84

Unit-03/Lecture-01
Fluid
Introduction [RGPV Jan08,june09,april 09]

Fluid

A fluid is a substance that may flow. That is, the particles making up the fluid continuously
change their positions relative to one another. Fluids do not offer any lasting resistance to the
displacement of one layer over another when a shear force is applied. This means that if a fluid is
at rest, then no shear forces can exist in it, which is different from solids; solids can resist shear
forces while at rest. To summarize, if a shear force is applied to a fluid it will cause flow.

Fluid properties

Density

Density is the ratio of the mass of a given amount of the substance to the volume it occupies.
mean density is defined as the ratio of a given amount of a substance to the volume that this
amount occupies. The density is said to be uniform if the mean density in all parts of the
substance is the same.

Pressure

To define pressure, consider some imaginary surface of area A at an arbitrary part of a fluid. This
surface must experience forces, say of magnitude F, due to a very large number of molecular
collisions from the fluid adjoining it. Pressure, which is a scalar quantity, is defined as the ratio
of the force and the area, that is F/A.

Dimensional Formula is: [ML-1T-2]

Viscosity

Viscosity can be thought of as the internal “stickiness” of a fluid. It is one of the properties that
controls the amount of fluid that can be transported in a pipeline during a specific period of time.
It accounts for the energy losses associated with the transport of fluids in ducts, channels and
pipes. Further, viscosity plays an important role in the generation of turbulence. Needless to say,
viscosity is an extremely important fluid property in our
study of fluid flows.

All real fluids resist any force tending to cause one layer to move over another, but the resistance
occurs only when the movement is taking [Link] removal of the external force, flow subsides
because of the resistingforces. But unlike solids that may return to their original position, the
fluid particles stay in the position they have reached and have no tendency toreturn to their
original positions. The resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over an adjoining one is
due to the viscosity of the fluid.

From experiments with various fluids, Sir Isaac Newton postulated that for the straight and
parallel motion of a given fluid, the tangential stress between two adjoining fluid layers is
proportional to the velocity gradient in a direction perpendicular to the layers. That is:
τα µdu/dy
 85

Where μ is a constant for a particular fluid at a particular temperature. The coefficient of

proportionality is the absolute viscosity (sometimes referred to as the coefficient of viscosity).
Note that μ is a scalar quantity, while the other terms are vector quantities. Note also that the
surface over which the stress acts is perpendicular to the velocity gradient. If the velocity u
increases with y, then the velocity gradient is positive and so τ also must be positive. So the
positive sense of the shear stress is defined as being the same as the positive sense of the
velocity.

Kinematic Viscosity:
The kinematic viscosity, ν, is defined as the ratio of absolute viscosity to density:
υ = μ/ ρ

Dimensional formula: [L-2T-1]

The interest in expressing this ratio will become clearer in discussion on Reynolds number and
its use in turbulent and laminar flows where the ratio of viscous forces, (which is proportional to
μ), to the inertial forces (which is proportional to ρ) is involved.

Types of fluids
Fluids are classi tied as under:

1. Ideal fluid
2. Newtonian fluid
3. Non-Newtonian fluid
4. Real fluid
5. Ideal plastics

Ideal fluid- A fluid which is non-viscous in nature is known as an ideal fluid. lt is an imaginary fluid.
τ=0. It is shown by line f ' (Fig.) on shear stress-velocity gradient graph.

Newtonian Fluid- A fluid in which shear stress is proportional to the velocity' gradicnt is known as
Newtonian fluid. Fluid, represented by curve a and a, are Newtonian fluids. Fluid represented by curve
a1 is more viscous than the fluid represented by curve a2 (Fig.).

For Newtonian fluid τ= µdu/dy

Non-Newtonian Fluid A fluid in which shear stress is not proportional to the velocity gradient is
known as Non-Newtonian fluid, e.g., thick lubricating oil.

For Newtonian fluid τ= µ(du/dy)n

For non-Newtonian fluids n is less than unity then it is called pseudo-plastics e.g., milk, blood,
liquid cement: while fluids in which n is greater than unity are called dilatants e.g... Concentrated
solution of sugar. Aqueous solution of rice starch.

Real Fluid- A fluid which possesses viscosity is known as real fluid, alt the fluids in actual practice are
real fluid.
 86

Ideal Plastic fluid- A fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is
proportional to velocity gradient is known as ideal plastic as represented by curve, d
τ= µdu/dy +constant

Question 1. Two plates are placed 0.25 mm apart. A force of 1.5 N per square metre is
required to move the upper plate with a speed of 50 cm/scc. While the lower plate is held
stationary. Determine the dynamic viscosity of the fluid between the plates.

Solution
Given
Force on the plate = 1.5 N

Area of plate =1N/m2

τ = 1.5 N/m2

Distance between the two plates dy = 0.25 mm = 0.25 x 10-3m.

Relative velocity of the upper plate w.r.t. lower plate du = 50 cm/sec = 0.5 rn/s.

Using the relation τ= µdu/dy

µ = τ/ du/dy
= 1.5/(0.5/0.25 x l0-3)
=7.5 x 10-4 N-s/m2
= 7.5 x l0-3poise [10 poise = 1 Ns/m2]
Ans. Viscosity 7.5 X 10-3 poise

Question 2 Two square parallel plates of side 0.6m are placed at a distance of 12.5 mm
 87

apart. The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate is moving with a velocity of 2.5m/s.
Determine the dynamic viscosity of oil in poise, if a force of 98 N is required to maintain the
mentioned speed.
Solution:
Given

Force =F=98 N
The velocity of Lower fixed plate = u1= 0 m/s
The velocity of upper moving plate = u2= 2.5 m/s then du= u2-u1 = 2.5m/s
area of the square plate = A = 0.6×0.6=0.36m2
The distance between the two plates = dy =12.5mm=0.0125 m = 12.5×10-3m
Find(µ)= ?
Substituting the values in the above equation
Force required to maintain the mentioned speed = F=τ×A
τ= F/A = 98/0.36 =272.22N/m2
Substituting the values

272.22 = µ(2.5/0.0125)
µ= 1.36Ns/m2 or 13.6 poise Answer

Question 3 The clearance between the shaft of diameter 10 cm and its journal bearing is 1.5
mm is filled with lubricating oil of viscosity 10 poise. Determine (i) the intensity of shear
stress of the oil if the shaft rotates at 150 revolutions per minute. (ii) Calculate the power
lost in the bearing if the length of the sleeve is 12cm.

Solution:
Given
μ = 10 poise = 10/10=1 Ns/m2
Diameter of shaft D = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Distance between shaft and journal bearing,
dy = 1.5 mm = 1.5 x 10-3 m
Speed of shaft N = 300 rpm
Tangential speed of shaft is given by
u = (πDN)/60 = (π × 0.1 × 300)/60 = 1.57 m/s
Using Equation- τ = μ du/dy
where , du = change of peripheral velocity of the shaft relative to the journal bearing = u – 0 = u
τ = (1.57)/ (1 × 1.5 ×10-3) = 1047.2 N/m2. Answer
Length of the sleeve =L=0.12 m
Shear force on the shaft = shear stress ×curve surface area of the sleeve
F =τ×π×D×L = 1047.2×π×0.1×0.12= 39.5 N
Torque on the shaft = F×D/2= 39.5×0.1/2=1.97 Nm
Power lost = 2πNT/60 = 2π×300×1.97/60= 61.9 W Answer

Question 2 A vertical cylinder of 15 cm diameter rotates concentrically inside another

cylinder of diameter 15.1 cm. the space between the cylinder is filled with a lubricating oil
whose viscosity is not known. If the torque of 15 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder
at 120 rpm calculate the viscosity of the oil. Assume the height of both the cylinder to be 25
cm.
Solution:
Given
 88

Diameter of inner cylinder =D= 15 cm = 0.15 m

Diameter of outer cylinder =D2= 15.1 cm = 0.151m
Height of the cylinder = L= 25 cm=0.25m
Torque = T=15 Nm
Speed of the inner cylinder=N=120 rpm
Let µ be the viscosity of the oil
Tangential velocity of the rotating cylinder= u = πDN/60 = π×0.15×120/60=0.942m/s
Curved surface area of the inner cylinder=A= πDL=π×0.15×0.25=0.1178 m2
The distance/clearance between the inner and outer cylinder = dy=(0.151-0.150)/2=0.0005 m
du = u-0 = u = 0.942m/s
shear force = F=shear stress ×curved surface area= τ×A

Torque =T= F×D/2

Substituting the values
15= µ×(0.942/0.0005)×0.1178×0.15/20
µ=0.901 N-s/m2 or 9.01 poise. Answer

[Link] RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Define the following properties of fluid Jan.2008 10
Density, specific volume, specific gravity, viscosity,
Kinematic viscosity.
Q.2 Explain the following fluid properties – June2009 20
Pressure, density, viscosity
Q.3 What is the Newton’s law of viscosity? April 2009 5
 89

Unit-03/Lecture-02
Pascal law
lt states that the intensity of pressure at any point in a static fluid in all direction is equal.
Consider a wedge shape element of size di, dv, d.c respectively in a fluid at rest as shown in Fig. Let Px
, Py, Pø be the pressure acting normal to the surfaces OACD, OABE, BEDC respectively. The element
is also acted on by gravitational body force acting vertically in the downward direction.
If width d of the wedge element perpendicular to paper is equal to unity, i.e., dz = l

Forces on a Wedge Shape Element

Then,

force acting on the face OACD = Px (dy. 1)

force acting on the face OABE =Py (dx. 1)
force acting on the face BEDC = Pθ (ds. 1)

The weight of the fluid element = (Volume of an element) (density of fluid).(acceleration

due to gravity)
=dv.p.g
= 1/2 ([Link]).l.p.g
As the fluid element is in equilibrium, the sum of forces in horizontal direction and in vertical direction
must be zero.
Resolving the forces in X-direction
Px (dy. 1) - Pθ (ds. 1) cosθ = 0
Px (dy. 1) - Pθ (dy. 1) = 0 [ds cosθ = dy]
Px = Pθ ..................................................(A)

Resolving the forces in Y-direction

Py (dx. 1) - Pθ (ds. 1)sinθ - 1/2 ([Link].1).p.g = 0
Let the size ofthe element approach smaller, and then the gravitational force which is the product of dx
and dy can be neglected.
Py (dx. 1) - Pθ (ds. 1)sinθ = 0
Py (dx. 1) - Pθ(dx. 1) = 0 [ ds sinθ = dx ]
Py = Pθ ................................................................................(B)
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From Eqs A & B

Px = Py = Pθ
The above relation shows that the pressure at any point x, y. z in a static fluid is independent of θ, it
follows that the pressure in all the directions in a static fluid is same.

Pressure variation in a static fluid

Consider an imaginary infinitesimal cylindrical elemennt in a fluid at rest at a distance y from the
top surface of the fluid as shown in Fig.
Let dA he the cross-sectional arca, dy
the height of the cylindrical element in the fluid. I
The pressure forces acting on the cylindrica! element are:

1 . pressure force on the top surface of

the cylindrical element P .dA acting in vertically down- Element
ward direction.
2. pressure force at the bottom surface ofthe cylindrical element
(p + (∂p/∂y) dy) . dA acting in vertically upward direction.
3. weight ofthe fluid element acting in the downward direction,
dA .dy . ρ g,
where ρ is the density ofihe fluid and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
4. Summation of pressure forces on the curved surface of the cylindrical fluid
element is equal to zero.
As the fluid element is in equilibrium, the sum of downward forces must be equal
to the sum of upward forces acting on it. Therefore,
[Link]-(p + (∂p/∂y) dy) . dA + dA .dy . ρ g = 0
∂p/∂y + ρ g = 0
∂p/∂y = ρ g = w(specific weight of the fluid)

By integrating the above equation

ʃdp = ʃ ρ g dy
p=ρgy

where. p is the pressure intensity at a point, y distance from the free surface of the
 91

fluid. Thus, the pressure will be constant everywhere over the same level of surface in
a continuous body of a static fluid. lt also indicates that in a static fluid, pressure
increases as the depth increases.

[Link] RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1
Q.2
 92

Unit-03/Lecture-03

Bernoulli’s Equation [RGPV Dec 08,june08,09,april 09,sep 09]

In a streamline, steady flow of an ideal and incompressible fluid the sum of the pressure
energy, kinetic energy and potential energy at any point in the fluid flow is constant.
(Streamline is defined as an imaginary line drawn in a flow fields such that tangent to it at any
point gives the direction of velocity vector at that point, at an instant.
Mathematically it can be expressed as

P/ ρ + V2/2 + Zg = constant.

Or P/ ρ g + V2/2g + Z = constant.
where P/ ρ g is pressure head
V2/2g velocity head
z is potential head
ρ density of fluid Kg/m3
P pressure intensity at a point in the fluid N/m2
V velocity of thc fluid particle at that point m/s
Consider a cylindrical element along a streamline in a fluid flow as shown in the fig.

Let the area of cross section of the cylindrical element be dA, length of the cylindrical
element be dS, let θ be the angle between the direction of the flow of fluid and the line of
action of gravitational force on the element Then,
1.. the pressure forces along the direction of the flow – p dA
2. the pressure force opposite to the direction of the flow = (p (∂p/∂s) ds) dA

3. Gravitational force on the cylindrical element p. dA. ds. g

 93

4. Component of the gravitational force opposite to the direction of flow = ρ.[Link] θ

The resultant force on the fluid element should be equal to the product of mass and the
acceleration of the fluid element in the direction of the flow.

Net force in the direction of flow (mass of the fluid element) x (acceleration of the fluid element
in the direction of flow)
Hence,
[Link]-(p(∂p/∂s) ds) dA- ρ.[Link] θ = ρ.[Link].(dV/dt)...........(1)
Vis a function of(s, t)
a, = dV/dt = (∂v/∂s).(ds/dt) + (∂v/∂t) (dt/dt)
= (∂v/∂s).(ds/dt) + (∂v/∂t) [for steady flow (∂v/∂t) = O]
dV/dt = (∂v/∂s).V [(ds/dt) = V]
or dV/dt = V. dV/ds...............................................................................(2)
Substituting the value of Eq.1and 2
-((∂p/∂s)ds)dA- ρ dAdsgcos θ = ρ dAds. VdV/ds
-dp- ρ [Link] θ.g- ρ VdV=0
dp + ρ dz.g + ρ VdV = O [: cos θ = dz/ds]
Integrating the above relation
ʃdp + ʃ ρ [Link] + ʃ ρ VdV =constant
p+ ρgz+ V2/2=constant
Dividing the above relation by ρg
p/(ρ g)+ V2/2g+ z =constant.

The following assumptions are made in deriving the Bernoulli's equation

1. The fluid flow is steady.
2. The fluid ¡s ideal (non-viscous).
3. The fluid flow is incompressible.
4. The fluid flow is irrotational.
5. Velocity of the fluid particle across any cross section of the tube is constant.

[Link] RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 State and explain Bernoulli’s equation foe June2008 10
incompressible fluids. Dec.2008
Q.2 Write and explain Bernoulli’s theorem. June2009 20
Write theorem down Bernoulli’s along with its
Q.3 mathematical equation. What are the applications of Sept.2009 20
this theorem?
Q.4 Derive the Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation April 2009 15
for an ideal flow.
 94

Unit-03/Lecture-04

Laminar and turbulent flow [RGPV Dec 08,june08,Sep 09]

To understand the laminar and turbulent flow, consider Reynold's experimental set up Fig.
consisting of the following essential parts:
1. Tank containing water maintained at a constant head.
2. Horizontal pipe made of glass tube and bell mouthed as shown in figure.
3. Regulating valve for controlling the flow of water, connected at the end of glass tube.
4. Small dye tank for injecting dye along the axis of the glass tube.

The water from the tank is allowed to flow through the glass tube. A liquid dye (same
specific weight) is injected in the centre of the glass tube along the axis. The valve is opened
slowly. As the flow velocity is low initially, the dye filament injected in the glass tube is flowing
in a straight line parallel to the glass tube. Indicating it is a laminar flow Fig. (a).

With further opening of the valve, velocity off low increases. The dye injected in the centre of
the lube now no more follows a straight line path. but becomes wavy as shown in figure (b). This
shows that the flow is no longer laminar. With further opening of the valve the velocity of flow
further increases, a stage comes when the dye injected breaks up and finally diffuses in the water.
This indicates that the fluid particles are moving in random fashion, in zig-zag path or disorderly
manner causing the flow to become turbulent as shown in figure (c).

Laminar Flow In a laminar how the fluid particles move along a well defined path or in
streamline which are parallel and straight. Thus. The particles of fluid move in layers. The
laminar flow is also called viscous or streamlines flow.

Turbulent Flow In a turbulent flow the fluid particles move in zig-zag, erratic and unpredictable
path due to which eddies are formed. A non-dimensional Reynold's Number is used to determine
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Reynold's Number is defined as the ratio of inertia
forces to the viscous forces of the flowing fluid.

µ
R = ρ vd/µ
 95

where, ρ is the density of flowing fluid kg/rn3

µ is the dynamic viscosity N-s/rn2
d diameter of the pipe m
V velocity of fluid rn/s

In pipes, if
Reynold's Number ≤ 2000 Laminar flow
Reynold's Number is greater than 2000 and less than 3000; it is Iransition flow (neither
laminar nor turbulent)
Reynold's Number ≥3000 Turbulent flow

Fluid coupling

The basic purpose of the fluid coupling is to transmit power from the driving shaft to the driven
shaft without any mechanical coupling between them. It also serves the same purpose as served
by the mechanical transmission systems like clutch assembly and gear train. In the mechanical
power driven system, if the driver shaft rotates the driven shaft will rotate. The operating
principle can be understood by an illustration. Keep two electric fans face to face at a small
distance. Start one of the fans so that the air thrown by it is towards the other stationary fan.
When the air thrown by the running fan towards the stationary fan create sufficient torque so as
to overcome the friction and inertia forces of the stationary fan, the stationary fan also starts
rotating but in the opposite direction. In this the working medium was air.

Figure shows the basic components of the fluid coupling. Normally, oil is used as a working
medium due to its stability, non-corrosive and lubricating property. The pump impeller and the
turbine runner are enclosed in a single housing. Both are mounted on two different shafts as
shown. The only contact between the two is the working fluid contained in the casing. When the
driving shaft is rotated, because ofcentrifua1 action the fluid moves from inner radius of the
 96

pump impeller to outer radius and gains the kinetic and potential energy. This fluid, then enters
the outer radius of the turbine runner towards the inner rather and exerts a force on the turbine
runner (blade) causing it to rotate. The fluid from the turbine runner once again enters the pump
impeller and the process is repeated.

[Link] RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Explain the working principal of fluid coupling. June.2008 10
Q.2 Explain fluid coupling. Dec.2008 10
Q.3 Write down working principle of the pump. Sept.2009 7
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Unit-03/Lecture-05

PUMPS [RGPV june08,Sep 09]

Pump is a device which converts the mechanical energy ¡rito the energy of the fluid. In other
words, it is a device which gives energy to the fluid thereby increasing its pressure head or
kinetic head or both. Pumps are used for agriculture purposes, water supply systems, hydraulic
control systems, and in many engineering applications.

Classification of Pumps

Pumps are classified as two types

Reciprocating Pump

Figure shows the basic components of the reciprocating pump. The rotary motion given to the
crank shaft by prime mover is converted into reciprocating motion of the piston by the
connecting rod. When the piston moves from the outer dead centre to the inner dead centre,
the inlet valve opens and fluid is drawn in to the cylinder through the inlet valve through the
suction pipe. When the piston moves from inner dead centre to outer dead centre, the
pressure of fluid increases, this causes the pressure difference across the outlet valve and
thereby opening it. As the outlet valve opens the fluid is forced out through the outlet valve to
the delivery pipe. This cycle is repeated. If the fluid enters only from one side of the piston it is
called single acting, if the fluid enters from both sides of the piston it is called double acting
pump.
 98

Main components of reciprocating pump

Rotary Pump

Gear Pump Figure shows the basic components of the gear pump. lt consists of two placed in a
stationary housing. One gear is keyed identical intermeshing spur gears. Both the gears are
mounted on two different shafts and are to the driving shaft while the other revolves idly. The
fluid entering the inlet port fills the space between the teeth. The fluid trapped between the
teeth is carried forward by the revolving gears and finally pushed out ofthe discharge port.
These are used in automobiles

Lobe Pump Figure shows the basic components of the lobe pump. It consists of two identical
lobes. Both the lobes are mounted on two different shafts and are placed in housing. One lobe
is keyed to the driving shaft while the other revolves freely on the shaft. The fluid entering the
 99

inlet port fills the space between the two lobes. The fluid trapped between the lobes is carried
forward by the rotating lobes and finally pushed out of the outlet port.

Vane Type Pump it consists of a rotor mounted eccentrically in relation to the cylindrical
housing Fig. The rotor has slots cut radially in which the vanes Vane slide. The vanes are spring
loaded, i.e., the vanes arc held tightly against the cylindrical housing by means of spring. lt Fig.
Vane pump provides the leak proof joint between the suction and discharge connection. When
the rotor rotates, the vane moves to and fro inside the slot of the rotor. During the suction, the
space between the vanes increases. During the further movement of the rotor the space
decreases and the fluid is discharged.

Centrifugal Pump

The essential parts of the centrifugal pump and Centrifugal pump assembly are as follows and
are shown in Fig.

Impeller: Impeller consists of series of curve blades mounted on the shaft as shown in figure. It
¡s coupled to an electric motor or a prime mover.

Casing: The casing is air tight passage surrounding the impeller of a pump. The high kinetic
energy imparted to the fluid at the outlet of the impeller is converted into pressure energy in a
 100

spiral casing of gradually increasing cross-section area.

Suction pipe: it is a pipe whose one end is connected to the inlet of a pump called an eye of the
pump, while the other end is connected to the water sump. It is provided with a foot valve (one
way valve) to prevent the back flow of water into the sump, when the pump is stopped. Below
the foot valve a strainer is provided to prevent the entry of dust particles, debris. etc., into the
pump.

Delivery pipe: Delivery pipe leads the fluid from the outlet of the pump to the point of use.
Generally, a valve is provided to control the flow of fluid into the delivery pipe at the outlet.

[Link] RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 How the pump are classified? Explain. June2008 10
Q.2 Write down working principle of the pump. Sept.2009 7
 101

Unit-03/Lecture-06

AIR COMPRESSOR

Introduction
The function of compressor is to compress certain quantity of air or gas from the suction
pressure to a required delivery pressure, In order to compress air or gas certain amount of
energy is required, hence it is necessary that the air should be compressed with minimum
expenditure of energy. A compressor requires a prime mover which can be electric motor or in
some cases internal combustion engines. The compressed air finds many applications because
of easy transmission of compressed air. Sore of the applications of compressed air are in
operation of pneumatic drill, hammers, hoist. Control system. Air brakes, sprays. Blast furnaces
and lift gates. Compression of air plays a vital role in the performance of internal combustion
engine and gas turbines. Compressors also find its application in refrigeration and air
conditioning industries.

Classification of Compressors

Reciprocating Compressor

The basic components of reciprocating compressor are piston, cylinder and connecting rod
whose one end is connected to the piston and the other big end connected to the crank Fig.
The inlet and outlet valves are also provided with the cylinder head which are operated by the
pressure differences across them. In general, the piston reciprocates inside the cylinder which is
either air cooled or water cooled. When the piston moves in the downward direction the air
trapped between the piston and the cylinder in the previous stroke (air in the clearance
volume) expands and the pressure inside the cylinder decreases. As soon as the pressure inside
the cylinder reaches a value less than the intake manifold pressure the inlet valve opens. Thus a
fresh charge of air is sucked inside the cylinder, for the remaining part of then suction stroke,
During this process the delivery or the outlet valve remains closed. When the piston moves in
the upward direction the pressure inside the cylinder increases, and as soon as the pressure
inside the cylinder reaches a value more than the intake manifold pressure the inlet valve is
closed. The further upward movement of the piston increases the pressure of the air trapped
inside the piston and the cylinder. Eventually, a pressure will be reached when the pressure
inside the cylinder becomes more than the delivery pressure. This pressure difference causes
 102

opening of the delivery valve and the compressed air is delivered to the receiver for the
remaining pair of the stroke. After completion of the compression stroke piston once again
moves in the downward direction and the cycle is repeated.

Rotary Compressors

Lobe type root blower Figure shows the basic components of the lobe pump. lt consists of two
identical lobes. Both the lobes are mounted on two different shafts and arc placed in housing.
One lobe is keyed to the driving shaft while the other revolves freely on the shall. The profile of
the lobe is cycloid or involute. The air entering the inlet port fills the space between the two
lobes. The air trapped between the lobes is carried forward by the rotating lobes and finally
pushed out of the outlet port, As each side of the lobe faces a side of casing, the process is
carried out four times per revolution of the driving shaft.
 103

Vane Type Blower

Vane Type Blower: it consists Of a rotor mounted eccentrically in relation to the cylindrical
housing. Fig. 3.36. The rotor bas slots cut radially in which the vanes slide. The vanes are spring
loaded, i.e., the vanes are held tightly against the cylindrical housing by means of spring It
provides the leak-proof joint between the suction and discharge connection. When rotor
rotates the vane moves to and fro in the slot of the rotor. During the suction, the space
between the vanes increases. During the further movement of the rotor the space and the
casing decreases and air is discharged through the outlet. In this type of compression the
compression is obtained before the trapped volume is opened to the delivery. and further
compression is obtained by the back flow of air from the receiver.

Centrifugal Compressor

The essential parts of the centrifugal pump arc shown in Fig. and are same as that of centrifugal
pump. It consists of a rotor with a series of curved blades. Air is drawn in through an opening
near the hub as shown in Fig.. The impeller rotates at high rotational speed. The static pressure
of air increases from an eye to an impeller outlet. As the air leaving an impeller tip is passed
through a diffuser provided around an impeller. The kinetic energy of the air is thus converted
into the pressure energy. The centrifugal compressors are used for low pressure and high
volume of air.
 104

[Link] RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

 105

Unit-03/Lecture-07

TURBINES [RGPV jan/feb 08,April 09]

Introduction

A water turbine converts the available potential and kinetic energy of the water into useful
mechanical energy. The rotary motion imparted to the turbine in turn is used to drive an
electric generator. Thus, it converts mechanical energy into electric energy.

Turbines are classified as:

1. (a) Impulse turbine e.g., Pelton
(b) Reaction turbine e.g., Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine
2. According to available head
(a) Low head: lesss than 30 m e.g.. Kaplan turbine
(b) Medium head: 30 m < head < 100 m Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine
(c) High head: head > I 00 m, Pelton turbine
3. According to the direction of flow of water
(a) Tangential flow, e.g., Pelton turbine
(b) Radial flow, e.g., Francis turbine
(e) Axial flow, e.g., Kaplan turbine

Impulse turbine

The only hydraulic turbine of the impulse type in common use, is named after an American
engineer Laster A Pelton, who contributed much to its development around the year 1880.
Therefore this machine is known as Pelton turbine or Pelton wheel. It is an efficient machine
particularly suited to high heads. The rotor consists of a large circular disc or wheel on which a
number (seldom less than 15) of spoon shaped buckets are spaced uniformly round is periphery
as shown in Figure 26.1. The wheel is driven by jets of water being discharged at atmospheric
pressure from pressure nozzles. The nozzles are mounted so that each directs a jet along a
tangent to the circle through the centres of the buckets (Figure 26.2). Down the centre of each
bucket, there is a splitter ridge which divides the jet into two equal streams which flow round
the smooth inner surface of the bucket and leaves the bucket with a relative velocity almost
opposite in direction to the original jet. For maximum change in momentum of the fluid and
hence for the maximum driving force on the wheel, the deflection of the water jet should be
. In practice, however, the deflection is limited to about so that the water leaving a
bucket may not hit the back of the following bucket. Therefore, the camber angle of the buckets
is made as . Figure(26.3a)

The number of jets is not more than two for horizontal shaft turbines and is limited to six for
vertical shaft turbines. The flow partly fills the buckets and the fluid remains in contact with the
atmosphere. Therefore, once the jet is produced by the nozzle, the static pressure of the fluid
remains atmospheric throughout the machine. Because of the symmetry of the buckets, the
side thrusts produced by the fluid in each half should balance each other.
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Reaction Turbine:

Francis Turbine

The principal feature of a reaction turbine that distinguishes it from an impulse turbine is that
only a part of the total head available at the inlet to the turbine is converted to velocity head,
before the runner is reached. Also in the reaction turbines the working fluid, instead of engaging
only one or two blades, completely fills the passages in the runner. The pressure or static head
of the fluid changes gradually as it passes through the runner along with the change in its kinetic
energy based on absolute velocity due to the impulse action between the fluid and the runner.
Therefore the cross-sectional area of flow through the passages of the fluid. A reaction turbine
is usually well suited for low heads. A radial flow hydraulic turbine of reaction type was first
developed by an American Engineer, James B. Francis (1815-92) and is named after him as the
Francis turbine. The schematic diagram of a Francis turbine is shown in Fig.
 107

A Francis turbine comprises mainly the four components:

(i) sprical casing,

(ii) guide on stay vanes,

(iii) runner blades,

(iv) draft-tube as shown in Figure

Spiral Casing: Most of these machines have vertical shafts although some smaller machines of
this type have horizontal shaft. The fluid enters from the penstock (pipeline leading to the
turbine from the reservoir at high altitude) to a spiral casing which completely surrounds the
runner. This casing is known as scroll casing or volute. The cross-sectional area of this casing
decreases uniformly along the circumference to keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude
along its path towards the guide vane.

Figure 28.2 Spiral Casing

This is so because the rate of flow along the fluid path in the volute decreases due to continuous
entry of the fluid to the runner through the openings of the guide vanes or stay vanes.

Guide or Stay vane:

The basic purpose of the guide vanes or stay vanes is to convert a part of pressure energy of the
fluid at its entrance to the kinetic energy and then to direct the fluid on to the runner blades at
the angle appropriate to the design. Moreover, the guide vanes are pivoted and can be turned
by a suitable governing mechanism to regulate the flow while the load changes. The guide
vanes are also known as wicket gates. The guide vanes impart a tangential velocity and hence an
angular momentum to the water before its entry to the runner. The flow in the runner of a
Francis turbine is not purely radial but a combination of radial and tangential. The flow is
inward, i.e. from the periphery towards the centre. The height of the runner depends upon the
specific speed. The height increases with the increase in the specific speed. The main direction
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of flow change as water passes through the runner and is finally turned into the axial direction
while entering the draft tube.

Draft tube:

The draft tube is a conduit which connects the runner exit to the tail race where the water is
being finally discharged from the turbine. The primary function of the draft tube is to reduce
the velocity of the discharged water to minimize the loss of kinetic energy at the outlet. This
permits the turbine to be set above the tail water without any appreciable drop of available
head. A clear understanding of the function of the draft tube in any reaction turbine, in fact, is
very important for the purpose of its design. The purpose of providing a draft tube will be better
understood if we carefully study the net available head across a reaction turbine.

Net head across a reaction turbine and the purpose to providing a draft tube . The effective
head across any turbine is the difference between the head at inlet to the machine and the
head at outlet from it. A reaction turbine always runs completely filled with the working fluid.
The tube that connects the end of the runner to the tail race is known as a draft tube and
should completely to filled with the working fluid flowing through it. The kinetic energy of the
fluid finally discharged into the tail race is wasted. A draft tube is made divergent so as to
reduce the velocity at outlet to a minimum. Therefore a draft tube is basically a diffuser and
should be designed properly with the angle between the walls of the tube to be limited to
about 8 degree so as to prevent the flow separation from the wall and to reduce accordingly the
loss of energy in the tube. Figure 28.3 shows a flow diagram from the reservoir via a reaction
turbine to the tail race.

KAPLAN TURBINE

The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid
changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. Power is recovered
from both the hydrostatic head and from the kinetic energy of the flowing water. The design
combines features of radial and axial turbines.
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The inlet is a scroll-shaped tube that wraps around the turbine's wicket gate. Water is directed
tangentially through the wicket gate and spirals on to a propeller shaped runner, causing it to
spin. The outlet is a specially shaped draft tube that helps decelerate the water and recover
kinetic energy. The turbine does not need to be at the lowest point of water flow as long as the
draft tube remains full of water. A higher turbine location, however, increases the suction that is
imparted on the turbine blades by the draft tube. The resulting pressure drop may lead to
cavitations. Variable geometry of the wicket gate and turbine blades allow efficient operation
for a range of flow conditions. Kaplan turbine efficiencies are typically over 90%, but may be
lower in very low head applications.

[Link] RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 How turbines are classified? Explain. Jan./feb.2008 10
Q.2 Describe the construction and working principle
of the following Jan./feb.2008 10 each
Pelton wheel , Kaplan turbine
Q.3 Write down working principle of the water turbine. April 2009 7
 110

Unit-03/Lecture-08

HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Water flowing in the river is comprised of kinetic energy and potential energy. The basic
principle of hydropower is that if water can be piped from a certain level to a lower level, then
the resulting water pressure can be used to do work. If the water pressure is allowed to move a
mechanical component then that movement involves the conversion of the potential energy of
the water into mechanical energy. Hydro turbines convert water pressure into mechanical shaft
power, which can be used to drive an electricity generator, a grinding mill or some other useful
device.

There several important components of the hydroelectric power plant.

Hydroelectric Dam

1) Dam

The dam is the most important component of hydroelectric power plant. The dam is built on a
large river that has abundant quantity of water throughout the year. It should be built at a
location where the height of the river is sufficient to get the maximum possible potential energy
 111

from water.

2) Water Reservoir

The water reservoir is the place behind the dam where water is stored. The water in the
reservoir is located higher than the rest of the dam structure. The height of water in the
reservoir decides how much potential energy the water possesses. The higher the height of
water, the more its potential energy. The high position of water in the reservoir also enables it
to move downwards effortlessly.

The height of water in the reservoir is higher than the natural height of water flowing in the
river, so it is considered to have an altered equilibrium. This also helps to increase the overall
potential energy of water, which helps ultimately produce more electricity in the power
generation unit.

3) Intake or Control Gates

These are the gates built on the inside of the dam. The water from reservoir is released and
controlled through these gates. These are called inlet gates because water enters the power
generation unit through these gates. When the control gates are opened the water flows due to
gravity through the penstock and towards the turbines. The water flowing through the gates
possesses potential as well as kinetic energy.

4) The Penstock

The penstock is the long pipe or the shaft that carries the water flowing from the reservoir
towards the power generation unit, comprised of the turbines and generator. The water in the
penstock possesses kinetic energy due to its motion and potential energy due to its height.

The total amount of power generated in the hydroelectric power plant depends on the height of
the water reservoir and the amount of water flowing through the penstock. The amount of
water flowing through the penstock is controlled by the control gates.

5) Water Turbines

Water flowing from the penstock is allowed to enter the power generation unit, which houses
the turbine and the generator. When water falls on the blades of the turbine the kinetic and
potential energy of water is converted into the rotational motion of the blades of the turbine.
The rotating blades cause the shaft of the turbine to also rotate. The turbine shaft is enclosed
inside the generator. In most hydroelectric power plants there is more than one power
generation unit.

There is large difference in height between the level of turbine and level of water in the
reservoir. This difference in height, also known as the head of water, decides the total amount of
power that can be generated in the hydroelectric power plant.

There are various types of water turbines such as Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine, Pelton wheels
etc. The type of turbine used in the hydroelectric power plant depends on the height of the
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reservoir, quantity of water and the total power generation capacity.

6) Generators

It is in the generator where the electricity is produced. The shaft of the water turbine rotates in
the generator, which produces alternating current in the coils of the generator. It is the rotation
of the shaft inside the generator that produces magnetic field which is converted into electricity
by electromagnetic field induction. Hence the rotation of the shaft of the turbine is crucial for
the production of electricity and this is achieved by the kinetic and potential energy of water.
Thus in hydroelectricity power plants potential energy of water is converted into electricity.

[Link] RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

BOOK AUTHOR PRIORITY

Basic mechanical engineering P.K. Nag 1

Basic mechanical engineering D.K. Gupta 2