Materials: engineering, science, properties, and design (4th edition)

M.F. Ashby, H.R. Shercliff and D. Cebon

Exercises with Solutions for Chapter 19

Exercise E19.1 Briefly explain the meaning of the following terms in relation to casting processes:
homogeneous nucleation, heterogeneous nucleation, inoculants, segregation, aluminium-killed steel,
poisoning.

Answer.
Homogeneous nucleation: spontaneous formation of solid crystals within the bulk of the melt.
Heterogeneous nucleation: formation of solid crystals on the surface of another solid (the mould wall, or a
particle within the melt).
Inoculants: solid particles added to the melt to promote heterogeneous nucleation, as a route to a finer cast
grain size with less segregation of alloying elements.
Segregation: the non-uniform distribution of solute within the solid, caused by different solubilities in liquid
and solid state during solidification; occurs at the grain scale, from centre to grain boundary, and on the scale
of the casting, from the mould wall to the centre.
Aluminium-killed steel: steel to which aluminium was added just before pouring, to react with residual
dissolved oxygen (forming solid particles of alumina), preventing the gas from segregating during solidification,
causing porosity.
Poisoning: small allying additions that change the size and shape of brittle second phases in a casting alloy.
Fine-scale, more rounded particles of these phases are much less damaging to fracture toughness and ductility
(e.g. adding Na to Al-Si alloys, to change the Si phase morphology).

Exercise E19.2 Briefly explain the meaning of the following terms in relation to deformation processing:
annealing, recovery, recrystallisation, texture.

Answer.
Annealing: holding at high temperature in the solid state, usually followed by slow cooling. Serves various
purposes – softening the alloy to enable further deformation (often via recovery and recrystallization, below),
but also to relax residual stresses from prior processing (with a slow cool minimising their build-up in this
process).
Recovery: dislocation rearrangement either after (static) or during (dynamic) deformation. Gives only modest
softening in itself, but is a pre-cursor to subsequent recrystallization, and also eliminates work hardening in hot
deformation of some metals (giving a ‘steady-state’ constant hot yield stress).
Recrystallisation: growth of new grains in deformed and recovered metals, from nuclei formed by recovery.
New grain boundaries sweep through the crystal, reducing the dislocation density by orders of magnitude, with
a substantial reduction in yield strength, and change in the grain size.
Texture: crystal grains contain planes of atoms, with atoms in regular arrays. The orientation of the crystal
planes is rarely random in three-dimensional space, with rolling processes in particular leading to preferential
orientations of the crystals with respect to the 3 axes of the rolled material – this non-random orientation
distribution is referred to as ‘texture’. It strongly affects the uniformity of subsequent shaping processes,
particularly in sheet metal.

Exercise E19.3 Briefly explain the meaning of the following terms in relation to bulk and surface heat
treatment of metals: age hardening aluminium alloys, martensite, tempering, hardenability, transformation
hardening, carburising.

Answer.
Age hardening aluminium alloys: Al alloys containing Mg and one or more of the element Si, Cu, Zn (and
others), which are heat-treated for enhanced strength. This involves solutionising in the solid state close to the
melting point, quenching and then ‘ageing’ at an intermediate temperature to form a fine-scale dispersion of
second phases giving effective precipitation hardening.

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Martensite: the phase formed in carbon steels on quenching from high temperatures (typically 900-1000oC),
when the alloy is a solid solution of C in FCC Fe (austenite). The iron lattice transforms, but the carbon remains
in super-saturated solid solution, giving very high hardness but very low fracture toughness.
Tempering: the process applied at intermediate temperatures (typically 500-600oC) to convert martensite
(formed after quenching of a carbon steel) into steel that is precipitation hardened by second phase particles of
iron carbide (or alloy carbides, in alloy steels). Toughness is restored, and the yield stress is higher than can be
achieved by conventional slow cooling.
Hardenability: the ability of a carbon steel to form martensite on quenching – meaning the cooling rate that
must be applied to form martensite, as opposed to other phases associated with slower cooling. High rates
mean low hardenability – it is usually quantified instead with the size of component that will form martensite
all the way through-thickness (large size – high hardenability).
Transformation hardening: the hardening of a steel surface by imposing a local transient temperature cycle to a
thin surface layer, taking that region into the austenitic state (dissolving the carbon), which then transforms to
martensite on quenching (usually by heat conduction into the cold substrate underneath). The hard martensite
provides wear resistance, and its brittleness is not an issue for a thin layer on a tough substrate.
Carburising: the process of diffusing more carbon into the surface of a steel component held at high
temperature. Carbon increases the hardness (for wear resistance) – most effectively if the carburized surface is
also transformed to martensite (by quenching the surface).

Exercise E19.4 Exercises E19.1–E19.3 cover many of the reasons that alloying additions are made in metals
processing. See if you can identify even more reasons for alloying, with examples.

Answer.
Examples in the text are:
- alloying steels for hot strength: additions such as tungsten and vanadium increase hardenability, and lead to
precipitation of alloy carbides (as above), but can also give substantial solid solution hardening when in
sufficient quantities. The particular benefit is that the strength is retained at temperatures at which a plain
carbon steel would soften – used for tool steels (dies and cutting tools) that run hot.
- alloying to enhance properties directly (not via the response to processing), e.g. nickel and chromium to
produce corrosion-resistance in stainless steels.
Other more complex examples, some related to processing scenarios in the text, are:
- microalloyed steels: alloy carbides can enhance the weldability of low carbon steels for structural
applications. At the near-melting temperatures of welding, grain growth can be a problem – this enhances the
steel hardenability, risking the formation of brittle martensite during welding. In microalloyed steels, the alloy
carbides pin the boundaries, preventing this detrimental grain growth.
- free-machining steels: small additions of lead and other metals to steels allow very fast machining speeds, as
the alloy elements concentrate at grain boundaries, giving some embrittlement (and lubrication) which ease
chip formation. Only suitable for applications in which fracture toughness is not critical in the product.
- machinability in grey cast iron: the graphite flakes in grey cast iron allow unlubricated machining (as the
graphite acts as a lubricant).
- second phase particles in aluminium alloys: these alloys can contain high melting point second phases of Fe,
Mn, Cr and Zr. Many of these interact with processes such as recrystallization, in which they provide
heterogeneous nucleation sites for new grains, providing a means to influence final grain size (and texture).

Exercise E19.5 The following table shows typical data for strength and fracture toughness of a selection of
copper alloys, both cast and wrought. Sketch a property chart (on log scales) and plot the data. Use the chart
to answer the following:
(a) how do the cast and wrought alloys compare on fracture toughness, at comparable strength?
(b) rank the strengthening mechanisms (as indicated in the table) in order of effectiveness;
(c) do the trends observed in (a, b) follow a similar pattern to aluminum alloys (Fig. 8.18)?

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 Alloy Process route Main strengthening Yield Fracture
mechanisms strength toughness
(MPa) (MPa.m1/2)
Pure Cu Cast None 35 105
Pure Cu Hot rolled Work 80 82
Bronze (10% Sn) Cast Solid solution 200 55
Brass (30% Zn) Cast Solid solution 90 80
Brass (30% Zn) Wrought + annealed Solid solution 100 75
Brass (30% Zn) Wrought Solid solution + Work 400 35
Cu – 2% Be Wrought + heat treated Precipitation 1000 17

Answer. 1000

(a) For the data given, there is a strong correlation

between strength and toughness – toughness falls
steadily with increasing strength. Both cast and Cast Cu alloys
Fracture toughness (MPa.m1/2)

wrought alloys around 100MPa have comparable Wrought Cu alloys

toughness.
(b) Solid solution is least effective, precipitation 100
hardness is most effective; work hardening increases in
effectiveness when combined with solid solution
hardening.
(c) The effectiveness of the different hardening
mechanisms follows the trend observed for aluminum
alloys, but the strength-fracture toughness correlation
is more marked in the Cu alloys shown. In aluminum
10
10 100 1000
the strength has little effect on fracture toughness Yield strength (MPa)
(which is relatively low at all strengths), and the cast
alloys have lower toughness than wrought alloys of comparable strength.

Exercise E19.6 The following table shows the yield strength for a number of pure metals in the annealed
condition, together with typical data for the strongest wrought alloys available based on these metals. By what
factor is the strength increased in each alloy system, relative to that of the pure metal on which it is based?
Which shows the greatest absolute increase in strength?

Base element Yield strength (MPa) Strongest wrought alloy Yield strength (MPa)
(pure metal) (alloy)
Iron 120 Fe-Mo-Co-Cr-W-C quenched 2750
and tempered tool steel
Aluminium 25 Al-Zn-Mg-Cu age-hardened 625
Copper 35 Cu-Be-Co-Ni age-hardened 1250
Magnesium 65 Mg-Al-Zn-Nd age-hardened 435
Nickel 70 Ni-Be cold worked 1590

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Answer.

Base element Yield strength (MPa) Yield strength (MPa) Strength Absolute increase
(pure metal) (alloy) ratio (MPa)
Iron 120 2750 23 2630
Aluminium 25 625 25 600
Copper 35 1250 36 1215
Magnesium 65 435 7 370
Nickel 70 1590 23 1520

Copper shows the greatest increase, relative to its initial pure state. Iron shows the greatest absolute increase.

Exercise E19.7 (a) Three long bars of steel of various diameters were quenched from 850oC into cold oil. The
temperature history at the centre was recorded using embedded thermocouples, and the average cooling rate
calculated between two reference temperatures in each case, giving the results below.
Bar diameter, D (mm) Cooling rate, dT/dt (oC s-1)
100 2.5
20 50
5 667
dT
Heat flow analysis suggests that the data should fit a power-law relationship of the form: = A Dn
dt
Plot the data on a log-log plot (base 10) to find best fit values for the parameters A and n.
(b) A steel shaft 40 mm in diameter is to be hardened by austenitising at 850oC followed by quenching into
cold oil and tempering. The centre of the bar must be 100% martensite after quenching, and five low-alloy
steels A-E are available. The critical cooling rates (CCR) for formation of 100% martensite, and the cost of each
steel, are:
Steel CCR (oC s-1) Cost (£/kg)
A 110 0.50
B 5.5 0.90
C 4.5 1.25
D 42 0.60
E 2 1.00

(i) Use your graph from (a), or the fitted equation, to find the cooling rate at the centre of the 40mm bar.
(ii) Select the best steel for this application from those listed in the table below, justifying your choice.

Answer.
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(a) log10 (D, in mm) log10 (dT/dt, in oC s-1)
log (dT/dt) = 4.1 - 1.9 log (D)
2.5
2.00 0.40
1.30 1.70 2
log (dT/dt)

0.70 2.82 1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
log (D)

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On a log-log plot, a power-law relationship plots as a straight line of slope n and intercept log(A):
dT dT
= A Dn ⇒ log ( ) = log A + n log ( D)
dt dt
Hence from best fit trendline:
log A ≈ 4.1, so A ≈ 12,600, and n ≈ – 1.9.

(b) (i) From the best fit line, or by interpolating on the graph at log10(40) = 1.60, the cooling rate at the centre
of the bar of diameter D = 40 mm is:
dT/dt ≈ 12,600 × 40 – 1.9 ≈ 11.4 oC s-1
(ii) We therefore need a critical cooling rate that is lower than this (i.e. the imposed cooling rate must be faster
than the CCR to give 100% martensite). The only suitable steels are B, C, E. Out of these, we would choose B,
as it is the cheapest.

Exercise E19.8 Heat flow analysis shows that when a cylinder of diameter D is quenched in oil, the cooling
rate along its centre line (the point of slowest cooling) matches that experienced at a distance X from the
quenched end of the Jominy bar, with the simple correlation:
X ≈ 0. 4 D
A 30mm diameter component is to be quenched in oil and tempered to a minimum Vickers hardness of 300 HV
at its centre. Can both the steels in Figure 19.18 achieve this target hardness?
The surface of a component often needs to be harder than the interior (for example to resist wear). The surface
cooling rate on quenching the bar into oil is fast. Can you infer how to use the Jominy curves to predict the
surface hardness after quenching in oil and tempering? How uniform will the hardness be from centre to
surface for of the two steels, and which would you recommend if we also need wear resistance?

Answer.
For a diameter D = 30mm quenched in oil, the corresponding Jominy distance is X = 12mm. From Fig. 19.18, at
this distance, both steels achieve this hardness at the centre after tempering.
The fast cooling rate at the surface is effectively the same as that at the quenched end of the bar – so we can
assume that the surface hardness is given by X = 0 on the Jominy curves. The alloy steel will have the same
hardness through the whole thickness (around 500 HV) whereas the plain C steel will show a gradient from 350
HV at the centre to around 470 HV to the surface. The alloy steel therefore offers greater wear resistance =
though there is not much in it, and the plain carbon steel might be a cheaper option.

Exercise E19.9 In plain carbon and alloy steels, hardenability and weldability are considered to be opposites.
Explain why this is the case. For a steel to be suitable for laser transformation hardening, would you look for
high or low hardenability?

Answer.
In quenching and tempering, the goal is to form martensite so high hardenability is preferable. In welding of
steels, martensite formation is a serious problem due to embrittlement, hence weldable steels are those with
low hardenability – the exact opposite.
Transformation hardening relies on martensite formation during self-quenching by heat conduction into the
material below the surface layer, so hardenability is needed. In practice, laser heating is so intense that the
imposed cooling rates are very high, and even low hardenability steels can be converted to martensite.

Exercise E19.10 The ceramic alumina Al2O3 is hot or cold pressed and sintered with a variety of binders, to
facilitate densification. These binders have a much lower Young’s modulus than the alumina, and there is
usually some residual porosity, giving nominal compositions from 85-100% alumina. The table shows the
resulting density, Young’s modulus and compressive strength for a range of aluminas. Plot a graph showing the
variation of these properties with alumina composition, accounting for the trends in each.

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 Composition Density Young’s modulus Compressive strength
(%Al2O3) (Mg/m3) (GPa) (GPa)
85.0 3.40 220 1.8
88.0 3.47 250 2.0
90.0 3.52 276 2.5
94.0 3.67 314 2.3
97.0 3.80 355 2.3
99.5 (fine grain) 3.85 375 6.3
100.0 3.96 400 2.6

Answer.
Density and Young’s modulus fall 7 400 Density
approximately linearly with increasing 350
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porosity over this range, with modulus Comp.
showing the greater sensitivity. 300 strength
Density or Strength

Young's modulus
Compressive strength shows modest 250 Young's
4 modulus
sensitivity to porosity, with a sudden 200
rise in strength when nearly fully 3
150
dense. This suggests that what really
matters is the size of the worst 2
100
defects, not their fraction. The largest 1 50
defects only reduce in size when the
porosity is reduced to below 1%. 0 0
85 90 95 100
% alumina

Exercise E19.11 Briefly explain the meaning of the following terms in relation to polymer processing:
copolymer, polymer blend, crystallisation, fibres. Why is it possible to weld and recycle thermoplastics, but not
a thermoset or an elastomer?
Answer.
Copolymer: a polymer in which the molecular chains are made of two monomers.
Polymer blend: a polymer in which two different types of chain molecule are mixed together.
Crystallisation: the formation of regions in the solid in which there is a degree of alignment and order in the
chains, giving stronger van der Waals bonding between the molecules (while the remainder of the surrounding
solid has an amorphous structure).
Fibres: drawn polymers in which the molecular chains have been aligned to some degree, with the alignment
being retained by making a long thin strand of the polymer (either at room temperature, or by rapid cooling
after drawing from a melt).
Thermoplastics can be welded and recycled because they are only bonded between the molecular chains by
van der Waals bonds, which can melt and reform repeatedly. Thermosets and elastomers are cross-linked, i.e.
contain covalent links between chains, and these are permanent – on heating, these polymers can only
decompose (and burn), and do not melt.

Exercise E19.12 The excellent specific properties of natural and artificial fibers were highlighted on Figure
19.24. It is also of interest to explore other property combinations which measure performance – for example,
the maximum elastic stored energy. The following table summarizes typical data for various fibers, together
with some bulk polymers, and steel, for comparison.
Calculate the following performance indices for the materials given: (a) maximum elastic stored energy (per
unit volume), σ 2f / E ; (b) maximum elastic stored energy (per unit mass), σ 2f / Eρ .
Which material appears best on each criterion? Which criterion would be more important for climbing ropes?
Why is not practical for the properties of fibers to be exploited to their maximum potential?

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 Hemp Spider Bulk Aramid Polyester PE Nylon Alloy Steel
Web Silk Nylon Fiber Fiber Fiber Fiber Wire
Young’s 8 11.0 2.5 124 13 2.85 3.9 210
Modulus (GPa)
Strength (MPa) 300 500 63 3930 784 1150 616 1330
Density (kg/m3) 1490 1310 1090 1450 1390 950 1140 7800

Answer.
Hemp Spider Bulk Aramid Polyester PE Nylon Alloy
Web Silk Nylon Fiber Fiber Fiber Fiber Steel
Wire
Max. elastic stored
energy per unit 11.3 22.7 1.6 124.6 47.3 464.0 97.3 8.4
volume, σ 2f / E

Max. elastic stored

energy per unit mass, 7.6 17.3 1.5 85.9 34.0 488.5 85.3 1.1
( σ 2f / Eρ )/1000

PE fibers have the highest values on both criteria. The man-made fibers are superior to the natural fibers, but
all the fibers are superior to steel wire.
Storing energy at minimum mass would be more important for climbing ropes, which have to be carried, and
are often dragged behind or pulled up by a climber. To give sufficient elastic strain (to arrest a fall
progressively), modern ropes use elastomeric cores protected by a braided sheath of nylon fibers.
To be practically useful, fibers must be converted into a usable form, such as twisted or braided rope or woven
fabric. The fibers are not therefore loaded purely axially, so the properties are not fully exploited. Fiber
architectures also cause bending and frictional contact between fibers, both of which can reduce their
strength.