Gloves Required
 This symbol means that you have to wear gloves in protection from harmful chemicals or
other materials. It is recommended to always wear gloves when dealing with caustic
substances and other dangerous chemicals. Most hospitals and laboratories have plastic
glove dispenser, so wear gloves before you enter a hospital laboratory and other chemical
analysis laboratories.
 To stay safe, you can wear gloves at all times in a laboratory if you wish, the gloves
protect you from chemicals.
Categories of Laboratory Hazards
This section will explain common hazards in school laboratory and categories of laboratory
hazards. These categories of laboratory hazards include chemical hazards, biological hazards,
radiation hazards, physical hazards, electrical hazards, mechanical hazards and airborne hazards.
 Common Hazards in School Laboratory
Lab hazardcan be explained generally to mean biological, mechanical, chemical, environmental
or physical agent that is reasonably likely to cause harm or damage to humans, other organism
and the environment in the absence of its control. It can cause damage/danger when; touched/
swallowed/ gazed/ inhaled, enlightened/mishandled or else exposed to it unfavorably.
 Common Laboratory Hazards are:
 Chemical hazards such as toxins, corrosive, flammable and reactive. The source is the use
of chemicals in research and school laboratories. This is because the use of chemicals in
research and investigations is inevitable. It becomes a potential human harm or injury
 when misused or mishandled. Cleaning agents, drugs and anesthetics gases are examples
of chemical hazards. Potential exposure to chemical hazards can occur both during use
and with poor storage.
 Biological hazards such as microbes, animals, plants and genetically modified
agents(vectors and virus). It occurs when there is potential exposure to allergies,
microbes and experimental agents such as viral vectors and genomes. Some of the human
diseases emanates from biological hazard after infection by these exposures in the
laboratory.
 Radioactive hazards; ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. It occurs naturally from solar
radiation and other types of radiations which are utilized by humans for medical
purposes; e.g. X-rays, Gamma and beta rays. However overexposure to radiations can
cause cancer, skin burns and tissue damage.
 Physical hazards; includes egormic hazards and vibration heating devices, noise,
projectiles, fire, cold. Physical hazards have both human and natural elements. They can
cause harm with or without.
 Electrical hazards; fire i.e. burns from contact with live parts and electrical shock. Injury
from exposure to arcing, fire from faulty electrical equipment or installations and high
voltage electrical devices are examples of electrical hazards.
 Mechanical hazards; moving machinery. It includes the hazards involving a machine or
process. Motor vehicles, rotating machines and falling equipments are some causatives of
mechanical hazards. It can be taken care of by avoiding wearing loose fitting, clothing or
necklaces that could be drawn into a rotating assembly.
 Airborne hazardous material; dust and vapor. Most airborne hazards originate from air
pollution whereby there is introduction of particulates, biological molecules or microbes
and other harmful materials into the earth’s atmosphere. This can cause diseases, death
and can damage animals, vegetation and food crops.

Special Hazards

Though the hazards in science laboratories vary widely, there are a number of types of work that
present unique hazards that require special training as the hazards may present severe
consequences not only to the individuals doing the work but to all those around him/her as well.
Some of these hazards re discussed below

Electricity
Due to the increasingly instrumental nature of laboratory research today, many devices and
instruments are electrically powered. Some devices such as lasers, power supplies, and vacuum
pumps can pose serious safety hazards even death if used improperly. Consequently, it is critical
to obtain training in the proper use of these devices and instruments before you begin to use them
in your research.

 Always keep one hand at your side when working with high voltage devices such as
power supplies, lasers, and electrophoresis equipment.
 Turning the "on/off" switch off doesn't necessarily mean that an electrical device doesn't
have the potential to harm you. Be sure to discharge large capacitors before you work
with power supplies and other high voltage devices.

 Wear rubber gloves when you work with high voltage devices.

 Don't work with any electrical device using wet hands.

 Don't use any instrumentation that has frayed or split electrical cords.

 Make sure that you know where the electrical circuit breakers for your research
laboratory in case you need to turn the electricity off for any reason.

 Be sure that all high voltage devices are properly grounded. Generally this means using
devices equipped with three prong electrical plugs. The third prong is intended to provide
a path to ground. However, it is important.

Centrifuge

When operated properly, today's centrifuges are very safe and reliable devices. Some useful
general guidelines regarding their proper use follow:

 Be sure to properly balance your load in the centrifuge.

 Lock down the cover of the centrifuge before turning it on.

 Never leave a centrifuge unattended while it is running.

 Don't attempt to open the centrifuge until it has completely stopped. Most modern
centrifuges have interlocks preventing users from doing this.

 Never disarm the interlock for any reason. It is there for your protection.
Autoclave

Autoclaves use very hot, pressurized steam to sterilize biological samples and materials.
Consequently, they present several different potentially serious hazards to users including
scalding, biohazard contamination, and explosions. Therefore, it is very important to obtain
safety training before using an autoclave in your research. Useful general guidelines for use of an
autoclave follow:

 Locate and thoroughly read through the instructor's manual for the make and model of
autoclave that you will use before you begin your work.
 Wear lab glasses and/or goggles, a lab coat, and heat-resistant gloves when working with
an autoclave.

 Do not place sharps or other pointed materials freely inside an autoclave bag but instead
place them in a sharps or other solid container.

 Do not overfill autoclave bags and/or the autoclave as this may lead to incomplete
decontamination of the autoclave contents.

 Never attempt to autoclave flammable or volatile solvents as they represent a serious

explosion hazard.

 Never leave an autoclave unattended while it is in operation.

 If an accidental release or spill takes place inside the autoclave, wait until the autoclave is
cool before attempting to clean up the spill.

Glassware

 Always inspect your glassware before beginning a new experiment for cracks.
 Wear safety glasses and/or goggles when working with glassware as there is always the
potential that it may shatter.

 If you drop and break a piece of glassware, don't attempt to pick up the broken pieces
with your bare hands. Instead use a broom to sweep the broken pieces into a dustpan and
dispose of the pieces in a broken glass container.

 If you need to cut a piece of glass tubing, place the piece of tubing on a flat surface and
score it evenly and deeply using a good file or glassware cutter. Moisten the cut with
water and turn the tubing over so the scored side is away from you. Place a paper towel
 over the tubing, place your thumbs on opposite sides of the scored section and gently tap
the piece of tubing with the blunt end of the file or tubing cutter. Be sure to fire polish the
ends of the tubing to remove any jagged or sharp edges.

Compressed Gas

Compressed gases are gases stored under pressure in a metal cylinder. Small cylinders are often
referred to as lecture bottles. The pressure of a gas in a cylinder is typically expressed in
kilopascal or pounds per square inch (psig).

There are three kinds of compressed gases:

Liquified gases are gases that become liquids at room temperature when compressed at high
pressure in a cylinder. Carbon dioxide is an example of a commonly used liquefied gas.

Non-liquified gases are gases that remain gases at room temperature even at high pressure.
Examples of frequently used non-liquified gases are nitrogen, argon, and oxygen.

Dissolved gases are gases that are dissolved in a volatile solvent in order to stabilize them.
Acetylene is a good example of a dissolved gas. It is usually dissolved in acetone.

Compressed gases present a wide range of significant potential safety hazards. Some compressed
gases such as hydrogen chloride or ammonia are highly corrosive. Others such as hydrogen or
acetylene are highly reactive and/or flammable. Even inert gases such as nitrogen can be
dangerous because in confined areas their rapid release may displace enough oxygen causing
loss of consciousness and asphyxiation. Research and know the chemical and toxicological
properties and safety precautions before working with any compressed gas. Be sure to consult
your Office of Environmental Health and Safety in advance concerning the correct handling and
storage procedures peculiar to the gas with which you will work.

Identification of Compressed Gases

Tanks are color coded to facilitate ready identification of gas contents. However, you should
never rely on the tank color for identification as the color coding is not standardized and may
vary from supplier to supplier. Always read the label on the tank before use. Do not attempt to
use a gas tank which does not have a written label of identification for any reason.

Regulators
Regulators are gas specific. Be sure to use the proper regulator for the gas tank you are using.
The regulator should be securely attached to the tank using a crescent wrench. The threading on
the regulator should never be wrapped with Teflon tape. This is particularly important in the case
of oxidizing gases due to concern regarding flammability but it is forbidden in general with any
type of gas because small pieces of teflon could get caught int the regulator potentially causing a
failure. Two stage regulators are commonly used in most laboratories when working with
compressed gases. The gauge closest to the tank itself is the main gauge. This gauge provides a
reading of the total pressure of the gas in the tank. The primary stage should be kept closed
whenever the gas tank is not actually in use - never leave a gas cylinder that is use unattended.
The second stage allows careful control and release of a lower constant pressure of gas. The
reading on the second gauge provides an indication of the actual pressure of the gas being
released from the tank. Note that when the gauge reads zero, there is still likely some gas present
in the tank.

Flammable and/or Reactive Gases

Cylinders containing flammable and/or reactive gases should be stored and used in well-
ventilated areas and should never be operated in the vicinity of open flames or electrical devices
capable of sparking. The regulators on these cylinders should be regularly inspected for leaks
using snoop or gas leak detectors.

Storage of Gas Cylinders

Cylinders and lecture bottles should always be secured using sturdy metal chains and/or straps to
a wall or a cart to prevent their falling over.

Transportation of Gas Cylinders

Gas cylinders should always be transported using an appropriate wheeled gas transport cart. Gas
cylinders should never be rolled, spun, twirled, or dragged. Before transportation, the gas
regulator should always be removed. The main valve on the tank should be completely closed
and the cap should be screwed on the tank. A minimum number of gas tanks should be
transported using the cart at any one time.

Lasers

Lasers produce intense focused monochromatic beams of light in the ultraviolet, visible, or
infrared spectral range. Lasers present three potential kinds of hazards: photochemical, electrical,
and chemical. Unprotected laser exposure can cause serious and permanent damage to the skin
and the delicate tissue of eyes. So, users should wear laser safety goggles when working with
lasers. The power sources for lasers also present a significant electrical hazard. Users should use
due caution when working around laser power supplies. Use one hand and make sure your hands
are dry and that you are not standing in water when working around the laser power supply.
Some lasers present chemical hazards to users as well. The organic dyes such as Rhodamine 6G
circulated in dye lasers are carcinogenic or mutagenic and should be handled only with
protective gloves.

Ways of Controlling Lab Hazards

This part will describe control measures of different laboratory hazards that are chemical,
biological, radiation, physical, electrical, mechanical and airborne hazards.
To be able to limit or curb the common laboratory hazards the following measures are important;

i. For radiation hazards: - All warning signs of an approved type must be conspicuously
posted outside entrance door to rooms e.g. lasers, x-rays, high voltage devices and others.

ii. For ingestion exposure: - The following should be avoided: never pipette by mouth,
never eat or drink in labs, never use chemical equipments as containers for food or drink.

iii. For absorption exposure: -Wear appropriate gloves, conduct procedures correctly so as
to avoid splashes and spills, immediately wash any splashed chemical from your skin.

iv. For injection exposure:- Labs must have proper disposal containers for needles.

v. Emergency:- Emergence alarm point should be installed in labs or close to them.

Emergency eyewash station should be provided and fire extinguishers (CO2, powder,
sand and blankets) should be accessible.
Challenges of Safety in the Laboratory
It can be difficult for the people who are working inside the lab to workefficiently, effectively
and safely due to the following:
a) Improper lab attire; this means that it is not appropriate to work in the laboratory without
putting on fine or formal laboratory clothes and protective as follows:
i. Goggles hanging loosely on forehead/around the neck,
 ii. No laboratory coat,
iii. Long messy hairs not tied back or confined,
iv. Wearing short open shoes i.e. sandals
v. Handling harmful chemicals and materials without wearing gloves and face protection
vi. Handling dangerous substances without a safety shield.

b) Improper lab techniques; this means that it not appropriate to do the following while
working inside the laboratory:
i. Take a drink from a can of soda that is on the demonstration table,
ii. To blow big bubbles of gum throughout the demonstration,
iii. To set up the Bunsen burner without consulting the instructor or laboratory technician,
iv. To heat up the beaker/test-tube while holding it using naked fingers,
v. To finish lab work and thereafter walk/move out without washing up the apparatus and
wiping up the bench surface.

SAFETY IN THE CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

The work you will do in the chemistry laboratory is a very important part of your course in high
school chemistry. Here you will be given a chance to learn by “first-hand” experience – you will
be able to make your own conclusions on the basis of your own observations. You will become
familiar with the materials and procedures used by chemists, and develop skill in handling and in
using chemical apparatus. In order to make the best use of these opportunities, and to permit
large groups to work efficiently and safely, there are certain rules which you will have to learn
and follow. Read these rules and precautions carefully and observe all of them always.

General rules

1. The laboratory is a place for serious work. You will be working with chemicals and
apparatus that may be dangerous if used carefully. Therefore, it is important for you to
understand meaning and purpose of all directions before you being to perform each
experiment.
2. When performing an experiment, read the directions carefully and follow them exactly. Use
only the chemicals and the amounts indicated. Observe all the special safety precautions
which are indicated on the experiment sheet.
3. Observe all instructions given by the teacher. If you need help, ask your teacher.
4. Make sure to read the label on the bottle or container of chemicals, so as to be certain you are
using the correct reagent. It is a good habit to read the label on the bottle three times; first
when you remove the bottle from the shelf, again when you are ready to pour from the bottle,
and once more when you replace the bottle on the shelf.
5. Do not perform any experiment which is not approved by your teacher. If, after you have
gained more knowledge and experience, you wish to try an original experiment, explain your
plan to the instructor and obtain his consent. Your instructor will want you to explain the
purpose as well as the plan of your experiment.
6. Never work alone in the laboratory. Your teacher will be present in the school laboratory. If
you work in your home “lab” make sure that someone is within calling distance when you are
performing an experiment.
7. Never taste or smell chemicals unless you are told to do so. A safe way to smell a gas is to
wave the gas toward your nose with your hand and sniff gently.
8. In case of an accident, no matter how minor or trivial, report to your instructor immediately.

Additional safety rules

Heating
1. Learn how to light a Bunsen burner “strikes back”, turn off the gas immediately. Do not
touch the burner –it may be hot.
2. Do not reach across a flame
3. Keep the lighted burner away from your clothing, books or other flammable materials.
4. Do not stand too close to apparatus in which material is being heated.
5. Always point a test tube that is being heated away from yourself and your neighbours
6. Before picking up any material which has been heated, hold the back of your near it. If you
can feel the heat being given off, it is too hot to pick up in your hands. Always use tongs or a
clamp to handle hot dishes.
Glass
1. Fire-polish the ends of glass tubing or rods as soon as they have been cut.
2. Never to try to push glass tubing or a thistle tube trough a hole in a rubber stopper or cork.
First lubricate the glass tube and the hole in the stopper with water, use a towel to protect
your hand, and then twist the tube into the hole in the stopper. If tube does not move readily
in the stopper, consult you instructor.
3. Be sure that the outsides of test tubes, beakers, and flasks are dry before they are heated. Use
a wire screen to protect a flask or beaker from the direct flame of Bunsen burner.
4. Do not heat bottles or other articles of thick glass.

Acids and bases

1. Be extra careful when using acids or bases, Pour these only over a sink.
2. Always be sure that you are using the proper kind and concentration of acid or base called for
in the experiment.
3. In dilution acids, always pour the acid slowly into the water while stirring the mixture.
4. If any acid or base come in contact with your skin or clothing, rinse it off at once with a large
amount of water. Tell your teacher what happened.

Cleanliness

1. Solid wastes should be placed in the cans or crocks provided for that purpose, and never
thrown into the sink.
2. Do not place a stopper from a reagent bottle on the table. Impurities on the table may be
picked up and contaminate the contents of the bottle.

A. Be safety conscious.

1. Cuts from glassware:

Never use pressure when breaking it. Flame the ends.
Lubricate (use water or glycerine). Use a cloth or protect in a wrapper.
2. Securing of apparatus by use of -e.g. correct clamp device.
3. Check all glassware for damage. Discard whenever possible
4. Use the proper market metal containers for disposal.
5. Precautions when heating glassware:
Never heat above liquid level. Use appropriate type of gauze.
When heating crucible use a pipe clay triangle.
When using a sand bath ensure the apparatus used is dry.

B. Toxic substances
Label the bottle correctly. Constantly refer to label and digest hazards involved. ACIDS and
ALKALS are corrosive and should never be allowed to cone into contact with the Flesh.

1. Acetic Acid – Fumes readily – causing coughing, etc. Can cause blisters
2. Carbonic Acid – (phenol): a 5% solution can cause numbness, lose fingers. It causes
irritation. A stronger solution can cause a permanent scar to form.
3. Chronic Acid- (Use for cleaning glassware). It causes dermatitis (skin infection)
4. Formic Acid:- very volatile, must NOT be breathed. Can cause ulcers on the skin.
5. Hydrochloric Acid:- Not as corrosive. Can burn if left in contact. It fumes readily.
6. Hydrofluoric Acid:- Very dangerous. Fumes readily,- Attacks the respiratory organs with
some violence. The concentrated acid causes blisters which are extremely difficult to cure.
7. Nitric Acid:- one of the most corrosive. Stains the skin-yellow/brown (caucasion).
Particular care when using with some metals.
8. Sulphuric Acid:-Very corrosive – causes serious burns which could result in permanent
disfiguring scars.
9. Organic Acid:- Less corrosive but do not leave it in contact with the skin for any length of
time.

C: More toxic substance.

1. Alcohol: Highly inflammable.

2. Aldehydes (Formaldehyde). Readily fumes. Irritating to the throat. Can cause bronchial
catarrh.
3. Amines: fumes are dangerous and should not be inhaled.
4. (a) Ammonia: Fume readily. Care when opening a bottle – particularly partially full
bottles. Action of Ammonia on chlorine-bag.
(b) Ammonium Iodide:- Explodes on heating.
(c) Ammonium Nitrate – use as a constituent of explosives. Should never be ground with
other substances in a pestle and mortar. Explodes when heated alone.
5. Any Nitrite: - Fumes can cause fainting. (Blood is made to flow to head).
6. Aniline:- is a blood poison . Never allow to come in contact with the skin. Fumes
shouldn’t be in haled. Remove affected clothing immediately.
7. Arsenic: - Host of these compounds are volatile, most derivatives are poison. The
Hydride ASH3 is extremely dangerous. One part in 100,000 is dangerous if breathed.
8. Benzene:- causes headaches and giddiness (as do xylene & toluene)
9. Bromates:- React similar to chlorates though less vigorous.
10. Bromine: A fuming volatile liquid, fumes, - extremely irritant action on the mucous
membrane, causing inflammation of the lung. One part in 100,000 is said to be injurous
while one part in 3,00 has produce fatal results. The fumes also attack the eyes, produce
severe pains after with dangerous results. The liquid, on contact with the skin produces a
nasty burn.
11. Carbon Bisulphide :- Vapour very poisonous.
12. Carbon Monoxide:- The poisonous nature of this cannot be over emphasized: five parts in
10,000 have a poisonous effect and two parts in 1,000 are a danger to life. Moreover it
attacks suddenly with very little warning if any - DEATH occurs in a few minutes.
13. Carbon Tetrachloride:- is a powerful narcotic. Its vapour should not be breathed.
Although is no-inflammable it should not be used near an open flame, not even a lighted
cigarette as the vapour formed are extremely acidic
14. Chlorates:- All the chlorates are powerful oxidizing agents and explode readily, KClO3
with explode if heated by itself to a high temperature. It should never be heated even to a
low temperature with any of following substance:- phosphorus, sulphur, carbon Sulphuric
acid and many organic substances.
15. Chlorine:- The poisonous nature of this gas is also well known. One part in 100,000 is
injurous while one part is 3,000 is fatal. All the oxides of chlorine are explosive, liquid
chlorine monoxide is said to explode when pouring from one vessel to another. The gas
will explode on contact with phosphorous, sulphur and other substances, chiefly organic.
16. Chronic acid:- A mixture of this and glycerine is known to explode when heated. It has
been known to explode when scratched.
17. Dinitrobenzene:- preparation of this requires great care fumes cause serious headaches,
giddiness, nausea, sleeplessness and injurous to the eyes. The solid can be absorb through
the skin and can poison the blood. It should never be handled without protective
garments.
18. Ether:- Do not inhale large quantities. Causes headaches and giddiness; and is dangerous
if inhaled in large quantities.
19. Fluorine:- Must be treated carefully as must all its compounds. The fumes are particularly
obnoxious and highly poisonous.
20. Gun powder:- 10% carbon monoxide
2.5% Hydrogen Sulphide.
21. Hydrogen: - Test first before igniting (forms explosive mixture with air).
22. Hydrogen Cyanide:- Very volatile, very poisonous. Produces fumes which are extremely
poisonous. Never pipette orally. Use a rubber bulb.
23. Hydrogen Sulphide:- Dangerous. Five parts in 10,000 is injurous; ten parts in 10,000 is
fatal. In smaller quantities – causes headaches, giddiness and irritation cause headaches,
giddiness and irritation of the mucous membrane. It is inflammable near an open flame.
 24. Inflammables:- Care when handling. Close all containers immediately after use. Never
allow naked flames in the vicinity of solvents. 500 cc only of each solvent can be kept on
laboratory benches. Larger quantities if required should be stored in a safe place-under a
fume cupboard.
25. Iodates: React similar to chlorates, but not as vigorous.
26. Mercury:- All its salts are very poisonous. Vapour is injurous to health – has been known
to cause death. Use a tray to put mercury in. never leave it exposed to the air. Cover any
surface with water. Spillages should be covered with sulphur.

FIRST AID
General notes
1. In all cases of serious injury (or suspected serious injury), of injuries to the eye, or of poisoning,
the patient should be taken to a doctor or hospital immediately after applying first aid.
2. All science teachers should know that to do in the event of an accident – it is too late to read
the first instructions after the accident has occurred. The first aid instructions should
nevertheless, be prominently displayed in case of doubt.
3. Before applying first aid wash your hands in water (preferably containing a little dettol or
similar antiseptic) and dry them on a piece of sterile gauze.
4. A written report should be made on every accident, however trivial, as soon as the necessary
first aid has been completed. Some authorities supply forms for this purpose. The report
should state already: Name of student, course, Name of teacher incharge at the at the time,
subject of lesson; room in which the lesson was taking place; Date and time of accident,
circumstances of accident (including whether it was the result of failure to comply with
instructions); Nature and extent of injuries; first aid applied; if student was taken to a doctor
or hospital and, if so, time and by whom seen.
Shock
Any serious accident will produce shock – the patient may feel cold and faint, lose colour
and breathe irregularly.
1. Take immediate steps to deal with injuries and reassure the patient
2. Pat the patient to sit or lie down in fresh air
3. Loosen any tight clothing
4. Keep warm with blankets, coats, etc
5. If possible give warm, sweet, tea-only if patient of conscious

Wounds
Small cuts or scratches
1. Wash with clean water, or Dettol dilute 1 part in 10 parts of water
2. Apply antiseptic cream on a sterile gauze dressing, secured by sticking plaster or bandage.
Dry burns and scalds
Severe (Where the burn covers more than a small area or where the skin is broken)
1. Apply a thick pad of dry, sterile gauze making sure that the infected area is completely
covered. Do not apply any cream, oil flour etc. Do not pull away any burned clothing
adhering to the skin, unless it is still smoldering.
2. Bandage the pad very lightly in place.
3. If the patient has to wait more than an hour for medical attention saturate the whole dressing
with a solution of sodium bicarbonate in water.
4. Treat for shock.
5. Take the patient, at once, to a doctor or hospital.

Burns from corrosive chemicals

Acid burns
1. Wash with much water e.g. under a running tap for 15 minutes.
2. Apply saturated sodium bicarbonate solution.
3. Treat as a burn or scald.

Alkali burns
1. Wash with much water
2. Apply 1% Acetic Acid (approx. 3ml. in 250 ml. water).
3. Treat as a burn or scald.
NOTE: It is most important in treating acid and alkali burns that
(i) A copious supply of water may be used and
(ii) The neutralizing agent is not applied until after washing with water. If this precautions
are neglected the heats of solution and neutralization may lead to further damage.

Phosphorus burns

(1) Wash off all traces of phosphorus with much water.

(2) It should then be soaked in a 2% solution of sodium bicarbonate
(3) Followed by treating the burn with copper sulphate ointment (or 1% copper sulphate
solution)
(4) Then washing the burns with a 2% solution of sodium bicarbonate.

Bromine burns
(1) All traces must be immediately washed away with plenty of water
(2) The affected area is then bathed with a 5% solution of sodium thiosulphate for 15minutes or
2% Phenol in glycerine is applied or ammonia solution is applied
(3) The patient should be taken to hospital for treatment.
 Phenol burns
(1) The burned area should be flushed with plenty of water immediately.
(2) Then the affected area is bathed with saturates sodium bicarbonate solution
(3) A thick pad of dry sterile gauze is applied, treat for shock and finally taken to hospital.

Eye injuries
Solid mater in the eye
(a) If it is suspected that sharp particles, such as glass or metal, have entered the eye NO
attempt should be made to remove them,
(1) Instruct the patient not to rub his eye.
(2) Cover the eye with a thick, soft, pad of gauze
(3) Bandage, or tape, the pad very lightly in place
(4) Take the patient, at once, to a doctor or hospital
(b) Specks of grit may be washed out either by using a gentle stream of water from a wash –
bottle, the patient’s head being held to one side, or by instructing the patient to open and
close the eye below the surface of clean water in a bowl or sink. If this fails, and the grit
can be seen, it can sometimes be removed by using the tip of a clean handkerchief
moistened with water. If necessary the lower eyelid is easily pulled down and the upper
lid can be folded back over a matchstick laid across the lid. If the grit cannot be removed
by either method proceed as in (a) above.

Acid or alkali splashes in the eye

(1) Wash the eye with plenty of water, either by a gently stream from a wash-bottle or by
opening the eye below the surface of water in a bowl. This must be done immediately.
(2) For ACIDS: wash the eye with sodium bicarbonate solution (3g in 100mL water)
For ALKALIS: wash the eye with a boric acid solution (1g in 100mL water)
(3) Wash again with water
(4) Cover the eye with a soft pad and take patient to a doctor.

Poisoning
NOTE: (i) All students before handling chemicals, should be instructed to spit out
anything accidentally taken into the mouth and rinse the mouth with water
without swallowing.
(ii) In all cases of poisoning the patient must be taken to a doctor at once. The
doctor must be informed of the nature of the poison swallowed, or believed
to have been swallowed.
Acids
(1) Spit out
(2) Rinse the mouth with much water
If swallowed
(3) Give lime water [Ca(OH)2 + H2O] or milk of magnesia [Mg(OH)2 + H2O] to drink
(4) If possible follow with milk to drink.
(5) Treat for shock.
Use no emetics – except in the case of oxalic acid.
Alkalis
(1) Spit out
 (2) Rinse the mouth with much water
If swallowed
(3) Give 1% acetic acid (or vinegar or lemon juice) to drink
Use no emetics.
(4) If possible follow with milk to drink.
(5) Treat for shock.

Cyanides (including HCN). Immediate action is essential.

(1) Give mixed solutions of ferrous sulphate (50g/L) and sodium carbonate (50g/L)
which must be available if cyanides are handled.
(2) Artificial respiration may be needed and immediate medical attention is essential
Note: Cyanides must never be accessible to junior students and are best not kept in a
college laboratory.

Hydrogen cyanide
The immediate urgency is to remove the causality well away from the neighborhood of
the gas.
To do this the rescuer must ensure that he also does not fall victim to its action.
Whenever possible a cord or similar device should be attached to his waist so that he can
be dragged clear if he succumbs. Obviously circumstances will dictate the manner of the
rescuer’s actions but it must be emphasized that inadequate preparations and unsuccessful
heroics will worsen the emergency.
If after reaching fresh air the causality is still conscious and breathing he must be made to
lie down quietly and await removal to hospital. No other treatment is required apart from
keeping close observation upon his general condition.
If the breathing stops:
1. Loss of consciousness – place in the prone position with the mouth down. Ensure a
clear breathing passage.
2. Breathing arrested – Apply artificial respiration by the Silverster method.
Do not use the mouth – to mouth – method because of the danger of inhaling hydrogen
cyanide gas from the victim’s lungs.
Cardiac massage may be necessary if the causality’s heat has stopped beating.
Other methods are by the use of Amyl nitrite and Kelo-cyanor resuscitation kits.

Gas cylinders: Flammable gases such as hydrogen, propane & acetylene

Toxic gases such as carbon monoxide & chlorine

a) Wherever possible cylinders of any gases should be installed outside the laboratory
building and a permanent pipe system arranged to deliver gas, at a required operating
pressure, to the point in the laboratory where it is needed.
b) All cylinders should be securely shut-off at the valve on the cylinders when not in use and
always at the end of the working day.

A. inhalation of gases:
 Serious gas poisoning is unlikely to occur in a school laboratory. It is generally sufficient to
take the pupil into the open air. In the case of bromine or chlorine smelling ammonia gives
relief. If recovery is delayed take the patient to a doctor.
If the gas responsible is NOT hydrogen cyanide:
1. Remove the casualty out of the danger area after first ensuring your own safety
2. Loosen clothing. Administer oxygen if available.
3. If the casualty is unconscious place in a face – down position and watch to see if
breathing stops.
4. If breathing has stopped apply artificial respiration by the mouth – to – mouth method. If
the gas responsible is HCN only use the Silvester method.
5. If the emergency warrants it remove the patient to hospital and provide information on
the gas responsible with brief details of the first aid treatment given,

B: Ingestion of poisonous chemicals

1. If the chemical has been confined to the mouth give large quantities of water as a mouth
wash. Ensure the mouth wash is not swallowed.
2. If the chemical has been swallowed give copious drinks of water or milk to dilute it in
the stomach.
3. Do no induce vomiting.
4. Arrange for transport to hospital. Provide information to accompany the casualty on the
chemical swallowed with brief details of the treatment given and if possible an estimate
of the quantity and concentration of the chemical consumed.

Mercury
Mercury cumulative poison, it can give rise to serious effects after exposure to small
concentrations, over a very long period.

For other poisons

(1) Spit out and rinse the mouth with much water.
If swallowed:
(2) Give an emetic:- either Mustard (1 teaspoonful in a tumbler of warm water) or
sodium chloride (1 tablespoonful in a tumbler of warm water). Repeat the emetic if
the patient does not vomit.
N.B: Emetic should not be given if
(a) Corrosive poisons have been swallowed (if in doubt do not give emetic) or
(b) The patient is unconscious or suffering from convulsion.
(3) Treat for shock.

Special cases
(a) Phosphorus: Give 200mL of 0.2% copper sulphate solution before the emetic.
(b) Phenol: Give much water to drink, with mustard emetic

Electric shock.
1. At once switch off the circuit. If cannot be done remove the student from contact with
it by grasping his clothing or using a piece of dry wood. DO NOT touch his body
before he is clear of the live circuit. Try to stand on dry wood, rubber or thick paper.
2. If breathing has stopped apply artificial respiration immediately.
3. Treat for shock
4. Treat any burns on the skin.

Asphyxia
May be caused in a number of ways such as drowning, poisoning, insufficient oxygen in
the air or by electrical shock. The effect of any of these is the same, namely a deficiency
of oxygen in the blood. In the laboratory the more likely causes of asphyxia are
electrocution, suffocation, and the inhalation of poisonous gases.
The 1st aid treatment for asphyxia is to remove the cause, or remove the patient from the
cause, and except in cases where the lung tissue as been damaged to commence artificial
respiration immediately. Whenever possible, carbon dioxide – oxygen mixture or pure
oxygen should be administered while artificial respiration is being applied.

Haemorrhage
Haemorrhage or bleeding may take place internally or externally and may be severe or
only slight or moderate.
Slight or moderate bleeding: May be stopped by applied pressure in the form of a
dressing and a firm bandage.
Severe bleeding: At various points distributed over the body, the arteries pass near to or
over a bone. These points are called pressure points. By applying pressure on the artery at
these points, the supply of blood to parts beyond the point at which the pressure is
applied may cut off. The pressure is applied by using fingers, bandage or tourniquet.
Tourniquets may be improvised or of a standard pattern. Rubber tubing, stockings and
neckties are examples of improvised tourniquets.
Please note: A tourniquet should not be used unless it is obvious that the bleeding cannot
be controlled by a firmly tied dressing, pad and bandage, and even then should be used
with great care.
Internal haemorrhage: May be recognized by a rapid pulse, clammy skin, pale lips,
shallow breathing or breathlessness due to air hunger. Bleeding may become visible by
the coughing up of red frothy blood indicating damage to the lungs. Blood from stomach
injuries may be vomited and is darker in colour. A cold compress may be applied over
the origin of the haemorrhage, provided the first aid has correctly diagnosed the
condition. The patient is laid down, treated for shock, and conveyed to hospital as quickly
as possible.
Unconscious casuality:
The general procedure to be adopted for first-aid treatment of an unconscious casualty is
1. Remove false teeth and clear the mouth of blood, mucus, etc, with a cloth to ensure
that airway is clear.
2. Loosen clothing about the neck, chest and waist.
3. Remove the casualty form any contaminated atmosphere. Open windows and doors to
ensure a supply of fresh air.
4. If breathing fails or stops apply artificial respiration immediately.
5. Control any severe bleeding
6. Dress wounds and attend to fracture and other injuries.
 7. Ensure that the casualty’s tongue doesn’t fall back into the throat and choke the
victim.
8. Cover the victim with a blanket and arrange for him/her to be transferred to hospital
in the recovery position.
9. Keep the written record of the casualty’s responses and pulse rate at regular intervals
10. Keep the casualty’s still if he regains consciousness. Reassure him and moisten his
lips with water but do not give any drink.
11. Do not leave an unconscious casualty unattended.
12. Always ensure that a doctor is informed that the casualty was unconscious.

Fits
Fits of various kinds may be accompanied by unconsciousness, and are usually
characterized by the casualty being unaware of his actions. The following points should
be remembered in relation to fits.
1. Clear movable objects away from the vicinity of the casualty; e.g. stools, chairs,
bottles etc
2. Only put the patient away if he is in potential danger from stairs, fires [Link].
3. Never try to open the casualty’s mouth.
4. After the fit allow the casualty to rest.
5. Never leave the casualty unattended.

Diabetics
Diabetics may lapse into a diabetic comma or unconsciousness, but usually they are aware of
the symptoms before this occurs. You can assist at any stage by giving the casualty some sugar
or sweets. Don’t worry about creating an excess of sugar in the diabetics stream an excess of
sugar is far less dangerous than a lack of it.

Heart massage
Victims of electric shock or certain poisons or those who suffer a heart attack may experience
heart stoppage. A check should also be made in all cases of breathing failure to discover
whether pr not the heart is still beating. Feel for a pulse, or listen carefully on the chest. If there
is no sign of a hear beat. Place the heed of a hand at the base of the sternum (chest bone), not
on the ribs, and give a sharp blow. Follow this with a firm press about once per second,
adjusting the pressure to the size of your patient. It must be realized that the chance of success
is slight but even a remote chance makes the effort worth while.

Artificial respiration
Artificial respiration may be needed if student stops breathing after an electric shock or
poisoning (or even drowning during a biology field trip). Two methods are currently
accepted.
A. Mouth-to-mouth breathing
1. Remove any obstruction from the mouth and throat.
2. Place the patient on his back and tilt the head right back
 3. Pull the lower jaw forward so that it juts out-this is essential to keep the air passage clear.
Use one hand to hold the jaw and the other to pinch the patient’s nostrils together so that
they are completely closed.
4. Breathe in deeply, place your mouth so as to cover the patient’s mouth completely, and
blow in air until his chest is seen to rise.
5. Remove your mouth and listen for the sound of escaping air if this cannot be heard turn the
patient on to his face and slap obstruction in the throat), then turn him back to the original
position.
6. Repeat the breathing, removing your mouth each time to allow the escape of air. It should
be repeated 12 to 20 times per minute until natural breathing is resumed.

B. Holger Nielson method

1. Use your finger to remove any obstruction from the mouth and throat –not usually necessary
in the laboratory.
2. Place the patient face down on the ground, bend his arms at the elbows and place his hands,
palm down, below his head. Turn his head to one side and pull his tongue forwards to avoid
obstructing the throat.
3. Strike the patient sharply, with the palm of the hand, on his back just below the shoulder
blades.
4. Kneel on one knee placed close to the patient’s head, the other foot being placed near his
elbow. You should be facing towards his feet.
5. With your arms straight place the palms of your hands on the lower part of the patient’s
shoulder blades. The thumbs should point towards his feet and fingers should be spread out.
6. Keeping the arms straight rock your body forwards so as to apply pressure for 2-3 seconds.
7. Rock the back, at the same time sliding your hands under the patient’s elbows. Draw his
arms upwards until his shoulders are raised and pulled forwards. This should also take 2-3
seconds.
8. Lower his arms and repeat the cycle 5-6-7-8 until the patient breathes naturally. Which ever
method is used it is important to practice its application, so that artificial respiration can be
started at once in an emergency. It may be necessary to sustain artificial respiration for a
considerable time an hour or more-before completely normal breathing is resumed.

Stages 5-6 Stages 7

FIRST AID BOX

This should preferably be in the form of a cupboard, placed on the wall near a door and fitted
with suitable shelves. It must not be locked but should be clearly labeled; “FIRST AID – THE
CONTENTS OF THIS CUPBOARD MUST NOT BE USED FOR AN OTHER PURPOSE” and marked
with a large red cross.

The minimum contents should include

(a) 4 one-inch roller bandages – kept in an airtight jar

(b) 2 2½ inch or 3 inch or tin labeled --- BANDAGES
(c) 6 safety pins
(d) 5 yard roll ¾ inch adhesive plaster
(e) 1 packet surgical gauze – kept in an airtight jar or tin labeled-------GAUZE
(f) 1 pair blunt-pointed scissors (with sharp blades)
(g) 1 pair blunt forceps (tweezers)
(h) 2 sewing needles (for removing splinters)
(i) 1 tube Acriflavine cream labeled ---- FOR SMALL BURNS
(j) 1 tube Savlon or similar antiseptic cream labeled ------ FOR MINOR CUTS AND WOUND
(k) 1 small bottle Dettol or similar an antiseptic for diluting with water for washing hands and
dirty gauzes and sterilizing needles etc. labeled -- DETTOL: DILUTE 1 PART TO 10 PARTS OF
WATER
(l) 500mL saturated sodium bicarbonate solution labeled--- SAT. NaHCO3 SOLN. FOR ACID
BURNS USE ONLY AFTER
WASHING WITH MUCH WATER
(m) 500mL 1% acetic acid labeled------ 1% ACETIC ACID FOR ALKALI BURNS USE ONLY
AFTER WASHING WITH MUCH WATER. ALSO ALKALI
POISONING NOT FOR EYES
(n) 250mL sodium bicarbonate solution (3g in 100mL
water labeled -- WEAK SODIUM BICARBONATE SOLN. FOR ACID IN THE EYE USE AFTER
WASHING EYE WITH WATER
(o) 250mL Silver nitrate soln. labeled (1.7g in 100mL water preferably in a brown
bottle ------ SILVER NITRATE SOLN. (N/10) FOR PHOSPHORUS BURNS USE AFTER WASHING
OFF ALL PHOSPHORUS WITH MUCH WATER
(p) 500mL Boiled and filtered water in a plastic wash-bottle labeled---- WATER for EYE-
WASHING
(q) 250mL Boric acid solution labeled (1g in 100mL water)---BORIC ACID SOLN. FOR ALKALIS
IN THE EYE USE AFTER
WASHING EYE WITH WATER.
(r) 500mL lime water (or milky of magnesia) labeled ---- LIME WATER FOR ACID POISONING
USE AFTER RINSING MOUTH WITH
MUCH WATER
(s) 1 tin dry mustard labeled ---- MUSTARD EMETIC FOR POISONS GIVE 1 TEASPOONFUL IN A
TUMBLER OF WATER DO NOT USE FOR ACID & ALKALI
POISONING, EXCEPT OXALIC ACID.
(t) 200mL 0.2% copper sulphate solution labeled ---- 0.2% COPPER SULPHATE SOLUTION FOR
PHOSPHORUS POISONING GIVE BEFORE
EMETIC
(u) 1 tumbler kept together
(v) 1 teaspoon with item ‘s’

Notes
(1) The following items should be grouped together in the cupboard
Group I: Items (a) to (i) inclusive and (k) (For wounds etc)
Group II: Items (j), (l), (m), (n) (For burns)
Group III: Items (o), (p), (q), (for eye)
Group IV: Items (r) to (v) (for poisoning)
(2) For a laboratory in which no chemistry is taught the solutions and emetic could be omitted
(3) The first-aid instructions should be immediately displayed near the first-aid cupboard.
(4) All solutions should be replenished after use or if the show signs of deterioration. The
technician in charge should inspect the cupboard at regular intervals (say weekly) to see that
the contents are in good order-scissors, forceps and adhesive plaster, in particular, are liable
to be misused.
(5) Any misuse of the contents of the first-aid cupboard should be treated as a very serious
disciplinary matter.

The safety precautions needed in the use, storage and disposal of residue of:-
(i) Ether: should be stored over a spiral of bright copper, active carbon or aluminium oxide or
in an atmosphere of nitrogen which prevents the formation of ether peroxides by oxidation.
Ether should be kept in bottles wrapped in black paper. Brown bottles are not suitable. The
oxidation of ether proceeds more quickly when the bottle is only partially filled and the
liquid surface is in contact with air. Ether and ether residues must always be tested before
distillation and if peroxides are present these should be destroyed by the addition of acidified
ferrous sulphate solution.
Ether peroxides are formed by the oxidation of diethyl ether, isopropyl ether and higher
ethers, particularly in the presence of ultraviolet rays. Ether peroxides have a higher boiling
point than the ether from which they are formed hence they explode easily.
Ether should not be poured down the sink as it forms air pockets in the sewers causing
explosions. Partially full bottles should not be carried in naked hands because the heat from
the body may cause the bottle stopper to be blown out hence causing a fire.
Avoid inhaling large quantities of ether as it has an aesthetic effect.
Ether should not be stored in home refrigerators as they are not flash proof.
Ether and other solvents e.g. acetone, burn in the open is shallow metal trays let in the earth.
Ignite small quantities (500mL maximum) with a fuse such as cotton waste soaked in alcohol
on end of a metal. Small quantities can be spread over a safe area in the open and allowed to
evaporate.
(ii) Sodium: Only a limited amount of sodium metal which should be stored in/cut under inert
solvents (naphtha, kerosene or xylene) into small pieces should be kept in the laboratory
reagent bottles. The bottles should be inspected frequently to ensure that the sodium is well
covered with naphtha or xylene. Old sodium is disposed by adding carefully, in small
quantities, to alcohol. Do not allow sodium to come in contact with skin (it produces nasty
burns) or water (explosion will occur), always use protective gloves when using sodium
metal.
Sodium metal residues should not be thrown down the sink instead they should be reacted
with ethanol or methanol. The operation should be carried out in a fume cupboard away form
flames. When reaction is complete the resulting sodium ethoxide or methoxide may be
disposed down the sewer; followed by water. Only limited amount of sodium should be kept
in the laboratory reagent bottles.

(iii) Radioactive liquid waste of short half-life. It should be put into safe storage until the
activity has dropped to a safe level. It may then, with permission, be disposed into sewers.
The disposal is usually accompanied by dilution with large quantities of water or by the
addition of inactive carriers.

(iv)Spilt mercury: To avoid spilling it, mercury should always be used over a tray. It is a
cumulative poison hence avoids ingesting it or inhaling its vapours. Bottles containing
mercury must be properly stoppered. If spilled on the bench or floor it must be recovered at
once by mercury tongs or a seek bottle attached to a water pump. The most efficient way of
quickly picking up spilled mercury is by means of a portable mercury collector. If the
spillage enters in accessible cracks, it must be made inactive by applying sulphur powder
(flowers of sulphur) or a solution of iodine in potassium iodide. Residues of mercury can be
got rid of by dissolving in a beaker of concentrated nitric acid in a fume cupboard. The
solution left out after the reaction can then be disposed down the sewers while the tap is
discharging.
(v) Adulterated concentrated sulphuric acid: (including other conc. acids). Dilute by pouring
carefully into plenty of water (add acid to water) and then wash down the sink with tap
discharging.
(vi)Explosives and other violently reacting substances e.g. Diazonium salts and picric acid:
dissolve in hot water and wash down the drain.
(vii) Flammable substances, solids e.g. Magnesium metal. Add to 5% hydrochloric acid in
small portions in a beaker away from flames. Stir and cool if necessary; then wash down the
drain.
(viii) White phosphorus: Burn in the open and keep well away
(ix) Yellow phosphorus: It is poisonous hence avoid ingesting it by washing hands after
handling it. Use protective devices like gloves, lab coat and goggles/face mask to avoid
nasty burns and inhalation of its fumes. It should be stored under water and the bottles
should have proper lids/stoppers. It should be cut under water as it catches fire when
exposed to air. Periodic inspection of phosphorus bottles is necessary to make sure that it is
always immersed in water.
(x) Potassium: cover with glycerine. After sometime when metal has discovered and little or
none remains, cautiously add small quantities of ethyl alcohol. When no further reaction
occurs, dilute with water and dispose.
(xi) Animal waste or carcass is disposed by incineration.
(xii) Animal carcasses with radioactive material are incinerated, provided special precautions
are taken in respect of the flue gases and the resultant ash. Special containers are used to
dispose especially hazardous material.
(xiii) Bromine: It is supplied sealed in glass ampoules which in turn are stored in tins containing
saw dust or wood shavings. It should not be allowed to come in contact with the skin, it
produces nasty burns. Avoid inhaling bromine, it is injurious. Wear protective gear (gloves,
goggles, face mask) when dealing with bromine vapour. When breaking the ampoule cool
it in ice water to reduce the volatility of the bromine liquid. Then make a scratch with a file
or glass cutting knife close to the top of the neck and then touch the scratch with a point of
a hot glass rod. The bromine liquid can then be poured into water to make bromine water.
(xiv)

Disposal of dangerous substances

 All disposals should be carried out by a responsible (experienced) person. If in doubt
about the disposal of a certain substance, consultation with a specialist is important.
 In order to accurately assess the degree of danger involved in the disposal of a chemical, a
sound knowledge of its properties is necessary.
 If the nature of the chemical is unknown, extra care is required and very small quantities
of the substance should be tested before the disposal is attempted.
 If the substance is a solid, its appearance, odour, or flammability may suggest the best
method of disposal, and similarly, in the case of liquids, miscibility, flammability, or
odour may prove to be important indications.
 During disposal all the necessary safety precautions should be taken. Rubber gloves and
goggles should always be worn.
 It is safer to dispose of chemicals one at a time and they should never be mixed
indiscriminately.
(1) Radio-active isotopes can be disposed of by storing them until their radioactivity has
fallen to safe levels; they are then diluted and with permission disposed in sewers.
(2) Flammable liquids may be disposed of by spreading them over a reasonably wide area on
waste ground and allowed to evaporate or burnt in small quantities in open metal trays in a
disposal area. A special incinerator may also be used in burning up flammable liquids.
These liquids should never be disposed of down the drains where they will form explosive
pockets of air.
(3) Corrosive materials may be safely disposed of by neutralization – thus acids may be
reacted with a convenient cheap basic material until the product is neutral.
(4) Absorbent materials such as filter papers or extraction thimbles and the solid residues
from flasks, if soaked in flammable solvent, must never be deposited in the rubbish boxes
in the laboratory instead they should be burned according.
 Define the following terms
1. Antidotes are substances administered to a patient to render the swallowed poison harmless
or to retard its absorption e.g. milk of magnesia (for strong corrosive acid poisoning) and
vinegar or lemon juice (for strong alkali poisoning).
2. Carcinogens is a material which can cause (induce) cancer by absorption, inhalation or
ingestion over a period of time e.g. asbestos, benzene, ninhydrin, formalin etc

3. Emetic is a substance which induce vomiting and to rid the stomach off the swallowed
poison e.g. mustard, salt water, and soap suds
4. Cumulative poison is the substance which is taken in the body in small amounts by
inhalation absorption or ingestion over a period of time when the amount of poison in the
body reaches certain level. Its effect are then felt e.g. mercury.
5. Demulcent is a substance given to a patient to soothe the pain of inflamed membrane e.g.
barley water, milk whites of egg. It is usually administered after the poison has been
removed.
6. Teratogens are substances which tend to produce mutations in unborn children e.g.
antitumour drugs, thyroxine and certain herbicides.
7. Flash point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which it gives off sufficient flammable
vapour near its surface for a fire to occur provided that air and a suitable source of ignition
are present.
8. Auto-ignition temperature of substance is a temperature at which a substance will ignite
itself in air without being set a light (the presence of extra oxygen in the atmosphere will
usually increase the fire risk by lowering the auto-ignition temperature).
9. Stationary monitor are used in fixed positions for specific purposes such as measuring the
contamination on the hands and feet of workers leaving active areas. Also are used for
monitoring the atmosphere which buildings

FIRE
The nature of fire:

There are three essential factors, some times called “THE FIRE TRIANGLE”, which must be
present before a fire can break out: remove one of these factors and the fire will go out. The
control of these three essentials is the basis of all fire prevention and control.

The three essential factors are:

1. A source of FUEL
2. OXYGEN, Usually from the air, but also from certain chemicals, to act as a SUPPORT MEDIUM.
3. HEAT-Sufficient to bring the fuel to a temperature at which sustained combustion can be
ignited (the ignition temperature).

TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHING EQUIPMENT

1. WATER EXTINGUISHERS - RED

 This group extinguish by the cooling action of the water.

(a) Hose reels

Are normally connected to the mains supply, which is turned on as the hose reel is
unwound, after use the hose should be rewound by turning the reel until the main valve is
closed.
Do not force the reel or permanent damage to the expensive main control valve will result.
(b) Soda – acid extinguishers:
Usually contain 2 gallons of a solution of sodium bicarbonate in water. When actuated,
sulphuric acid from a built –in container reacts with the solution, carbon dioxide is released
and forces a jet of solution through the nozzle.
(CANNOT BE TURNET OFF)

(c) Carbon dioxide expelled water extinguishers

Usually contain 2 gallons of water expelled in a jet when a built-in cylinder of carbon dioxide
is punctured. (CANNOT BE TURNED OFF)

2. FOAM EXTINGUISHERS – WHITE

Contain aqueous solution of foaming agents which mix and react to produce larger amounts of
stable foam. (CANNOT BE TURNED OFF).
This group acts mainly by excluding air from the fuel. There is some slight cooling effect also.

3. CARBON DIOXIDE EXTINGUISHERS – BLACK

 This type acts by excluding oxygen. Being heavier than air a blanket of carbon dioxide gas forms
over the fuel
There is no cooling effect.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers consist of a cylinder containing carbon dioxide at high pressure.
The cylinder is fitted with a plastic horn to direct the jet of the gas.
N.B. The hand MUST NOT be in contact with the horn when is use. The jet of gas is extremely
cold and when emitted freezes water vapour in the air causing ice to form on the horn. It has a
very short duration and is trigger operated.

4. VAPOURISING LIQUID EXTINGUISHERS - GREEN – NO MORE IN USE

These act in a similar manner to the carbon dioxide extinguishers but are more effective due to
the higher vapour density.

(a) Carbon Tetrachloride (C.T.C.) extinguishers are now obsolescent. This type is being
withdrawn because carbon tetrachloride and its decomposition products are highly toxic.
These extinguishers operate by pump action.
(b) Bromo-chloro-difluoro-methane (B.C.F.) type – now a days is stopped extinguishers are
usually supplied in pressurized containers, the liquid in the container vapourizing on release
of the pressure. The vapour is much heavier than air and blankets the fire.
BCF vapour is inert and of high density; it does however decompose on heating to give
highly irritant, corrosive fumes.

5. POWDER EXTINGUISHERS – BLUE

These extinguishers blanket the fire in an inert powder, ie-exclude oxygen.

(a) Dry sand is applied by shove from a sand bucket.
(b) Dry chemical The powder is usually sodium bicarbonate with additives to prevent caking.
The powder is expelled under pressure by Carbon dioxide (CANNOT BE TURNED OFF).

6. BLANKETS:
Extinguishing is by the mechanical smothering action of non combustible blanket. Woven fibre
glass blankets are light in weight, flexible and can be reused after cleaning.
Asbestos blankets are rather heavy and cumbersome. They may spread the fire if used on
unstable containers of solvent due to their lack of flexibility. Blankets are best used on small
fires and in combination with an extinguisher.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES AND CHOICE OF EXTINGUISHER

The best method of fighting a fire depends upon the class in the fire belongs: THE WRONG
CHOICE OF EXTINGUISHER CAN INTENSIFY A FIRE OR ENDANGER THE FIRE FIGHTER by producing
highly toxic fumes, or causing the fire to flare up.
It is normal to divide fires into four classes:

CLASS A FIRE; Ordinary combustibles e.g. Wood, paper, cloth, rubber and plastics. (These fires
involve solid materials usually of organic nature in which combustion takes place
with the formation or glowing embers).
Extinguishing agent. Water is the best extinguishing agent, either from a hose-reel or carbon
dioxide expelled water extinguisher. Soda –acid extinguishers are an effective alternative but
can do damage to property by staining and corrosion due to the effect of the acidic residue.
However any of the other types of extinguisher may be used if a water extinguisher is not
available.

CLASS B FIRES Flammable liquid fires e.g. cooking fat, oil, paraffin, petrol, methylated spirits,
(fires involving liquids or liquefiable solid).

Extinguishing agent:

Depending on the size and location of the fire the following extinguishers may be used.

(a) A Fire blanket

(b) A carbon dioxide extinguishers or, if appropriate, a vapourising liquid extinguishers (B.F.C.)
(c) A combination of (a) and (b)
(d) A foam extinguisher, directing the jet to the back of the fire and working forward towards
the operator.
(e) A powder extinguisher, working from the periphery to the centre of the fire.

Warning: Do not use any water extinguisher on this type of fire. The burning liquid will float on
the water and spread out, thus intensifying the fire as a result of the increase in
surface exposed to the air. Flash evaporation of the water may cause the fire to erupt
violently.

CLASS C FIRES Electrical fires (fires involving gases). First of all switch off the power the source
of the heat). Then, if necessary, use a carbon dioxide or vapourising liquid
extinguisher (B.C.F). DO NOT USE WATER OR FOAM because of their electrical
conductivity. REMEMBER, even if electrical equipment, e.g. T.V. set, refrigerator
motor, is switched off; an electrical condenser can still administer a dangerous
shock. Powder extinguishers should only be used as a last resort: it is almost
impossible to remove the finest powder from complicated equipment, e.g.
Switches and relays during salvage operations

Remember Although the primary task is to extinguish the fire PLANNING of fire precaution
should always take into account salvage of the damaged items. A residue free, non-
corrosive extinguishing agent is always to be preferred, particularly where delicate
apparatus or materials may be present.

Warning The danger of re-ignition, particularly with class B fires should never be overlooked.
CO2 or BCF vapour has little cooling effect and if the blanket of inert vapour is
displaced by air, re-ignition of the hot vapour may occur. In the case of foam or
powder blanket a similar hazard may also arise due to disturbance of the layer but is
less likely than with the vapours.

CLASS D. FIRES Fire involving metals, a metal fires is a strongly exothermic surface reaction,
usually with oxygen, but also with any suitably reactive gas, in which the heat of
reaction raises the temperature of the metal to incandescence. The size of the
 fire depends on the type of metal. There are two basic methods of dealing with
a metal fire.

1. Treat the reacting metal as a heat sink and control the subsequent fires due ignition of
other inflammable materials, allowing the metal reaction to go to completion.
2. Block the chemical reaction at the metal surface by cutting off the supply of support
reactant –e.g. Oxygen, using a suitable powder extinguisher

Conventional extinguishers should NOT be used against metal fires. An appropriate dry
powder should be kept available with a suitable means of application

N.B. Some metals when burning emit very dazzling light and coloured goggles. Should be kept
at hand.