Research Method in Accounting & 1

Finance

CHAPTER 4

LITERATURE REVIEW, RESEARCH

DESIGN AND SAMPLING DESIGN

By: Mohammed G (MSc, Assistant professor)

Nov., 2023
1/22/2024 Jimma, Ethiopia
 SECTION 1:LITERATURE REVIEW
2

 In reviewing literature, one identifies, locates and

analyses documents that are related to the research
problem that is being investigated.
 Literature reviews endeavors at obtain extensive
knowledge of the topic under study.
 Literature review critically looks at the existing research
that is important to the work that the researcher will be
carrying out
 In reviewing literature one needs to examine books,
magazines, journals, dissertations, internet sources that
have a bearing on the topic under study 1/22/2024
 PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
3

 Main purpose is to determine what has already been done in

relation to the topic under study.
 It helps the researcher to avoid unnecessary duplication while at the
same time enabling the researcher to know the kind of additional
data needed.
 Literature review helps the researcher to limit the research problem
and to define it better.
 It helps the researcher to identify the intervening variables
therefore, making the study clear.
 It sharpens and deepens the theoretical and conceptual framework
which is the foundation of research
 The researcher is able to gain knowledge from the diverse theories
that already exist and apply them to his/her study
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 PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
4

 A review unravels the gaps in information and areas where

major questions still remain
 This is done through combination of relevant factors,
integrating and summaries of what is known in the area.
 Literature review gives recommendation for further studies
which help in revealing areas that need further research.
 Approaches that have proved to be useless will be revealed
through literature review.
 This helps in the research to avoid repetition of approaches
that have been found to be consistently unproductive or
unreliable.
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 QUALITIES OF EFFECTIVEFLITERATURE REVIEW

 It is critical, organized and analytical in orientation

 It justifies the need for the study by identifying the gaps

in the studies quoted.

 It highlights the relationship between the past and the

current study

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 SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
6

 Primary sources – direct description of a research by a person who actually

carried out the research, observing or witnessing the occurrences. The review of
literature should be based on the Primary sources as much as possible because
information from secondary sources may be altered by the writers
 Secondary sources – they include any publication written by an author who
was not a direct observer or participant in the events described
 Examples of secondary sources of information
 Scholarly journals, Thesis and dissertations, Government documents
 Papers presented at conferences
 Books, References quoted in books, Abstracts, Policy papers
 Periodicals
 The African section of the library
 Reference section – encyclopedias, dictionaries, manuals, handbooks and
biographies
 Grey literature (anything written but not published)
 Internet 1/22/2024
 CHALLENGES IN FORMULATION OF
LITERATURE REVIEW
7

 Failure to connect the reviewed studies with the current

study
 Poor presentation (organization of ideas)
 Large quantities of research to review
 Lack of documentation
 Lack of referencing
 Lack of critique,
 Failure to review current studies
 Poor transition of ideas
 Referencing and citing will be guided by the
institutions preferred style. St Paul’s uses Harvard style
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 SECTION 2:RESEARCH DESIGN
8

 The formidable problem that follows the task of

defining the research problem is the preparation of the
design of the research project, popularly known as the
―Research Design‖. Decisions regarding
 What,
 Where,
 When,
 How much,
 By what means concerning an inquiry or a research
study constitute a research design.
1/22/2024
 RESEARCH DESIGN
9

 According to Kombo and Tromp (2013) Research Design

can be thought of as a structure of the research.

 It is the ―glue‖ that hold all the elements of research to

show how all of the major parts of the research project
work together to try to address the central question.

 Orotho (2003) defined the research design as the scheme,

outline or plan that is used to generate answers to research
problems.
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 RESEARCH DESIGN
10

 According to Kothari (2003) ―A research design is the

arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.‖
 In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data.
 As such the design includes an outline of what the
researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its
operational implications to the final analysis
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of data.
 Research Design
11

 More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in

respect of:
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
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 RESEARCH DESIGN
12

 There are many definitions of research design, but no single definition

imparts the full range of important aspects.
1. Research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data.
2. Research design aids the researcher in the allocation of limited
resources by posing crucial choices in methodology.
3. Research design is the plan and structure of investigation so
conceived as to obtain answers to research questions.
a) The plan is the overall scheme or program of the research.
b) It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing
hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of
data.
4. Research design expresses both the structure of the research problem—
the frame-work, organization, or configuration of the relationships
among variables of a study—and the plan of investigation used to
obtain empirical evidence on those relationships.1/22/2024
 RESEARCH DESIGN
13

 These definitions differ in detail, but together

they give the essentials of research design:
 An activity- and time-based plan.
 A plan always based on the research question.
 A guide for selecting sources and types of
information.
 A framework for specifying the relationships
among the study’s variables.
 A procedural outline for every research
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activity.
 RESEARCH DESIGN
14

 Keeping in view the above stated design decisions; one may

split the overall research design into the following parts:
 The sampling design which deals with the method of
selecting items to be observed for the given study;
 The observational design which relates to the conditions
under which the observations are to be made;
 The statistical design which concerns with the question of
how many items are to be observed and how the
information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and
 The operational design which deals with the techniques by
which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical
and observational designs can be carried out.
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 FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
15

 From what has been stated above, we can state the

important features of a research design as under:
It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.
It is a strategy specifying which approach will be
used for gathering and analyzing the data.
It also includes the time and cost budgets since most
studies are done under these two constraints.

1/22/2024
 FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN
16

 A good design is often characterized by adjectives like

Flexible,
Appropriate,
Efficient,
Economical and so on.
Generally, the design which minimizes bias and
maximizes the reliability of the data collected and
analyzed is considered a good design.
The design which gives the smallest experimental error
is supposed to be the best design in many1/22/2024
investigations.
 FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN
17

 Similarly, a design which yields maximal

information and provides an opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is
considered most appropriate and efficient design in
respect of many research problems.
 Thus, the question of good design is related to the
purpose or objective of the research problem and
also with the nature of the problem to be studied.
 A design may be quite suitable in one case, but may
be found wanting in one respect or the other in the
context of some other research problem.
 One single design cannot serve the purpose of all
types of research problems. 1/22/2024
 FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN
18

 A research design appropriate for a particular research problem,

usually involves the consideration of the following factors:

 The means of obtaining information;

 The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;

 The objective of the problem to be studied;

 The nature of the problem to be studied; and

 The availability of time and money for the research work.

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 SECTIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
19

 Research design is organized under the following

sections:
 Research site,

 Population,

 Sampling techniques,

 Research instruments,

 Data collection procedure and data analysis.

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 SECTIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
20

In other words Research Design must have:

 A clear statement of the research problem;

 Procedures and techniques to be used for

gathering information;
 The population to be studied; and

 Methods to be used in processing and analyzing

data.

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 QUALITIES OF EFFECTIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN
21

 They are systematically and logical.

 They effectively address the question raised in the
study. Based on this design, the researcher can
construct questions that will ask the desired
information.
 They contribute to accurate and fair interpretation
of results
 They clarify to the researcher the respondents
and the means by which the study will be
conducted. They contribute to the deeper insights the
better understanding of the research topic.
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 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
22

 Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing

of the various research operations, thereby making research as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.

 Just as for better, economical and attractive construction of a

house, we need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the map
of the house) well thought out and prepared by an expert architect,
similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of data
collection and analysis for our research project.

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 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS
23

Different research designs can be conveniently

described if we categorize them as:
 Research design in case of exploratory research
studies;
 Research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies, and
 Research design in case of hypothesis-testing
research studies.
 Research design in the case of correlational
research (it is used in the quantitative research):
This is basically concerned with assessing
relationships among variables. 1/22/2024
 SECTION 3:SAMPLE DESIGN
24

 Learning Objectives
Define Population, Sample, and Sampling.
Identify the Purpose of Sampling.
Compare and Contrast a Population and a
Sample.
Define Probability and Non-probability
Sampling.
Identify the Types of Probability and Non-
Probability Sampling.
Compare the Advantages and Disadvantages of
specific Probability and Non-probability
Sampling.
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 What is Sampling?
25

 Population: the entire group under study as

defined by research objectives. Sometimes
called the ―universe.‖
 Sampling is a process of selecting a portion or
subset of the designated population to represent
the entire population.
 Sample is a set of elements that make up the
Population
population.
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 Sampling and Sample Size Determination
 Samples and Populations
 A population consists of the set of all measurements for which
the investigator is interested.
 A sample is a subset of the measurements selected from the
population.
 A census is a complete enumeration of every item in a
population.
 Sampling from the population is often done randomly, such that
every possible sample of equal size (n) will have an equal
chance of being selected.
 A sample selected in this way is called a simple random
sample or just a random sample.
 A random sample allows chance to determine its elements.

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 Why Sampling?
27

Census of a population may be:

 Impossible
 Impractical
 Too costly
Benefit Sampling
 To Get Information About Large Populations with
 Less Costs
 Less field Time
 More Accuracy i.e. Can Do A Better Job of Data
Collection& Analysis
 When it’s Impossible to study the whole
population 1/22/2024
 Types of Sampling

28

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 Probability Samples
29

 Every unit of the population has the Equal Probability of being

included in the sample.
 Chance Mechanism is used in the selection process.
 Eliminates Bias in the selection process
 Advantages Of Probability Sampling
1. Information from a representative cross-section
2. Sampling error can be computed

3. Results are Projectable to the Total Population.

 Disadvantages Of Probability Sampling
1. More expansive than non-probability samples
2. Take more time to Design and Execute.
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 Non-probability Samples
30

 Every unit of the population Does not have Equal Probability of

being included in the sample.
 Open the selection Bias
• Advantages of Non-probability Samples
 Less Cost than probability
 Can be conducted more quickly
 Produces samples that are reasonably representative
 Disadvantages of Non-Probability Samples
 Sampling error cannot be computed
 Representativeness of the sample is not known
 Results cannot be Projected to the population.
 Not appropriate data collection methods for most statistical
methods
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 Types Probability Sampling Methods
31

 Simple Random Sampling

 A probability sample is a sample in which every element of
the population has a known and equal probability of being
selected into the sample.
 Probability of Selection=Sample Size (n)
Population Size (N)
 Blind Draw Method (e.g. names ―placed in a hat‖ and
then drawn randomly)
 Random Numbers Method (all items in the sampling
frame given numbers, numbers then drawn using table
or computer program)
• Advantages:
• Known and equal chance of selection
• Easy method when there is an electronic database
 Systematic Sampling
32

 An initial starting point is selected by a random process, and then

every kth number on the list is selected
 Probability of Selection (K) =Sample Size (n)
Population Size (N)
 The number of population elements between the units selected for
the sample
 Advantages of systematic sampling
 Typically simpler to implement than SRS

 Can provide a more uniform coverage

 Potential disadvantage of systematic sampling

 Can produce a bias if there is a systematic pattern in the
sequence of items from which the sample is selected
 Example of Systematic Sampling
33
1 16 31 46
2 17 32 47 Example
3 18 33 48
Total Population(N)= 60
4 19 34 49
5 20 35 50 Want Sample of 10
6 21 36 51
7 22 37 52 Interval Size(k) =60/10 = 6
8 23 38 53
9 24 39 54 Select Random Start b/n 1 & 6
10 25 40 55
11 26 41 56 Eg. 5
12 27 42 57
13 28 43 58
Select Every Sixth Unit
 First Randomly selected sample
14 29 44 59
15 30 45 60 1/22/2024
 Stratified Sampling:
34

 The population is separated into homogeneous

groups/segments/strata, according to some criterion, such
as geographic location, grade level, age, or income, and
sub-samples are randomly selected from each strata.
 The results are then combined to get the picture of the
total population.
 It allows the researcher to allocate a larger sample size to
strata with more variance and smaller sample size to strata
with less variance. Thus, for the same sample size, more
precision is achieved.

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 Stratified Sampling
35

 Advantages
 guarantees coverage across strata

 can over-sample some strata in order to obtain precise

within-stratum estimates
 Disadvantages
 with unequal sampling probabilities, sampling
weights must be included in analysis
 more complicated
 requires special software

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 Clusters Sampling
36

 The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like

families.
 A simple random sample is taken of the subgroups and
then all members of the cluster selected are surveyed.

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 Example Clusters Sampling:
37

 In cluster sampling the sample units contain

groups of elements (clusters) instead of individual
members or items in the population.

 eg:- Rather than listing all elementary school children in a

given city and random selecting 15 per cent these students
for the sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary
schools in the city, selects at random 15 percent of these
clusters of units, and uses all of the children in the
selected schools as the sample.
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38
 Advantages
More convenient for geographically dispersed
•
populations
• Reduced travel costs to contact sample elements

• Simplified administration of the survey

• Unavailability of sampling frame prohibits using other

random sampling methods
 Disadvantages
• Statistically less efficient when the cluster elements are
similar
• Costs and problems of statistical analysis are greater
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than for simple random sampling
 Non-Probability Sampling Method
39

In the presence of constraints to use probability sampling

strategies, the alternative sampling method is non-probability
sampling method.

Non-probability sampling strategies are used when it is practically

impossible to use probability sampling strategies.

Non-probability sampling is sampling procedure which does not

afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in
the population has of being included in the sample.
 Cont’d……….
40

 Subjective units of population have a zero or unknown

probability of selection before drawing the as sample.
Hence obtained a non-representative samples.
 Sampling error can not be computed
 Survey results cannot be projected to the population

Advantages
 Cheaper and faster than probability
 Reasonably representative if collected in a thorough
manner
 1. Judgment Sampling/ Purposive sampling
41

The researcher selects the sample based on judgment.

A researcher exerts some effort in selecting a
sample that seems to be most appropriate for the
study.

This is used primarily when there is a limited number

of people that have expertise in the area being
researched
 2. Convenience Sampling
42

Convenience sampling selects a particular group of people but it

does not come close to sampling all of a population.

The sample would generalize only to similar programs in

similar cities.
It looks just like cluster sampling.
The major difference is that the clusters of research participants
are selected by convenience rather than by a random process.
 Cont’d………..
43

 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental

or haphazard sampling.

 A type of non probability sampling which involves the sample

being drawn from that part of the population which is close to
hand. That is, readily available and convenient.

 The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make

generalizations about the total population from this sample
because it would not be representative enough.

 This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.

 3. Quota sampling
44

It is a method that ensures a certain number of sample units from

different categories with specific characteristics are represented.
The investigator interviews as many people in each category of
study unit as he can find until he has filled his quota.
It is the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. This
differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by
random sampling.
The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-
groups, just as in stratified sampling.
 Cont’d
45

 Then judgment used to select subjects or units from

each segment based on a specified proportion.

 For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200

females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.

 It is this second step which makes the technique one of

non-probability sampling.
 Cont’d
46

 In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.

 For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those

who look most helpful. The problem is that these samples may
be biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection.

 This random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus

probability has been a matter of controversy for many years
 4. Snowball sampling
47

It is a special non-probability method used when the

desired sample characteristic is rare.
Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial
subjects to generate additional subjects.
What we need to do in case of snowball sampling is that
first identify someone who meets the criteria and then
let him/her bring the other he/she knew.
 Cont’d
48

 While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it

comes at the expense of introducing bias because the
technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will
represent a good cross section from the population.

 Selection of additional respondents is based on referrals

from the initial respondents.
 friends of friends
 Used to sample from low incidence or rare populations.
 Sample Size Determination
49

Determining the sample size for a study is a crucial component

of study to include sufficient numbers of subjects so that
statistically significant results can be detected.

"How large a sample do I need?―

The answer will depend on the aims, nature and scope of the
study and on the expected result. All of which should be
carefully considered at the planning stage.
 Technique Strengths Weaknesses
Non-Probability Sampling Least expensive, least Selection bias, sample not
time-consuming, most representative, not recommended for
Convenience sampling convenient descriptive or causal research
50
Judgmental sampling Low cost, convenient, Does not allow generalization,
not time-consuming subjective
Quota sampling Sample can be controlled Selection bias, no assurance of
for certain characteristics representativeness
Snowball sampling Can estimate rare Time-consuming
characteristics

Probability Sampling Easily understood, results Difficult to construct sampling frame,

Simple random sampling projectable expensive, lower precision, no
(SRS) assurance of representativeness.
Systematic sampling Can increase Can decrease representativeness
representativeness, Easier to
implement than SRS,
sampling frame not
necessary
Stratified sampling Include all important Difficult to select relevant
subpopulations, precision stratification variables, not feasible to
stratify on many variables, expensive
Cluster sampling Easy to implement, cost Imprecise, difficult to compute and
effective interpret results
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ANY QUESTIONS

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PUT THIS KNOWLEDGE TO WORK!

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